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4 Major Conflicts and the Quest for peace
4.1 The Two World Wars and the Peace Settlements
I
Outbreak of the First World War (WWI) and its results
A
Relations among European powers before WWI
i.
Major bilateral relations
1
Franco-German relations
—
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 broke out between France and Prussia. After its
defeat, France had to cede Alsace-Lorraine, which was rich in iron ore, and pay a large
amount of indemnity to Prussia. Besides, Prussia proclaimed the unification of Germany
at the Palace of Versailles. As a traditional power, France suffered grave humiliation and
swore revenge on Germany.
2
Germany’s diplomatic relations
—
Germany carried out conscription to strengthen its naval and military strength. It actively
scrambled for colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific regions. Its actions threatened the
longstanding interests of Britain, France and Russia.
3
Franco-Russian relations
—
Threatened by Germany’s ambition, France and Russia signed the Franco-Russian
Entente in 1894, under which France promised a large amount of loans to assist Russia in
its industrialisation.
4
Anglo-French relations
—
The rise of Germany, however, promoted co-operation between Britain and France. They
signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904, under which they recognised each other’s colonies
in Asia and Africa and promised to avoid colonial rivalries.
5
Relations between Germany and Austria-Hungary
—
The major ethnic group in Germany and Austria-Hungary was the Germans. Both
countries promoted ‘Pan-Germanism’ and foreign expansion to build a German empire.
Germany expanded into Western and Eastern Europe, and Austria-Hungary into the
Balkan Peninsula. They maintained a friendly relationship.
6
Relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary
—
People in Russia and the Balkan Peninsula were mainly Slavs. Russia considered itself to
be the leader of Slavic countries and advocated ‘Pan-Slavism’, which aimed at placing
all Eastern Europe and Balkan states under its control. Russia and Austria -Hungary were
hostile to each other, for both of them had territorial ambitions in the Balkan Peninsula.
7
Franco-Italian relations
—
These two countries once had a poor relationship because Italy was discontented with
French invasion of Tunisia in North Africa in 1881. Their relationship improved after the
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signing of the Franco-Italian Entente in 1902.
ii.
Major multi-lateral relations
1
Alliance system
—
To seek national security in the face of the above hostile bilateral relations, European
countries divided themselves into 2 opposing camps:
—

Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance in 1882;

The Triple Entente was formed by Britain, France and Russia in 1907.
The alliance system fuelled the suspicions and hostilities between the 2 camps. A
regional conflict might escalate into large-scale wars.
2
Economic conflicts and colonial rivalry
—
To protect their local industries and prevent competition from foreign goods, many of
them introduced protectionism.
—
Besides, as industrialisation led to a greater demand for markets and ra w materials, they
established overseas colonies.

Before the formation of the Triple Entente in 1907, Britain, France and Russia had
colonial conflicts in Africa and Asia on occasion.

The First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 and the Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911 were
caused by the rivalries between Germany and France over the colonial status of
Morocco in North Africa.
3
Extreme nationalism
—
Nationalism originally referred to the belief and actions to enhance national glory and
the sense of identity.
—
Extreme nationalists promoted absolute loyalty to states and called for foreign expansion
in order that their states might gain national glory. For example:
—

France desired to take revenge on Germany after the Franco- Prussian War.

Germany and Austria-Hungary promoted ‘Pan-Germanism’

Russia proposed ‘Pan-Slavism’
Their refusal to make concessions in economic and diplomatic rivalries was mainly
because they thought that making compromises would be viewed as a sign of weakness.
Extreme nationalism encouraged the European powers to compete for national interests.
4
Armaments race
—
Germany was the first country to carry out conscription in the late 19th century. This
practice was followed by other powers to facilitate nationwide mobilisation within a
short period of time.
—
As international relationship became tense, they began to increase their military
expenditure, expanded their armies and navies, and improved the quality of their
weapons.
—
The competition between Britain and Germany in building dreadnoughts was particularly
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fierce after 1900.
—
The armaments race only made the international situation tenser, creating a ‘war fever’
in some European countries, such as Germany, and increasing the possibility of war.
iii. Attempts at making peace
1
Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907)
—
The Hague Conferences urged Europe to establish the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
The powers also agreed not to start a war without warning and promised to respect
human lives, personal property and religious beliefs during wartime.
—
However, as the European powers feared that disarmament would make them become the
targets of invasion, the conferences failed to achieve its basic aim of disarmament.
2
Attempts to resolve pre-war crises
2.1 Crises in Western Europe
Algeciras Conference (1906)
—
It attempted to settle the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905. Western powers held a
conference in Algeciras in Spain. Among the participating countries, Germany found that
its only supporter was Austria-Hungary. Germany subsequently felt isolated. Although
Morocco did not become a French colony, it came under the French sphere of influence.
—
Germany realised that it was the target of hostility from many European countries. As a
result, Germany became even more determined to strengthen its military power after
1905.
Treaty of Fez (1911)
—
France sent troops to Morocco when civil unrest broke out in 1911. Germany reacted by
sending gunboats to express its discontent. The crisis was resolved as Germany made
concessions.
—
After the signing of the Treaty of Fez by Germany and France in the same year, Morocco
officially became a French protectorate. However, Germany’s relations with Britain and
France further deteriorated.
2.2 Crises in Eastern Europe
—
In 1908, the Bosnian Crisis broke out. Austria-Hungary took advantage of the civil
unrest in the Ottoman Empire to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation
hindered the development of the Greater-Serbia Movement.
—
The relations between Austria-Hungary and Serbia and their respective camps were
severely damaged.
Treaty of London (May 1913)
—
In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro allied to declare war on the Ottoman
Empire. The First Balkan War broke out. After the victory of the alliance, the powers
held a conference in London, Britain.
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—
Serbia longed to seize Albania for a port. However, Austria-Hungary was afraid of a
stronger Serbia and therefore proposed an independent Albania. The conference failed to
ease the tension between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.
Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913)
—
Bulgaria was dissatisfied with the territorial settlements of the Treaty of London. As a
result, Bulgaria declared war on its former allies and the Ottoman Empire. After the
defeat of Bulgaria, the powers held a conference in Bucharest, Romania.
—
However, Serbia was unable to realise its ambition once again as Austria-Hungary
insisted on the independence of Albania to prevent Serbia from gaining an outlet to the
sea. The further territorial gains of Serbia strengthened its resolution for a revenge on
Austria-Hungary. The treaty failed to ease the tension between the two countries.
iv.
Sarajevo Assassination: outbreak of WWI
—
On 28 June 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, visited
Sarajevo (capital of Bosnia), with his wife. After inspecting the army, they were both
assassinated. The incident was known as Sarajevo Assassination.
—
After gaining unlimited support from Germany, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia on
23 July 1914 and forced it to reply within 48 hours.
—
As Serbia refused to allow Austrian officials to enter Serbia and join in the investigation
of the assassination , Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July. By 4 August,
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France and Britain had all joined the war. The First
World War began.
B
Course of WWI
—
The war was fought between the Central Powers and the Allies. The Central Powers
were Austria-Hungary, Germany, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. The Allies had 27
members, including Serbia, Russia, France, Belgium, Britain, Japan, Italy, China, and the
US.
—
The major development of the war was summarised as follows:

In 1914, the Schlieffen Plan of Germany failed. Since then, the Central Powers had
had to fight a two-front war.

In July 1916, both Britain and Germany started to use warplanes in the War. The
trench warfare became less effective.

In 1917, Germany started the unrestricted submarine warfare, which led to the
sinking of the Lusitania and threatened the interests of the US.

In April 1917, the US declared war on Germany.

In November 1917, the October Revolution broke out in Russia, and a communist
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regime was set up. Russia then withdrew from the War. The fighting on the Eastern
Front ended.

Between September and November of 1918, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and
Austria-Hungary surrendered one after the other.

Finally, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies in November. The First World
War ended.
C
Results of the First World War
i.
Paris Peace Conference
1
Calling of the conference
—
In January 1919, the Paris Peace Conference was held to discuss the post -war
settlements. The defeated powers and Russia were not invited to the conference.
—
The treaty terms were mainly decided by the ‘Big Three’: Woodrow Wilson (President of
the US), Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain), and Georges Clemenceau (Premier of
France)
2
Objectives of the Big Three
The Big Three
Objectives
—
He was determined to gain back the huge indemnity and
Alsace-Lorraine that France had lost to Germany in the
Clemenceau
Franco-Prussian War.
—
He believed that Germany should be greatly weakened to such a
degree that it could never threaten France again.
—
Wilson
He believed that world peace could only be maintained through
international co-operation, and introduced the ‘Fourteen Points’.
—
He thought that the victorious powers should not punish Germany too
harshly in order to prevent it from taking revenge.
—
He tried to mediate the conflicts between Wilson and Clemenceau.
—
Since Britain did not want to be threatened by Germany again, he
suggested that Germany should lose its colonies and its naval power
Lloyd George
should be weakened.
—
But he agreed that Germany should not be punished too harshly
because it might seek revenge.
ii.
Treaty of Versailles (Germany)
—
1
In June 1919, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles and accepted the following terms:
Territorial changes
—
Germany had to return Alsace-Lorraine to France and cede territories to Poland,
Denmark, Belgium and Lithuania.
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—
The Saar was to be governed by the League of Nations for 15 years, and its coalfields
were to be ceded to France.
—
Territories gained from Russia were to be returned. Some of these would be made new
and independent states: Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
—
All overseas colonies were to be surrendered and they would be administered by the
victorious powers under the mandate of the League of Nations.
—
The independence of Austria should be recognised and respected. No union with Austria
was allowed.
2
Limitation of armaments
—
Germany was disarmed. It had to reduce its army, downsize its navy and abolish
conscription. It was banned from having an air force, tanks or submarines.
—
3
War guilt
—
4
The Rhineland was made a demilitarised zone.
Germany had to bear the sole responsibility for having caused the First World War.
Reparations
—
Germany had to pay a huge sum of reparations.
iii. Treaty of St. Germain (Austria)
—
According to this treaty:

Austria-Hungary was divided into two independent republics: Austria and Hungary.

Two independent nation states, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, were created out of
the former empire of Austria-Hungary. Their independence was recognized by
Austria.

Austria ceded territories to Czechoslovakia, Poland, Italy, Romania and Yugoslavia.

Union with Germany was not allowed to prevent Germany from becoming strong
again.

iv.
Austria had to pay reparations and reduce its army and navy.
Other treaties (Bulgaria, Hungary and the Ottoman Empire)
—
These countries had to cede land to neighbouring countries and pay reparations.
—
The Ottoman Empire gave up a great deal of territories. Land was ceded to Italy and
Greece, while Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan were given to Britain, and Syria and
Lebanon to France.
II Causes of the Second World War
A
Significance of the Paris Peace Conference on the international order
i.
Rise of totalitarianism
—
Totalitarianism is a political ideology whereby the government dominates all political,
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social and economic activities in a nation.
1
Rise of Fascism in Italy (1922)
1.1 Discontent with the Paris Peace Settlements
—
Italy was not able to get Dalmatia and Fiume. Therefore, they were very discontented
with the Paris Peace Settlements.
—
Italian nationalists occupied Fiume in September 1919. The victorious powers forced the
Italian government to agree to make Fiume a free city under the mandate of the League
of Nations.
—
However, this caused widespread discontent in Italy. The Italians wanted a strong leader
to regain national glory and prestige for Italy.
1.2 Foreign expansion of Fascist Italy
—
In 1923, Italy occupied the Greek island of Corfu. Under the mediation of the League of
Nations, Mussolini agreed to withdraw his troops, but managed to force Greece to pay a
large sum of money as compensation.
—
In 1924, Mussolini reached an agreement with Yugoslavia and got Fiume.
—
From 1935-1936, Italy invaded Abyssinia. Mussolini declared the union of Abyssinia,
Eritrea and Somaliland into ‘Italian East Africa’.
—
In 1936, a civil war broke out in Spain. Together, Mussolini and Hitler provided weapons
for General Francisco Franco to overthrow the Spanish government.
—
The joint intervention of Italy and Germany in the Spanish Civil War laid the foundation
for the formation of the Berlin-Rome Axis.
—
In 1939, it formally annexed Albania. After the annexation, Italy signed the Pact of Steel,
a military alliance, with Germany.
2
Rise of Nazism in Germany (1933)
2.1 Resentment about the Treaty of Versailles
Harsh treaty terms
—
The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh punishments on Germany. All these harsh terms
aroused among the Germans great humiliation and a strong desire for revenge.
Territorial arrangements leading to German discontent
—
The victorious powers recognised the independence of Poland and enlarged its territory.
Many Germans came under the rule of Poland as a result.
—
In addition, the victorious powers gave the Sudetenland, which was inhabited by 3
million Germans, to the newly founded Czechoslovakia, and banned the union of
Germany and Austria.
—
The Germans thought that they were unfairly treated because they enjoyed no right of
national self-determination, while the Poles and the Czechs did.
2.2 Discontent about the Weimar Republic
—
The Weimar Republic was unpopular among the people because it had signed the Treaty
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of Versailles. The Germans longed for a strong government that could take revenge for
Germany.
2.3 Foreign expansion of Nazi Germany
—
In 1935, Germany re-introduced conscription, built up an airforce and expanded the
navy.
—
In March 1936, Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by sending troops to the
demilitarised zone of the Rhineland.
—
In November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. When Italy joined
the pact later, the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis was formed.
—
In March 1938, Germany declared Anschluss (union with Austria) and occupied Austria.
It violated the terms which prohibited the union of Germany and Austria.
—
In September 1938, Germany demanded to have the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. The
British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, and the French Premier, Edouard Daladier
signed the Munich Agreement with Hitler to force Czechoslovakia to cede the
Sudetenland to Germany.
—
In March 1939, Germany annexed the whole of Czechoslovakia.
—
In August 1939, after signing the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with the USSR,
Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939.
—
Britain and France declared war on Germany. The Second World War began.
ii. Changes in balance of power
1
Collapse of traditional empires
—
Before the First World War, there was still a balance of power in Europe. Some
traditional empires collapsed due to the territorial arrangements made at the Paris Peace
Conference.
—
2
The Treaty of Versailles turned the large German Empire into a divided nation.
Establishment of new nation states
—
Under the principle of national self-determination, the ethnic minorities in the former
empires created their own nation states. As a result, Finland and Yugoslavia were founded.
—
However, these newly founded nations were not strong enough to defend themselves, and
they became easy targets of invasion for Hitler in the 1930s.
3
Decline of Europe and rise of US and Japan
—
Germany and Austria were greatly weakened after the Paris Peace Conference. The
political and economic strengths of Britain and France were undermined due to the war
destruction. They were also heavily indebted to the US.
—
On the contrary, Japan gained interests in Northeast China. Japan had rapid industrial
development and became an industrial power that threatened European supremacy in
Asia.
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iii. Stability in Europe undermined by post-war economic difficulties
1
Post-war economic difficulties in Europe
1.1 Italy
—
Agriculture and industry in Italy were badly damaged. Inflation was serious. Many
returning soldiers were unemployed. People led a very difficult life.
—
The Italian Socialist Party grew in strength. Since it organised many strikes and caused
social instability, the landlords, industrialists and businessmen in Italy supported the
Fascist Party, which was strongly anti-communist and promised to restore stability in
Italy.
1.2 Britain and France
—
Britain and France faced great post-war economic difficulties: production stopped,
foreign trade declined and unemployment increased.
—
Besides, they had large war debts to be repaid to the US. Britain and France had to rely
on Germany for its payment of reparations so as to repay their debts and reconstruct the
economies.
1.3 Germany
—
By the end of the War, the value of the German Mark had already dropped substantially.
Germany’s industrial production fell sharply, while unemployment increased greatly.
—
The Weimar Republic issued banknotes to support the workers on strikes in Ruhr,
causing a sharp fall in the value of the Mark.
—
After the Great Depression in 1929, the US went into economic depression. The
withdrawal of US aid and investments plunged the European countries into economic
crises.
2
Impacts of Great Depression on Europe
2.1 Germany
—
Due to the withdrawal of aid from the US and the pressure from France and Britain for
reparations, Germany experienced a complete collapse of its economy. Many businesses
went bankrupt. Factories were closed, and unemployment rose sharply.
—
Under these circumstances, Hitler promised to improve the economy and was able to
gain wide support.
2.2 Britain and France
—
The weak economies of Britain and France were further adversely affected by the Great
Depression.
—
In order to focus on recovering their economies, Britain and France adopted an
appeasement policy towards the expansion of Germany and Italy.
B
Attempts at collective security and their results
i.
League of Nations
1
Establishment of the League
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—
At the Paris Peace Conference, President Wilson suggested that an international
peacekeeping organisation should be formed. In January 1920, the League of Nations
was set up in Geneva, Switzerland.
2
Structure of the League
—
The Secretariat:

It was the administrative organ of the League and was headed by the
Secretary-General.

—
All of its members should be loyal to the League, not to their own countries.
The Assembly:

It was formed by the representatives of all member states, which met at least once a
year.

Each member state had a vote and most resolutions had to be passed by a unanimous
vote.
—
The Council:

It had 4 permanent members - Britain, France, Italy and Japan (also Germany during
1926-1933), and 4 non-permanent members, which were elected by the Assembly.

It met at least 4 times a year, and all resolutions had to be passed by a unanimous
vote.
—
The Permanent Court of International Justice:

It was located at The Hague, solving conflicts among member states, and giving advice
to the Assembly as well as the Council.
—
The League also had other special agencies and commissions, such as the International
Labour Organisation and the Health Organisation, which dealt with labour, health and
economic issues.
3
Achievements of the League
—
In the 1920s, the League settled some territorial disputes among small nations, like the
conflict between Sweden and Finland over the Åland Islands, and the Greek invasion of
Bulgaria in 1925.
—
The League also succeeded in administering the Saar (1920-1935) and Danzig
(1920-1939).
—
The League helped poorer countries fight against infectious diseases and improve health
conditions, as well as offered humanitarian assistance to refugees.
4
Weaknesses of the League
4.1 Inadequate representation
—
When the League was established, its major members included only Britain, France, Italy
and Japan. The US had never joined the organisation.
—
Germany was not invited to join the League until 1926, when its relationship with Britain
and France improved. However, it withdrew from the League in 1933 when Hitler seized
power.
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—
The USSR, as a communist country, was discriminated against and not welcomed until
1934, but its membership was cancelled because of its invasion of Finland.
—
Japan and Italy also withdrew from the League in 1933 and 1937 respectively after being
condemned for their aggressions.
4.2 Ineffective mechanism
—
—
The fact that all resolutions had to be passed by a unanimous vote in the Council greatly
restricted the effectiveness of the League.
As the Council consisted of major powers, it was not difficult to understand why the
League could not solve the disputes involving major powers.
4.3 Weak military power
—
5
The League lacked an armed force of its own to deter aggressive behaviour.
Failure of the League
Aggressors
Responses of the League
—
Japan
Mukden Incident (1931):
 When Japan invaded Northeast China in 1931, the League
denounced Japan as an aggressor and demanded the
Japanese troops to withdraw from China. Japan ignored the
League and continued with its invasion and even withdrew
from the League in 1933.
— Lugouqiao Incident (1937):
 The League could only declare that the Japanese acts of
aggression violated international agreements and asked its
member states not to further weaken China.
—
Italian annexation of Abyssinia (1935):
 The League denounced Italy as an aggressor and imposed
economic sanctions on it, but no sanction was imposed on
strategic materials. Thus, the League failed to stop Italy from
conquering Abyssinia.
 In July 1936, it even lifted its economic sanctions on Italy.
Italy withdrew from the League in December 1937.
—
German expansion in Europe:
 When Hitler re-militarised the Rhineland in 1936, the
League could only denounce Germany.
Italy
Germany

The League failed to prevent German expansion in Europe
in 1938-1939. This directly led to the outbreak of the Second
World War.
ii.
Signing of international agreements
1
Locarno Treaties (1925)
1.1 Contents:
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—
In October 1925, Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia
signed the Locarno Pact. According to the Pact:

The boundaries of Belgium, France and Germany should remain unchanged.
Britain and Italy, as guarantors, had the responsibility to protect any one of them
when under attack.

All border conflicts among Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia should be settled
by the Permanent Court of International Justice.

All signatories agreed to settle their disputes through peaceful means instead of
wars, except for ‘legitimate self-defence’.
1.2 Results:
—
The Locarno Pact helped improve the relationship between the Anglo-French alliance and
Germany. As a result, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations and became a
permanent member of its Council in 1926.
—
However, the Pact only guaranteed that the western boundary of Germany would stay the
same. There was no effective provision to check Hitler’s desire for Lebensraum in the East.
2.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
2.1 Contents:
—
In 1927, Aristide Briand, the Foreign Minister of France, and Frank Kellogg, the US
Secretary of State, proposed to denounce wars as illegal acts.
—
In 1928, the Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed by 65 nations. They all agreed to abandon
wars and use only peaceful means to settle disputes.
2.2 Results:
—
Ineffective. There were neither binding terms nor concrete punishments for the aggressors.
All signatories would only follow those terms from which they would benefit.
iii.
Calling disarmament conferences
1
Washington Conference (1921-1922)
1.1 Contents:
—
In November 1921, the representatives of the US, Britain, France, China, Japan, Italy, the
Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal met in Washington, D.C., the capital of the US, to
discuss naval disarmament and their interests in the Pacific and Asia. This was known as
the Washington Conference.
 Four-Power Treaty: US, Britain, France, Japan

They agreed to respect each other’s interests in the Pacific region.

They promised to use peaceful means to solve any possible conflicts among
them.
 Five-Power Treaty: US, Britain, Japan, France, Italy

They agreed to stop building capital ships of 35,000 tons or above for 10 years.
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
They fixed their ratio of capital ships to
5 (US):5 (Britain):3 (Japan):1.75 (France):1.75 (Italy).

The total tonnage of aircraft carriers was set at: 135,000 tons for the US and
Britain each; 81,000 tons for Japan; 60,000 tons for France and Italy each.
 Nine-Power Treaty: All powers attending the conference

They promised to maintain an ‘open door’ in China to promote equal rights
among nations.

Japan had to return its rights in Shandong to China.
1.2 Effectiveness
—
It only fixed the ratio of capital ships and aircraft carriers of the 5 major powers. No
agreement was reached in respect of other kinds of warships.
—
There were no restrictions on other kinds of warships, the army and the airforce.
—
The powers resumed their naval race shortly after the conference. The treaties did not state
clearly how the violators would be punished.
2
London Naval Conference (1930) (The US, Britain and Japan)
—
They agreed to fix the ratio of their light cruisers and destroyers. They agreed to stop
building capital ships until 1936.
—
However, if any country other than the three signatories started to expand its navy, the US,
Britain and Japan could also expand theirs for security reasons.
3
Geneva Conference (1932-1934)
—
It was called by the League of Nations in 1932 and was attended by 61 nations.
—
France was unwilling to disarm without any guarantee for its safety. Germany claimed that
since it had complied with the Treaty of Versailles to disarm itself, other powers should do
the same. Otherwise, it should be allowed to rearm itself.
—
When it was recalled in October 1933, Germany had withdrawn from the League. The
Geneva Conference ended in failure.
iv. Foreign policies of Britain, France, the US and the USSR
1
Appeasement policy of Britain and France
—
Adopted by Chamberlain, appeasement is a foreign policy in which negotiation and
concession are used to ease the discontent or satisfy the ambitions of an aggressor. Its aim is
to avoid wars.
1.1 Why did Britain and France adopt an appeasement policy?
—
Economic difficulties created political instability as the governments of Britain and France
were unable to solve them. Under these circumstances, Britain and France would rather
appease and tolerate the aggressors in order to avoid wars.
—
Britain and France needed to catch up with Germany in respect of military strength.
—
In addition, the rise of Communist Russia and the US adoption of an isolationist policy
meant that Germany could be an important barrier against communism.
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—
In addition, Britain wanted to eliminate Germany’s desire for revenge by giving it some
compensation.
1.2 How did Britain and France respond to the expansion of the Axis Powers?
Expansion of the Axis
Responses of Britain and France
Powers
—
Britain and France only showed regret to Hitler’s open
violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
Britain even allowed Germany to increase its naval tonnage
in return for its promise not to challenge British naval
supremacy.
—
In December 1935, Britain and France planned to ask
—
Rearmament of Germany
(March 1935)
Abyssinian Crisis
Abyssinia to give away 2/3 of its territory to Italy, but the
plan failed and Italy annexed Abyssinia in May 1936.
(1935-1936)
—
Re-militarisation of the
Rhineland
(1936)
Anschluss
(March 1938)
German occupation of the
Sudetenland and the rest of
Czechoslovakia
(September 1938)
2
—
Britain was sympathised with Germany and thought there
was nothing wrong for a country to station troops within its
boundary.
France, on the contrary, was very worried, but it did not want
to take action alone.
—
Britain regarded the ban on the union of Germany and
Austria as a mistake, so Britain and France did not take any
action to stop Germany.
—
Britain and France immediately arranged the Munich
Agreement. They forced Czechoslovakia to cede the
Sudetenland to Germany, hoping that sacrificing the interests
of small nations would bring peace to Europe.
Attitudes of the US and the USSR
2.1 The US
— After the First World War, the US adopted an isolationist policy. It no longer wanted to take
part in European affairs again.
— The US called the Washington Conference and made a number of agreements during
1921-1922 only because it faced serious threats from Japan in the Pacific region.
—
In the 1930s, the US faced serious economic problems caused by the Great Depression. It
therefore focused on domestic affairs.
2.2 The USSR
— Britain and France were unwilling to ally with the USSR due to their fear of communism.
— The USSR feared that Britain and France might co-operate with Germany to launch attacks
against it.
— Thus, the USSR signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with Germany in August 1939.
Shortly afterwards, Germany invaded Poland and the Second World War began.
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III Course of the Second World War
— The Second World War was fought between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan, Bulgaria,
Romania, Finland and Hungary) and the Allies (26 nations, such as the US, Britain, France,
the USSR and China).
A Early triumph of the Axis Powers
—
Battlefields in Europe

In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. The Second World War began.

Then, Germany occupied Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and
Luxembourg. France also surrendered.

Thereafter, Germany bombed Britain day and night, but failed to make Britain
surrender. Later, it also suddenly attacked the USSR.
—
Battlefields in Asia and the Pacific region

On 7 July 1937, the Japanese invaded Beijing. The Sino-Japanese War began.

On 7 December 1941, Japan suddenly attacked the Pearl Harbor.

Then, Japan invaded Hong Kong, Singapore and the Philippines.
B Final victory of the Allies (1942-45)
—
—
Battlefields in Europe

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the US joined the Allies.

In 1943, the Allies marched into Italy. Italy surrendered.

In May 1945, the Allies occupied Berlin. Germany surrendered.
Battlefields in Asia and the Pacific region

Starting from 1942, the US defeated the Japanese in many battles.

In August 1945, the US dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Then, Japan surrendered unconditionally. The Second World War ended.
IV Settlements on postwar international order
A Wartime conferences
—
During the Second World War, the Allies held a number of conferences to discuss wartime
strategies and post-war settlements.
Wartime conferences
Atlantic Conference
(August 1941)
Decisions on post-war settlements
—
Roosevelt and Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter and suggested the
establishment of another international peacekeeping organisation to
replace the League of Nations.
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—
Moscow Conference
(October - November
1943)
Cairo Conference
(November 1943)
—
—
—
—
—
—
Yalta Conference
(February 1945)
—
—
—
Potsdam Conference
(July - August 1945)
—
B
i.
A general international peacekeeping body should be established as
early as possible.
Germany had to surrender all the territories it had occupied since
1938.
The independence of Austria would be restored and it would not be
treated as a defeated nation.
Japan had to give up the Pacific islands and other territories it
conquered after 1914.
Japan had to return the Chinese territories it seized after 1894.
Korea would become independent after the war.
Germany:
 Germany and its capital, Berlin, would be divided into four zones
and occupied by the US, Britain, France and the USSR.
 Germany had to compensate the Allies in kind for the destruction
caused by the war.
 Germany had to be disarmed and denazified. All war criminals had
to be punished.
The eastern part of Poland would be given to the USSR. Poland would
get some territories of Germany in the north and the west as
compensation.
Japan: Japan had to return the territories it had seized from the USSR
(south of Sakhalin and Kurile Islands) and its privileges in Northeast
China and Outer Mongolia.
Germany:
 Germany’s military industry would be destroyed in order that it
might not wage war again, but its light industry and agriculture
would be revived in order to rebuild its economy.
 The US, Britain and the USSR could get compensation from their
own occupation zones in Germany.
 Germany had to cede to Poland a large piece of territory in the east.
East Prussia was to be partitioned by Poland and the USSR.
After surrender, Japan had to be occupied by the Allies until a
democratic government was set up. In addition, it had to be
demilitarised.
Formulation of peace plans and signing of peace treaties
Peace treaties with Italy and others (1947)
—
In July 1946, the Allies held a peace conference in Paris. In February 1947, they signed the
peace treaties with Italy, Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary and Romania. The defeated nations had
the right to defense themselves but had no right to make decisions.
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—
Italy had to give land to France, Greece and Yugoslavia. It also had to give up all of its
overseas colonies.
—
All the five defeated nations had to compensate their neighbouring countries. Their
armaments had to be strictly limited. All Fascist associations had to be dissolved and all war
criminals had to be tried.
ii. Settlements of Germany
—
The West and the USSR were suspicious of each other. Therefore, the Western nations and
the USSR did not sign any single peace treaty with Germany. The post-war settlement of
Germany was only based on the decisions made at the wartime conferences.

Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones. These zones were occupied and
ruled separately by the US, Britain, France and the USSR.

Germany returned all the territories annexed by Hitler, and gave East Prussia to the
USSR and Poland. It also had to give Danzig to Poland.

An international military court was set up in Nuremberg to try war criminals. Germany
also had to be denazified.
iii. Peace treaty with Japan (1951)
—
After its unconditional surrender in August 1945, Japan was occupied by the US and was
ruled by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP), General MacArthur.
—
The peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951. It was called the Treaty of San Francisco.
According to the treaty:

Japan had to give up Korea, Taiwan, Sakhalin and Kurile Islands, and return all of its
privileges in China and Korea.

Japan had the right to self-defence and participation in collective security.

Countries that had been occupied by Japan could ask for reparations.
V Historical significance of the two world wars
A Political significance
i.
Decline of Europe
1
Europe after the First World War
— The US had a big influence over the course of the war after its entry in 1917. This showed that
the European countries could no longer solve their problems alone.
— After the war, four traditional empires － Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey －
collapsed. Britain and France also became weaker.
2
Europe after the Second World War
— Germany and Italy were defeated. Their military strength totally collapsed, and their
economies also broke down.
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— Although Britain and France won the war, they were also greatly weakened. They were no
longer great powers of the world.
— After the war, the colonial empires of some European countries collapsed. The colonies of
Britain, France and the Netherlands became independent one after another.
ii.
Rise of Asia
— After WWI, Japan took the opportunity to extend its sphere of influence in China and
Southeast Asia, and replaced the status once enjoyed by European powers in Asia to a certain
extent.
— China was another victorious nation in Asia. It recovered its tariff autonomy and took back
many concessions during the Nanjing Government period.
— Although Japan was a defeated nation occupied by the US after WWII, it became a world
power due to the support from the US.
— China had all the unequal treaties abolished and became one of the permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council.
— In addition, most nations in Asia no longer remained colonies and became independent.
iii. Rise of the US and the USSR
1
The US
—
The First World War greatly expanded the US economy. Before joining the war, the US made
use of its neutrality to trade with both camps. It also took over the markets of the European
countries.
—
During the Second World War, its economy was boosted even more rapidly. Its industry
developed quickly and its GNP rose to an unprecedented level.
—
The US even produced the world’s first atomic bomb. These showed that the two World Wars
had transformed it into a superpower.
2
The USSR
—
During the First World War, the Russian people started the October Revolution to overthrow
their government. Later in 1922, they established the world’s first communist country, the
USSR.
—
During the Second World War, the USSR focused on developing its heavy industry,
producing a large number of tanks, cannons and aeroplanes. It also contributed much to
defeat Germany.
—
As compensation for its heavy loss, the USSR gained huge rewards after the war. In addition,
it had a well-equipped army and a great potential for economic development.
iv. Emergence of Cold War
—
However, the two superpowers had big ideological, political and economic differences, and
there was fierce competition between them.
—
v.
This led to the beginning of the Cold War, which posed a new threat to world peace.
Consciousness of co-operation and peace enhancement
—
The League was established after WWI for maintaining world peace.
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—
The severe destruction brought by WWII taught the world powers a lesson. The victorious
nations did not demand excessive reparations from the defeated nations. This thinking also
restrained the behaviours of both camps during the Cold War, which did not turn into another
large-scale war.
—
Britain and the US suggested the founding of the UN before the end of WWII. The UN
continues to play an important role in maintaining world peace even up until now.
vi. Further development of nationalism
—
Under the principle of national self-determination, the powers created new nation states, such
as Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, after the First
World War. Nationalism flourished in Central and Eastern Europe.
—
After the Second World War, there were even more rapid developments of nationalism in
Asia and Africa. By the 1960s, 18 nations had gained independence in Asia. By the 1980s, 55
African states had also become independent.
B Economic significance
i.
Huge economic loss in Europe and Asia
— The two World Wars caused huge economic loss to the participating countries. The estimated
costs of the First and Second World Wars were US$330 billion and US$1,000 billion
respectively.
— After the First World War, much of Europe laid in ruins. Many factories were burnt down.
Agricultural and industrial productions were almost completely halted.
— When the Second World War ended, the situation was even more terrifying. Cities like
Hiroshima, Nagasaki and Berlin were totally destroyed. London and Tokyo looked completely
different due to heavy bombings. Many other places in Europe and Asia were in ruins. A large
number of houses, factories, farms, railways and bridges were destroyed.
ii.
Efforts to rebuild the economies
— When the First World War ended, all countries focused on recovering their national
economies.
— After the Second World War, however, the European countries understood that co-operation
would make economic reconstruction easier. This led to the formation of organisations for
economic co-operation, such as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC)
and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).
C Social and cultural significance
i.
Heavy casualties
—
About 10 million soldiers died in battles during the First World War. During the Second
World War, about 60 million people died in battles, massacres or bombing.
ii. Psychological trauma
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— After the two World Wars, many survivors, widows and family members of the dead suffered
from psychological trauma. Some of them even had post-traumatic stress disorder for the rest
of their lives.
— In addition, some people in the defeated nations could not accept the defeats of their countries.
For example, there was a strong desire for revenge among most of the Germans after the First
World War, and many Japanese even killed themselves after the Second World War due to the
defeat of their country.
iii. Rise of women’s status
— Before the First World War, women were not allowed to go out and work. They had to stay at
home and take care of their family. Their social status was low and they had no rights.
— But when the war broke out, most of the men were enlisted to fight at the front. So, many
governments encouraged women to work in order to maintain a certain level of productivity
for the military industry.
— The wartime efforts and contributions of women were generally recognised after the wars. For
example, the women of Britain and Germany were given the right to vote. After the Second
World War, women’s liberation movements flourished.
iv. Recognition of racial equality
— For a very long time, Europeans (whites) had always had a sense of superiority.
— During the Second World War, people of different races and colours joined the Allies to fight
the Axis Powers. Some whites began to give up their idea of racial superiority over
non-whites.
— The Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 stated that all people are born equal and should
have the same rights.
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4.2 Major Conflicts after the Second World War and Attempts
to Make Peace
I The Cold War
A What was the Cold War?
— It is used to describe the relations between the US and the USSR.
— The capitalist bloc, led by the US, and the communist bloc, led by the USSR, confronted each
other during the period 1945-1991.
— Despite the intensity of their confrontation, both the US and the USSR feared an outbreak of a
nuclear war, and thus made every effort to avoid direct military conflicts.
B Origins of the Cold War
i. Ideological differences
— Politically, the USSR upheld its one-party dictatorship, while the US believed in multi-party
democracy.
— Economically, communist countries denied private ownership of property and implemented a
planned economy, while the capitalist countries upheld private ownership of property and a
free market.
— In the diplomatic aspect, communism advocated the world revolution to gradually establish
communist regimes and eventually eliminate the capitalist system.
ii. Conflicts between the USSR and Western countries
1
Before WWII
— The capitalist countries feared communism far more than Nazism. Britain and France satisfied
Hitler’s ambitions rather than co-operated with Stalin to counter the Nazi Germany.
2
During WWII
— The USSR was resentful about the Allies’ delayed counter-offensives, which led to Soviet
heavy casualties resulted from its battles with Germany.
— Moreover, the US secretly developed atomic bombs without informing the USSR or sharing
the technology.
— Besides, the USSR also failed to reach consensus with the Western Allies during the wartime
conferences. For example, the Soviet request to punish Germany severely at the Yalta
Conference was rejected.
iii. US and Soviet expansion of influence
— The USSR was isolated since its establishment. It doubted and distrusted the West. Therefore,
it actively promoted communist revolutions in order to strengthen the communist bloc.
— During the last two years of WWII, the USSR succeeded in converting most Eastern European
countries into communist states. This caused great fear among the Western countries.
— In order to counter the communist expansion, the US promoted the establishment of
democratic regimes all over the world.
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C Features of the Cold War
i.
Economic rivalry
— After WWII, the US and the USSR carried out the Marshall Plan and the Molotov Plan in
Western and Eastern Europe respectively in order to exhibit the supremacy of their economic
systems by recovering the economic developments of their allies.
ii.
Forming opposing military organisations
— The US formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation to strength military co-operation
among Western European capitalist countries. In order to counter it, the USSR established the
Warsaw Pact.
iii.
Armaments race
— The two superpowers invested a huge amount of money to produce nuclear weapons and
develop other new weapons. Their military expenditures were constantly on the rise.
iv.
Regional conflicts
— Regional conflicts on various scales broke out between the two blocs, such as the Greek Civil
War (1946-1947), the Chinese Civil War (1946-1949), the Korean War (1950-1953), and the
Vietnam War (1961 -1975).
v.
Rivalry in propaganda
— The two blocs often promoted their own political ideas and attacked the other side through
mass media, such as radio programmes, newspapers and posters. For example, the US used the
radio station Voice of America to attack communism, while the USSR used Radio Moscow to
criticise capitalism.
vi.
Spying activities
— The US and the USSR established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Committee of
State Security (KGB) respectively to carry out spy and counter-spy activities in order to
collect intelligence.
vii. Stopping all kinds of communication
— Trade and cultural exchanges between the capitalist and communist blocs were terminated.
— The USSR was especially anxious to prevent people of its bloc from going over to the
capitalist countries. It therefore tightened all kinds of controls and imposed a news blackout.
No contact with the West was allowed.
D Development of the Cold War
i.
The Stalin period (1945-1953): Intense hostility between the two blocs
1
USSR taking over Eastern Europe (1945-1946)
— After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the USSR army remained in Eastern European countries
and helped the local communists establish pro-Soviet regimes, turning them into anti-Western
bases.
2
Kennan’s containment policy (1946)
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— George Kennan, a US diplomat stationed in the USSR, insisted that the US had to adopt a
determined containment policy, in which the US united allies in the capitalist bloc to stop the
spread of communism by political, economic and diplomatic means.
3
Iron Curtain Speech (1946)
— In March 1946, Churchill said that the USSR was using an ‘iron curtain’ to block the
communication of Central and Eastern European countries with the West.
— Therefore, he called for the co-operation of Britain and the US should work together to check
the Soviet ambitions.
4
Greek Civil War and Truman Doctrine (1946-1947)
— In early 1946, a civil war broke out in Greece. Britain could no longer give economic and
military help to Greece due to financial difficulties. Therefore, Britain asked the US to help
prevent Greece from becoming a communist state.
— In March 1947, President Truman of the US addressed to the Congress. He asked for US$400
million to help Greece and Turkey and sent military officers to the two countries. The Greek
government suppressed the communist revolt successfully in 1949.
—
The Truman Doctrine stated clearly that the US would help any nations to fight against
communism. The containment policy became a national policy of the US.
5
Marshall Plan and Molotov Plan (1947)
— In June 1947, Marshall, US Secretary of State, introduced the Marshall Plan to help Europe
rebuild its economy, so that it would not fall to communism.
— The USSR did not allow the Eastern European countries to join the Marshall Plan and
provided them with economic help. This was the Molotov Plan.
6
Berlin Crisis (1948-49)
6.1 Background
— Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones after the Second World War. These zones
were occupied and ruled separately by the USSR, the US, Britain and France.
—
The USSR believed that Germany should be weakened permanently.
—
In February 1948, Britain and the US further discussed with France the setting up of a united
government for the three Western zones of Germany, which accounted for 75% of Germany’s
original population and included major industrial regions. The USSR strongly protested
against this idea.
6.2 Berlin Blockade and counter-blockade
— The three Western powers ignored the protest of the USSR. On 18 June 1948, they announced
their plan to introduce a common currency in their zones, which would also be allowed to join
the Marshall Plan.
— On 19 June, the USSR blockaded all the land routes linking the three Western zones of
Germany to Berlin. It also issued a new currency in its zone to further isolate its economy
from the Western zones.
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— This was the Berlin Blockade and it shocked the three Western powers. They immediately
organised a counter-blockade and stopped supplying coal, iron and steel to the Soviet zone.
They also sent food and daily supplies to western Berlin by air.
— The US sent B29 bombers to Britain.
— In May, Stalin reopened the land routes to western Berlin. This ended the Berlin Crisis.
6.3 Result
—
The Berlin Crisis led to the division of Germany into two parts. The German Federal
Republic (West Germany) was set up in the Western zones. Its capital was Bonn and it
belonged to the capitalist bloc. The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was set up
in the Soviet zone. Its capital was East Berlin and it belonged to the communist bloc.
—
The Western countries realised that only by aligning with the US could they ensure the
balance of power in Europe. This led to the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation.
7
NATO (1949)
—
On 4 April 1949, the US, Britain, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Canada,
Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland signed the North Atlantic Treaty.
—
If any one of them was attacked, other member states should consider it as an attack on all of
them and provide military help for the one under attack.
—
The establishment of NATO prompted the USSR to strengthen its military co-operation with
Eastern Europe. It started to send military advisors to Eastern European countries in order to
instruct them to reinforce their military power.
8
Chinese Civil War (1946-49)
—
During the civil war, the US fully supported the GMD in order to contain the spread of
communism in Asia. However, it failed to prevent the CPC from winning the war.
—
On 1 October 1949, the People's Republic of China (PRC) was set up. China became a
communist country.
—
Thereafter, the USSR and China formed a close relationship. In February 1950, they signed
the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance. The USSR promised to provide
economic and military aid and to help China develop its industry for 30 years.
9
Korean War (1950-53)
9.1 Background
— After WWII, Korea was divided into two parts along the 38th parallel:
 The Republic of Korea was set up in the south (South Korea). It was ruled by Syngman
Rhee, and was pro-American and anti-communist.
 The Democratic People's Republic of Korea was set up in the north (North Korea). It was
ruled by Kim Il Sung, and was a communist country.
9.2 Course
—
On 25 June 1950, the North Korean army crossed the 38th parallel. They soon occupied
Seoul (the capital of South Korea).
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—
The United Nations Security Council immediately condemned North Korea’s invasion.
—
In September, the US sent troops (in the name of the UN) to help South Korea and succeeded
in defeating the North Korean army. The UN troops continued to march north and came close
to the Chinese border. In October, China sent its voluntary army to help North Korea and
forced the UN troops back to the 38th parallel. Thereafter, the war came to a stalemate.
9.3 Result
—
In July 1953, a truce was signed by both sides and the Korean War ended. Korea remained
divided.
—
After the war, the US understood that when communist forces were united, they could be too
powerful to be defeated. So, it was more determined to stop the further spread of
communism.
ii. The Khrushchev period (1953-64): Relaxation of tension during a period of instability
1
Warsaw Pact alliance (1955)
—
In the opinion of Khrushchev, the acceptance of West Germany into NATO in 1955 was a
provocation to the USSR. Therefore, he established a military alliance led by the USSR to
counter NATO at once. The Warsaw Pact alliance was established in June 1955.
—
The USSR signed the Warsaw Pact with Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Bulgaria,
Romania and East Germany. The Pact stated that if any one of them was attacked in Europe,
other members had to provide assistance by all means.
2
Geneva Summit (1955) and Paris Summit (1960)
—
The USSR attended the Geneva Summit with Britain, the US and France to carry out
preliminary discussion on issues such as tariffs, disarmament and international security. It
was an attempt in breaking the stalemate between the US and the USSR.
—
In September 1959, Khrushchev arrived in Washington, D.C. on his official visit to the US.
—
The US and the USSR planned to convene the Paris Summit in May 1960. However, the
Summit were not held after the U-2 Incident.
3
U-2 Incident (1960)
—
In May 1960, an American U2 spy plane was shot down over Russia.
—
At first, Eisenhower tried to say that it was a weather research aircraft, and there were no
intelligence gathering activities.
—
However, when the USSR revealed that the U-2 wreckage had been found and the pilot had
been captured alive, Eisenhower was forced to admit that it was a spy plane.
—
In Paris, Khrushchev demanded an apology as well as a promise to stop intelligence
gathering activities from the US. When Eisenhower only agreed to the latter, Khrushchev left
Paris.
4
Construction of the Berlin Wall (1961)
—
West Germany’s economy recovered quickly while East Germany’s did not.
—
During 1949-1958, 2.1 million East Germans and East Berliners escaped to the West.
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—
Khrushchev requested the Western countries to withdraw from West Berlin and demilitarise
Berlin into a ‘free city’. Yet, his request was rejected.
—
The USSR ordered East Germany to build the Berlin Wall in August 1961. It was to seal off
the frontier between East and West Berlin, so as to stop people escaping to the West.
—
The Western countries protested against the construction of the Berlin Wall, but the protests
did not lead to any open conflict, because the wall did not block the communication between
West Berlin and the Western countries.
5
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
5.1 Background
—
Cuba is only 90km away from the US. So, its political conditions directly affected the US
security.
—
In the early 20th century, Cuba was pro-American, but Castro set up a pro-Soviet government
in January 1959.
—
Then, the US broke off its diplomatic relations with Cuba. President Kennedy even supported
Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro. However, the attempt failed.
5.2 Development
—
In mid-October 1962, the US found out that the USSR was shipping nuclear missiles to Cuba
and building missile bases there.
—
Therefore, President Kennedy imposed a naval blockade on Cuba and demanded that the
USSR should stop building the missile bases in Cuba and remove all offensive weapons
there.
5.3 Result
—
Finally, Khrushchev backed down and reached an agreement with Kennedy:
 The USSR promised to remove the nuclear missiles and other offensive weapons from
Cuba. It also guaranteed that no more weapons would be shipped to there.
 The US lifted the blockade on Cuba and promised not to invade it.
6
Vietnam War (1961-1975)
6.1 Background
—
Vietnam was once a French colony and was occupied by Japan during WWII.
—
It became independent in 1954, but was divided into North and South Vietnam along the 17th
parallel: the northern part was a communist government under Ho Chi Minh; the southern
part was a pro-American government under Ngo Dinh Diem.
—
The South Vietnamese government refused to hold a plebiscite to achieve unification in 1956
and started to eliminate the communists in the south. It was supported by the US.
6.2 Course
—
Starting from 1961, the Viet Cong (a guerilla group supported by North Vietnam) organised
many large-scale guerrilla activities to try to overthrow the South Vietnamese government
and unify the whole nation.
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—
Therefore, the US sent more military help to South Vietnam. However, even though it had
more advanced armaments, it could not defeat North Vietnam, which was supported by China
and the USSR.
—
As the war continued, many US soldiers were killed and a lot of money was spent on military
operations. The Americans began to have strong anti-war feelings.
—
Under this situation, President Nixon gradually withdrew the US troops from Vietnam. He
also signed a truce with North Vietnam in 1973.
6.3 Result
—
After the withdrawal of the US troops, South Vietnam was soon defeated by North Vietnam
in 1975. The whole nation was then unified and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was set up.
—
After its failure in the Vietnam War, the US began to change its containment policy. This
helped to bring about the détente in the 1970s.
iii. Détente between the US and the USSR (1965-1979)
1
Reasons for the détente
1.1 Huge cost of armaments race
—
The USSR ended the US monopoly of nuclear technology in 1949. The US conducted the
first test of a hydrogen bomb in 1952.
—
The USSR announced its successful production of hydrogen bombs in the following year.
The USSR even went ahead of the US and launched an intercontinental ballistic missile
(ICBM) in 1957.
—
The US military expenditure increased from US$14.5 billion in 1950 to US$75.4 billion in
1953, while that of the USSR increased from US$15.5 billion in 1950 to US$80.9 billion in
1967.
—
In order to lessen the burden and raise people’s living standards by more effective use of
national resources, both sides wished to restrict the armaments race between them.
1.2 Fear of a nuclear war
—
The two superpowers understood that the risk of war would increase if the Cold War
continued, and if a nuclear war broke out, the entire world would be destroyed.
—
Both parties were willing to embrace a more moderate attitude towards each other in order to
prevent a nuclear war. This helped reduce the tension between them.
1.3 Internal pressure
—
On the one hand, the high price paid in the Vietnam War and the wave of anti-war feelings in
the country prompted the US to embrace a more conciliatory attitude towards communist
countries. The US was also willing to establish normalised relations with the USSR.
—
On the other hand, the USSR was facing many internal problems in the 1960s such as slow
economic development and backward living standards. Therefore, the USSR was interested in
improving its relations with the US in order to promote national construction by expanding
trade and exchange in technology with the Western countries.
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1.4 Sino-Soviet split
—
China and the USSR had established a close relationship in the 1950s. In 1958, the two
communist countries started to be hostile to each other.
—
An armed conflict on the Sino-Soviet border in 1969 nearly started off a war.
—
The Sino-Soviet split helped reduce communist threat to the US, and drew the USSR closer
to it. This helped improve the relations between the two countries.
2
How did the two superpowers improve their relationship?
2.1 Arms limitation
Signing of Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
—
To prevent the outbreak of a nuclear war, the US, Britain and the USSR signed the Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty in 1963. They promised not to do nuclear tests in outer space and atmosphere
as well as under water.
—
Later, they also banned the setting up of nuclear and other destructive weapons in outer space
and oceans.
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)
—
During 1969-1972, the US and the USSR held SALT I. They agreed to limit the number of
their missile systems and nuclear weapons for 5 years.
—
During 1972-1979, the US and the USSR held SALT II to further limit the number of their
nuclear weapons.
—
However, the USSR invaded Afghanistan at the end of 1979, so the US took revenge on it by
not signing the agreement.
2.2 Closer communication and cooperation
—
The heads of the two states exchanged official visits. In 1972, President Nixon visited
Moscow, while Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union,
visited Washington, D.C. in 1973.
—
The US agreed to export wheat and oil rigs to the USSR. In return, the USSR promised to
pressurise North Vietnam to reach a ceasefire with the US.
—
During 1973-1975, the member states of NATO and Warsaw Pact met at the Conference on
Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) and signed the Helsinki Agreement. The
Western countries officially recognized the boundary of post-war Eastern Europe, while the
communist countries in Eastern Europe promised to give basic human rights to their people.
Co-operation between the two blocs was also promoted.
—
The US loosened its restrictions on Soviet exports. The total trade volume between the two
superpowers increased significantly from less than US$200 million in 1970 to US$2 billion
in 1975.
3
Normalisation of Sino-American relations
—
President Nixon advocated an improved relationship with China in order to disunite the
communist bloc.
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—
With no objection from the US, the PRC succeeded in reviving its membership in the United
Nations in 1971.
—
President Nixon also marked a historic moment when he visited China in February 1972.
Normalised diplomatic relations between the US and China was finally established in 1979.
iv. End of détente (1979-1985)
1
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979)
—
In 1979, the US helped the opposition faction in Afghanistan to launch an armed uprising in
order to overthrow the pro-Soviet government.
—
The USSR, worrying that it would lose its control over Afghanistan, decided to send troops to
Afghanistan immediately.
—
Since the Persian Gulf region was a major supplier of oil, once it fell into the Soviet control,
the oil supply to the US would inevitably be affected. Thus, the US demanded an immediate
withdrawal of the USSR. Yet, the USSR refused to conform.
—
After that, the US refused to ratify the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II. In addition, US
President Jimmy Carter called on the international community to boycott the 1980 Olympic
Games held in Moscow. The relationship between the US and the USSR worsened once
again.
2
Suppression of Polish Solidarity (1981)
—
Solidarity was a trade union formed by the workers in Poland. As it urged the government to
carry out reforms and fought for the rights of workers, it gained wide support from the Polish
people.
—
However, the USSR thought that the Solidarity movement would arouse anti-Soviet feelings
among the Eastern European countries. Therefore, it demanded the Polish government to
suppress Solidarity and declare martial law in 1981.
—
To show its discontent with the USSR, the US launched a 5-year plan to produce more
armaments.
3
Introduction of ‘Star Wars’ (1983)
—
In 1983, President Reagan introduced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), which was also
known as the ‘Star Wars’.
—
Since the USSR possessed stronger nuclear weapons than the US did, Reagan aimed to
establish a defence system in space and use the satellites to detect and shoot down hostile
missiles. However, the US failed to materialise many projects in the programme due to their
demanding financial and technological requirements.
—
The USSR also actively developed a similar programme. This started the armaments race in
space between the two superpowers.
—
However, the Soviet finance was even tighter than that of the US. The USSR had to improve
its relations with the US instead. The tension of the Cold War was again reduced.
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v.
The Gorbachev period (1985-1991): End of the Cold War
1
Rise of Gorbachev and plight of USSR
—
Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985.
—
The USSR at that time was facing many problems:

Politically, the government was inefficient and corrupt, and the people did not have
confidence in it.

Economically, the people had no initiative to increase their production. The annual
growth rate of Soviet industrial and agricultural production dropped to a record low.
The lack of food and resources was common. People’s living standards were falling.

Besides, the Soviet armaments race with the US, its tight control over Eastern
Europe, and its invasion of Afghanistan imposed extra burden on its already weak
economy.
—
Gorbachev introduced a series of economic and political reforms in the hope of achieving 2
aims: ‘perestroika’ (restructuring) and ‘glasnost’ (openness).
1.1 Perestroika and glasnost
—
‘Perestroika’ meant rebuilding the national economy:

To develop market economy and allow individual labours and free trade.

To rent out the originally state-run collective farms to peasants

To allow private enterprises to set prices and wages of the workers

To reduce the size of its army, withdraw from the armaments race with the US, and
cut down military expenditure
—
‘Glasnost’ meant implementing a political reform that introduced democratic and liberal
ideas to the USSR in order to establish a kind of ‘democratic socialism’:

To reform the election system to lessen the CPSU’s control over the result

To turn the elected Congress of People’s Deputies into the highest legislative body
of the state in 1989

To revise the constitution so that the CPSU no longer enjoyed supreme leadership,
and replace the one-party dictatorship with a multi-party system and representative
politics

To grant the freedom of speech and of the press, and release thousands of political
prisoners
1.2 Improving relations with the West
—
Gorbachev made every effort to improve the Soviet relationship with the Western countries.

He met President Reagan and Margret Thatcher, the Prime Minister of Britain in
1985.

After that, he signed a series of arms limitation agreements with the US, and joined
the military action led by the US to fight against the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait.
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
He and Bush, the US President, called the Malta Summit in December 1989 and
declared together their intention to end the Cold War. Due to his contributions to
world peace, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990.
2
Democratic movements in Eastern Europe
2.1 End of communism in Poland
—
In July 1988, Gorbachev visited Poland. During his visit, he indicated that the Polish
communist leaders should carry out negotiation with Solidarity.
—
Solidarity became lawful in April 1989, and the Polish government agreed to hold election.
—
Later in June, Solidarity won the parliamentary election and later set up the first
non-communist government in Eastern Europe.
2.2 End of the iron curtain
—
East Germany

10/1989: Large-scale demonstrations demanding for democratic reforms took place
in many major cities.

11/1989: The border between East and West Germany and that between East and
West Berlin were opened. Some Germans began to break down the Berlin Wall.

3/1990: A parliamentary election was held. The new government included no
communist.

—
3/10/1990: East and West Germany were re-unified.
Romania

12/1989: Anti-government demonstrations were suppressed. This resulted in many
injuries and deaths. Later, some soldiers switched side to join the demonstrators and
marched into the government building. President Nicolae Ceausescu was arrested
and later executed.

10/1990: A national election took place. The first non-communist President was
elected.
—
Bulgaria

10/1989: A movement was organised to demand for openness in national politics and
democratic reform.

1/1990: A multi-party system was introduced.

10/1991: Opposition forces won in the parliamentary election. All communists were
excluded from the new government.
—
Czechoslovakia

11/1989: Opposition forces successfully forced the communist leaders to resign.

4/1990: The communists lost its leadership completely in the re-organised
government.
—
Hungary

2/1989: A multi-party system was adopted with Gorbachev’s support.
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
4/1990: The opposition party won the election. The new government did not include
any communists.
2.3 Collapse of the Warsaw Pact alliance
—
The fall of communist regimes in Eastern Europe greatly weakened the Warsaw Pact.
—
The new non-communist governments were unwilling to support it.
—
The USSR first withdrew its troops from other member states. East Germany withdrew from
the Warsaw Pact in 1990 in order to unify with West Germany.
—
The USSR ended all military functions of the Pact in March 1991. The Warsaw Pact alliance
was officially disbanded later in July. Its former member states joined the NATO one after
another.
3
Dissolution of the USSR
3.1 Results of Gorbachev’s reforms
Economic problems
—
Gorbachev’s economic reforms (such as the elimination of government control over
production decisions) led to market chaos. The supplies of daily necessities and consumer
goods fell far short of demand. People rushed to buy and stock up goods, and ‘bread famine’
and ‘soap famine’ occurred .All these weakened people’s confidence in Gorbachev.
Political instability
—
The introduction of ‘openness’ and democratic reforms created unprecedented instability
within the USSR.
—
Some republics, such as Lithuania, Georgia, Estonia and Latvia, broke away from the USSR
and declared independence in 1990 one after another. Russia, Belarus and Ukraine also
wanted to leave the USSR. All these paved the way for the dissolution of the USSR.
3.2 Power struggle within the CPSU
—
Power struggle within the CPSU became more acute.

On the one hand, the conservatives were increasingly doubtful about Gorbachev’s
reforms, worrying that his reforms would eventually bring about the dissolution of
the USSR;

On the other hand, the radicals were not happy with the slow progress of the reforms.
They demanded more thorough changes, and some even suggested that the USSR
should abandon communism.
3.3 August Coup
—
Gorbachev negotiated with the Soviet republics to grant them absolute power within their
territories in August 1991.
—
This practically turned the USSR into a loose federation. Great discontent was caused among
the conservatives in the CPSU. On 19 August, the conservatives launched a coup to dismiss
Gorbachev and imprisoned him in Crimea. A state of emergency was declared, and the army
and tanks marched into Moscow to besiege the parliament building (the radicals’ centre of
activities).
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—
Boris Yeltsin, representative of the radicals, condemned the conservatives for the coup and
called on the people and the army to fight back.
—
On 21 August, the coup ended in failure. Gorbachev returned to power, but he had obviously
lost much of his influence.
3.4 Collapse of the USSR and founding of the CIS
—
After the coup, Gorbachev resigned as the General Secretary of the CPSU. He also proposed
the dissolution of the CPSU. Many Soviet republics declared independence one after another.
—
In December 1991, eleven former Soviet republics formed the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) to replace the USSR. The USSR was officially dissolved.
—
With the collapse of the USSR, the head of the communist bloc, the half-a-century long Cold
War finally ended.
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II Other major conflicts and attempts at making peace
A Conflicts between Israel and the Arabs
i.
Causes of the Arab-Israeli conflicts
1
Rise of Zionism
—
The Jews had settled in Palestine since the 14th century BC. In 63 BC, the Roman Empire
conquered Palestine and ruled with a heavy hand. The Jews rebelled in AD 132. After the
Roman troops had suppressed the rebellion, the Roman Empire forbade the Jews from
entering Jerusalem and permanently expelled them from Palestine. Since then, the Jews had
been dispersed throughout the world. Most of them lived a life in the lowest stratum of
society, suffering from discrimination and persecution.
—
In the mid-19th century, the Jews in Western Europe and the US promoted Zionism that
advocated the rebuilding of the Jewish nation in Palestine in order to liberate the Jews from
persecution that lasted for a thousand years. Theodor Herzl, an Austrian Jew, called a
congress at Basel, Switzerland, in 1897, and resolved to the establishment of the Zionist
Organisation, urging Jews from all over the world returning to Palestine.
2
Arab nationalism
—
The Arabs built a large empire in the Middle East in the 7th century. Many Arabs moved into
Palestine. However, Palestine was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1518. In the early
20th century, more than 90% of the Palestinian population were Arabs, while the Jews
accounted for less than 5%. The Arabs worried that they would lose Palestine when the Jews
initiated Zionism.
3
British policy towards the Middle East
—
On the one hand, in order to persuade the Arabs to enter the Allied Powers, Britain promised
to allow their independence within the territory of the Ottoman Empire. On the other hand,
Arthur Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, supported the establishment of a Jewish
homeland in Palestine in 1917. This aroused strong discontent amongst the Arabs. After WWI,
Britain was mandated by the League of Nation to govern Palestine. The influx of Jews into
Palestine under the permission of Britain incited the Arabs to start anti-Jew riots.
4
Founding of Israel (1948)
—
Since the Jews experienced the Holocaust by Nazi Germany during WWII, the international
community started to be sympathetic towards them and supported Zionism. After WWII,
Britain stated its inability in settling the problem in Palestine and returned Palestine to the
UN. The UN made a resolution in November 1946 to partition Palestine into an Arab state
and a Jewish state. Jerusalem would be under international administration.
—
The Jews were satisfied with the UN resolution, yet the Arabs rejected it. The Jews
proclaimed the founding of Israel on 14 May 1948, but the Arab countries refused to
recognise it and declared war on Israel at once.
ii.
Development of the Arab-Israeli conflicts
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1
5 Arab-Israeli Wars
1.1 Palestinian War (1948-1949)
—
Israel, on the second day after its founding, was attacked by 5 of its neighbouring Arab
countries, namely Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt. The fight lasted until March
1949. The Arabs were defeated.
—
Israel occupied more than 75% of the Palestinian territory after the war, which was far
more than what the UN partition plan had allocated.
—
Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were ousted from their homeland. They fled to
other neighbouring Arab countries and became refugees.
1.2 Suez Crisis (1956)
—
Gamal Abdel Nasser became the President of Egypt in 1952.
—
He promoted Arab nationalism and claimed to liberate the Palestinians and expel the
Jews.
—
He kept close relations with the USSR and purchased Soviet armaments. Britain
therefore removed its financial assistance to Egypt for the construction of the Aswan
Dam.
—
In order to raise money, Nasser announced the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in July
1956.
—
To resume control over the Suez Canal, Britain and France allied with Israel to atta ck
Egypt in October.
—
Since they were not supported by the US, and were severely criticised b y other Western
countries, Britain, France and Israel were forced to sign a ceasefire.
—
Eventually, Egypt succeeded in nationalising the Suez Canal and Nasser were considered
as a national hero of the Arabs.
—
After Britain had lost all its remaining influence in the Middle East, the US intervened in
Arab-Israeli conflicts more actively in the future.
1.3 Six-Day War (1967)
—
A border conflict broke out between Israel and Serbia in April 1967. Nasser announced
his support for Syria at once, and signed a mutual defence treaty with Jordan, encircling
Israel and preparing for the outbreak of war.
—
Israel launched its surprise attack later on 5 June, and defeated the Arabs within 6 days.
They eventually signed a ceasefire under the UN mediation.
—
Israel occupied the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, the West Bank of Jordan River, and
Golan Heights, increasing its territory by 3 times. Yet, its expansion aggravated the
problem of refugees and resulted in more radical terrorist activities from the armed
Palestinian organisations.
1.4 Yom Kippur War (1973)
—
Nasser passed away in 1970. His successor Anwar Sadat decided to attack Israel with
Syria in order to recover those territories lost during the Six-Day War.
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—
Egypt and Syria declared war on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur in October 1973.
Without any preparation, the Israeli troops had the lower hand at first, yet it soon
launched its counter-attacks and defeated the Arab troops.
—
During the war, the US and the USSR provided armaments for the Israelis and the Arabs
respectively.
—
The Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) reduced the
production of oil during the war, and imposed an oil embargo on the US and other
Western countries, resulting in an oil crisis.
—
At last, the US requested Israel to accept the ceasefire arranged by the UN. The war
ended.
1.5 Lebanon War (1982)
—
The Israeli ambassador stationed in Britain was shot in June 1982. The Israelis used this
as an excuse to invade Lebanon, intending to root up the PLO.
—
Although Israel occupied the southern part of Lebanon, its bombing campaigns killed a
huge amount of civilians and caused international discontent.
—
The US intervened, and the PLO agreed to leave Lebanon. The Israeli troops also
retreated from Lebanon in 1985.
iii. Attempts at making peace in the Middle East
1
Camp David Accords (1978)
—
After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the Egyptian President Sadat understood that they had
already lost the chance to eliminate Israel and turned to seek peaceful co-existence.
—
The US President Carter arranged a meeting for Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister
Menachem Begin at Camp David in 1978.
—
The signing of the Camp David Accords ended the 30-year long hostility between Israel
and Egypt: Israel would retreat from the Sinai Peninsula occupied since the Six-Day War;
Egypt became the first Arab country to establish diplomatic relations with Israel.
—
The Camp David Accords did not resolve the issues of Jerusalem sovereignty.
—
The League of Arab States suspended Egypt’s membership since it recognised Israel.
Sadat was assassinated in 1981. Since then, no progress had been made during peace
talks.
2
Palestine Declaration on Independence (1988)
—
Arafat, the PLO Chairman, delivered the Palestine Declaration of Independence in 1988.
—
Besides announcing the establishment of an independent Palestine, Arafat recognised the
right of existence of Israel and agreed to abandon all forms of terrorist activities.
—
Although Israel refused to recognise the declaration, Arafat’s reconciliatory attitude
brought silver lining to the course of peace making.
3
Madrid Conference (1991)
—
Following the dissolution of the USSR and the end of Cold War, the US played a more
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active role in international affairs. Settling the Arab-Israeli conflicts became one of its
important issues.
—
In1991, the US and Russia called a peace conference for the Middle East in Madrid,
Spain. Participants included Israel, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and delegation representing
the Palestinian Arabs.
—
Israel established normalised diplomatic relations with Syria, Lebanon and Jordan right
after the conference. It marked a breakthrough in the course of peacemaking.
4
Oslo Peace Accords (1993) and Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement (1995)
—
Israel and the Arabs held secret negotiations in Oslo, Norway, in August 1993. Yitzhak
Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel, and Arafat signed the Oslo Peace Accords in
Washington D.C., the US, under the witness of the US President Clinton.
—
They later signed also the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement to lay out the details of
the implementation of the Oslo Peace Accords in September 1995.
—
Oslo Peace Accords

For Israel:
 To recognise the PLO as the representative of Palestinian Arabs.
 To allow Palestinian Arabs to enjoy limited self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza
Strip. Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was founded the following year, with
Arafat being the President.

For the PLO:
 To recognise the right of Israel to exist.
 To agree to abandon terrorism and violence.
—
Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement

Israel would put 30% of the West Bank territory under the governance of the
Palestinian National Authority.
—
Rabin and Arafat were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994 for their contributions.
—
However, Rabin was assassinated in November 1995. The Palestinian Arabs also
resumed their terrorist attacks. Israel halted the implementation of all measures allowing
Palestinian self-rule
5
Wye River Memorandum (1998)
—
Benjamin Netanyahu, Rabin’s successor, adopted a sterner approach towards Palestinian
Arabs. The course of peacemaking thus entered a stalemate.
—
President Bill Clinton invited Netanyahu and Arafat to the US, where they signed the
Wye River Memorandum after negotiations.
—
Israel would give 13% of the West Bank to the Palestinian National Authority, and
promised to retreat from the Gaza Strip eventually. The PLO would provide the
information about terrorists to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the US.
—
However, the signing of the Wye River Memorandum did not settle the armed conflicts
between Israel and Palestine. The two parties failed to reach further agreements on the
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division of land and the retreat of troops. Peace was still beyond reach.
iv.
Factors affecting the development of the Arab-Israeli conflicts
1
Positive factors
1.1 Israel and the Arabs seeking peaceful co-existence
—
Since the establishment of Israel, the Israelis and the Arabs had been sworn enemies and
refused to recognise each other.
—
After the outbreaks of a number of wars, the two parties understood that the co-existence
in the Palestinian territory was the only way out.
—
Israel and Egypt took the first step towards peace by signing the Camp David Accords in
1978.
—
The Arab countries also recognised Israel one after another.
—
Since the beginning of 1990s, Israel recognised the PLO and conducted negotiations
under international mediation, allowing the Palestinian Arabs to enjoy limited self -rule.
1.2 International intervention
—
The UN arranged ceasefires in Arab-Israeli conflicts in the second half of the 20th
century, and resolved that the two parties should settle the Palestinian problem by
peaceful means.
—
Moreover, different countries mediated the conflicts, with the US being the most
influential. The US had organised many peace conferences for Israel and Palestine, and
participated in all Middle East peace talks.
2
Negative factors
2.1 Hindrance from extreme nationalists
—
While Israel and Palestine were holding negotiations, extreme nationalists from both
sides refused to make compromises:

Radical Palestinian armed organisations led by the Hamas insisted in eliminating
Israel, while Israeli nationalists thought their government had made to o many
concessions to Palestinian Arabs.
—
They employed means such as assassination, terrorist attacks and violence to hinder the
course of peacemaking.
—
The Israeli Prime Minister, Rabin, who was devoted to resolving the Israeli-Palestinian
conflicts, was assassinated in 1995 by a Jew who opposed the Oslo Peace Accords.
2.2 Rise of hardliners
—
Many Palestinian Arabs were disappointed by the PLO’s willingness to negotiate with
Israel. Arafat’s reputation declined, while radical organisations such as the Hamas gained
popular support and even defeated the PLO in Palestinian elections. As a result, the PNA
became conservative in peace talks.
—
In terms of Israel, since the assassination of Rabin, the government had been controlled
by hardliners such as Netanyahu. They objected the establishment of the Palestinian state
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and were reluctant in implementing the Oslo Peace Accords. Therefore, the course of
peacemaking in the Middle East came to a halt.
B
Racial conflicts in the Balkans
i.
Establishment of Yugoslavia
—
The Balkan Peninsula is located in Southern Europe. Since it is a major gateway between
Europe and Asia, it is strategically important.
—
The Balkan people began to fight for their independence as early as in the mid -19th
century.
—
After WWI, the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes on the Balkan Peninsula agreed to establish a
united country, Yugoslavia. However, racial conflicts remained.
—
After WWII, Josip Broz Tito established a communist regime named the Federal
People’s Republic of Yugoslavia.
—
At that time, Yugoslavia consisted of 6 republics (Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and Macedonia) and 2 autonomous provinces
(Kosovo and Vojvodina).
—
In the face of the diversity of races within the Balkans, as well as the diverged religious
beliefs, Tito on the one hand implemented policies to reconcile the differences among
different races and advocated the slogan of ‘affection and union’; on the other hand, he
suppressed the nationalistic sentiments within the country with an iron hand. During
Tito’s reign, racial conflicts in the Balkans were once alleviated.
ii.
Why did civil war break out in Yugoslavia?
1
Death of Tito
—
After Tito’s death in 1980, Yugoslavia lost its symbol of national unity to prevent the
rebirth of nationalism in its republics.
—
Also, communist regimes collapsed one after another in Eastern Europe at the end of the
Cold War. The instability of Yugoslavia incited the separatist tendencies.
2
Internal political and economic conflicts
—
The political system and the delegation of power in Yugoslavia had long caused
resentment amongst different races.

For example, the Croats accounted for more than 1/3 of Yugoslavia’s population, yet
the republics with smaller populations could still enjoy the same number of seats in
the Federal Parliament.
—
In the economic aspect, there was a huge wealth gap.

—
For example, the per capita income in Slovenia was twice as much as that in Serbia.
Since Yugoslavia’s economy was on the decline in the 1980s, more developed republics
such as Slovenia and Croatia desired independence.
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3
Upsurge of nationalism
—
Slobodan Milosevic, a Serbian nationalist leader, was elected as the Serbian President in
1988. He proposed the establishment of a Serb-oriented Yugoslavia, where the Serbs had
to enjoy a dominating role in the country.
—
Milosevic’s idea aroused discontent among other republics. Croatia and Slovenia asked
for a loose federation and even independence.
—
Seeing that it was impossible to stop the republics’ requests for independence, Milosevic
turned to propose that all Serbians should live in one united country. He therefore
requested the republics, after their independence, to grant the Serbs the right of
self-determination.
—
This policy later provoked arguments among the republics over the allocation of people
and land. Wars seemed inevitable.
iii. Course of the Yugoslav Civil War
1
Slovenian Independence War (1991)
—
Slovenia declared its independence on 25 June 1991 after a referendum.
—
The Serb-controlled Yugoslav People’s Army attacked the boundary of Slovenia.
—
The war lasted for 10 days. Mediated by the European Community, a ceasefire was
reached, and Slovenia was recognised as an independent country by the international
community.
2
Serb-Croat War (1991-1995)
—
Though the Croats accounted for the majority of the Croatian population, the Serbs were
not a minority group.
—
Franjo Tudjman became the Croatian President in 1990. He promoted an anti-Serbian
policy and advocated the independence of Croatia.
—
In June 1991, Croatia declared independence together with Slovenia.
—
Due to the presence of a large Serb population in Croatia, Serbia requested Croatia to
give up the Serb-inhabited territory. Tudjman, however, rejected the request. Serbia and
Croatia declared war on each other and performed ethnic cleansing.
—
The European Community (EC) recognised the independence of Croatia in early 1992.
The UN also sent troops to the Serbian region in Croatia to separate the warring groups.
After much mediation of the EC and the UN, Croatia and Serbia started to reduce the
number of intense battles.
—
In 1995, the Croats launched a large scale attack and recovered most of the territories
occupied by the Serbs. The aggression by the Croats was condemned by the UN.
—
The Serb-Croat War ended when the Dayton Peace Accords were signed in December
1995.
3
Bosnian War (1992-1995)
—
Bosnia and Herzegovina had the most even racial distribution among all republics.
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Bosnians, Serbs and Croats accounted for 40%, 30% and 15% of the population
respectively.
—
Influenced by the independence of Slovenia and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina held a
referendum in March 1992 and decided to declare independence. Its independence was
recognised by the EC. However, the Bosnian Serbs, with Milosevic’s support, announced
their separation from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and attacked Bosnians and Croats.
—
Meanwhile, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
—
Serbian troops gained the upper hand in the beginning of the war and drove a large
number of Bosnians and Croatians out of the Serbian regions. They also performed
ethnic cleansing. Many Bosnians were held in concentration camps.
—
The UN thus imposed an embargo on Serbia, sent a peacekeeping force to Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and set up safe zones to protect the civilians.
—
Nevertheless, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina did not stop. Croatia even joined and
attacked the Bosnians in order to seize the Croat-inhabited regions in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
—
The Bosnians allied with the Croats once again in 1994, and the Serbian troops become
more violent. Not only did they bomb Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia, they also captured
some of the UN peacekeepers as hostages.
—
NATO then decided to take military actions in 1995, bombing Serbia and the Serbian
regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in order to force the Serbs to undergo negotiations.
—
Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina finally signed the Dayton Peace Accords in
December 1995 to end all fights among the three parties.
—
Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into 2 political entities: the Serb-controlled
Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina formed by the Bosnians
and Croats.
4
Kosovo War (1999)
—
Kosovo was an autonomous province located in southern Serbia.
—
Over 90% of its population were ethnic Albanians. They had always been seeking
independence. Some radicals even formed the Kosovo Liberation Army in 1996.
—
In order to suppress separatism, Milosevic ordered the Yugoslav People’s Army to expel
Kosovo Albanians from their homeland and drove in many Serbs. Hundreds of thousands
of Albanians became refugees.
—
In February 1999, under the pressure of NATO and the Western countries, negotiations
between Serbia and the Kosovo Albanians began. Since Serbia opposed the stationing of
NATO forces in Kosovo, NATO started bombing against Serbia in March. The NATO
bombing lasted for 2 months.
—
Milosevic backed down and recognised the autonomy of Kosovo and agreed the
stationing of NATO there.
—
In June 1999, the Yugoslav People’s Army withdrew from Kosovo, marking the end of
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the war.
iv.
Factors affecting the course of the Yugoslav Civil War
1
Positive factor: effective international intervention
—
—
—
EC’s (European Union) intervening measures:

It helped the warring parties reach ceasefires.

It took the lead in recognising the independence of some states.
UN’s intervening measures:

It proposed plans to maintain peace and prompted peace talks.

It imposed sanctions against those countries that stirred up conflicts.

It sent a peacekeeping force and provided relief to the affected areas.
NATO’s intervening measures:

—
It bombed Serbia and Serbian regions in other states to stop ethnic cleansing.
The US’s intervening measures:

It prompted Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina to sign the Dayton Peace
Accords.
2
Negative factors
2.1 Racial hostility
—
It was not an easy task to reconcile the historical hostility between the Serbs and Croats.
—
In the early 1990s, the independence of the republics in Yugoslavia had been inevitable.
However, because of Milosevic’s advocacy of Serbian nationalism, different races fought
against each other because of the disputes over territories, bringing the existing hatred to
its height.
—
Although there was no outbreak of a large-scale war in the Balkan Peninsula after the
Kosovo War, regional racial conflicts continued to occur.
2.2 Disagreement in international mediation
—
The UN objected the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the beginning of the Yugoslav Civil
War. However, the EC advocated the recognition of the independence of Slovenia and
Croatia. As a result, the UN was passive in carrying out mediation.
—
For example, among the 14 ceasefire agreements signed during the first half year of the
Serb-Croat War, only 1 was the result of UN mediation; others were co-ordinated by the
EC.
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C
Apartheid in South Africa
i.
Historical background of apartheid
—
The Dutch had established colonies in South Africa as early as in the 17th century, and
became the ancestor of the later Afrikaners. In the early 20th century, Britain conquered
the republic founded by the Afrikaners, established the Union of South Africa in 1910,
and made it a British dominion.
—
At that time, South Africa had a population that consisted of 70% blacks (or Bantus) and
18% whites (Afrikaners).
—
The whites worried that if the blacks enjoyed equal rights, the white privilege in terms of
politics, economy and culture would come to an end.
—
New constitution was passed in South Africa in 1910 that all political powers should be
held in the hands of the whites. Only the whites were eligible to be members of the
Parliament, and only a handful of blacks that owned property had the right to vote.
ii.
Implementation of apartheid
—
The word ‘apartheid’ means ‘separateness’ in the Afrikaans language.
—
As early as in 1943, the National Party, which promoted white supremacy, was already
using the word ‘apartheid’ to describe their policies.
—
A trend of decolonisation emerged after WWII. Independence movements in Africa ran
high, and South African political organisations developed rapidly.
—
Daniel Malan led the National Party to win the general election and became the Prime
Minister in 1948, by running on a platform of strengthening racial separateness. After he
had taken office, the South African government passed a series of racist laws, so that the
entire South Africa was a lawful and systematic racist state. Skin colour became the
determining factor of people’s engagement in political, economic and social activities.
iii. Content of apartheid
1
Political aspect
—
The government abolished the right to vote in parliamentary elections of non-whites in
1950.
—
The Suppression of Communism Act was also passed in the same year. The police could
freely label people who objected apartheid as communists and put them in prison.
2
Economic aspect
—
The Group Areas Act was passed in 1950 to assign different living areas for different
races. Under this act, the whites controlled over 87% of the land, while other races could
only live in the reserved areas with poor living conditions.
—
Moreover, the government also banned blacks from working in some specified white
regions to prevent competition.
—
In 1959, the government further implemented the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government
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Act to develop the reserved areas into ‘Bantustans’, meaning ‘Bantu homelands’.
—
However, Bantustans were far away from the major cities and industrial centres. The
government forced most of the unemployed blacks to move into Bantustans without
offering them any help.
3
Social aspect
—
Intermarriages between whites and non-whites were banned in 1949.
—
The Population Registration Act was passed in 1950 to divide the people in South Africa
into whites, Bantus (blacks), coloureds and Asians.
—
The Pass Law was enacted in 1952 so that all non-whites over the age of 16 had to carry
with them a passbook that the police could check anytime. If they failed to show their
passbooks when checked upon, they would be fined or even imprisoned.
—
Non-whites could not enter white areas unless they had their working passes or police
permits.
—
The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act was passed in 1953 so that all public areas
and facilities such as beaches, parks, cinemas, restaurants and public toile ts, were
separated into ‘whites-only’ and ‘non-whites only’. The sharing of facilities was strictly
prohibited.
4
Educational aspect
—
The Bantu Education Act was implemented in 1953. All blacks could not receive
education together with whites. Schools of poorer standards were set up for them
instead.
—
Starting from 1959, blacks could only be promoted to two specific universities. Other
universities were not allowed to admit any non-white students.
iv.
Efforts to end apartheid
1
Internal opposition
—
The African National Congress (ANC) was formed in 1912 to unite all Africans to fight
for their rights through peaceful means.
—
After the introduction of apartheid, the ANC stated publicly that it demanded for
self-determination and objected any form of racist rule. It also organised protests actively,
such as strikes and demonstrations.
—
The ANC also passed the Freedom Charter in 1955, advocating racial equality.
—
The Sharpeville Massacre prompted the ANC to adopt armed struggles. Its leader,
Nelson Mandela, founded the Spear of the Nation, a military organisation specified in
damaging public facilities such as power factories and governmental buildings.
—
Mandela was arrested in 1962 and was sentenced to life imprisonment 2 years later.
—
After the Soweto Massacre, the ANC became active again.
—
Stepping into the 1980s, more than 100 incidents of violent protests and damages in
average occurred every year in South Africa. These exhausted the government.
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—
Besides, the ANC launched active diplomatic activities to urge the Western countries to
put pressure on the South African government.
—
Apart from the ANC, some open-minded whites and church leaders also publicly
opposed apartheid. One example was Bishop Desmond Tutu, the winner of the 1984
Nobel Peace Prize.
2
External pressure
—
There were continuous international condemnations after South Africa had implemented
apartheid.
—
Since 1952, the UN had listed South Africa’s apartheid as an important agenda of its
General Assembly. Later, the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid was
established to keep watch on the situation of South Africa.
—
The Sharpeville Massacre of 1960 caused international discontent.

In 1962, the UN General Assembly made a resolution to urge its members to impose
diplomatic and trade boycotts on South Africa.

South Africa was also banned from the 1964 Olympic Games.

In 1974, South Africa was diplomatically isolated as the UN suspended its
membership.
—
In 1975, Angola and Mozambique, 2 neighbouring countries of South Africa, gained
independence. In 1980, Zimbabwe also ended the white rule. These countries often
criticised apartheid and supported the struggles of South African blacks.
—
Economically, the Arabic countries imposed an oil embargo on South Africa in the
1970s.
—
The US imposed a full-scale economic sanction on it and promoted the disinvestment
campaign against South Africa in 1986.
—
Meanwhile, members of the European Community and British Commonwealth
implemented economic sanctions of different degrees.
v.
End of apartheid
1
Reforms of Botha
—
P.W. Botha became the Prime Minister of South Africa in 1979 and introduced limited
reforms:
2

allowing blacks to elect the local city council

permitting them to join trade unions and strikes

cancelling the Pass Law and the ban on intermarriages between different races
Reforms of de Klerk
—
—
1989

The apartheid laws were abolished one by one.

A large number of black political prisoners were released.
1990
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—

The ban on ANC was lifted.

Mandela was released after his 27 years of imprisonment.
1991

—
De Klerk proclaimed an official end to apartheid.
1993

A non-apartheid provisional constitution was passed. A one-person-one-vote election
was to be held the next year.
—
In 1994, the first multi-racial election was held in South Africa. The ANC gained a
majority of votes and Mandela was elected as President. A new South Africa was born.
vi. Factors affecting the course of apartheid in South Africa
1
Positive factors
1.1 Effective international intervention
—
The UN had been putting pressure on South Africa since the 1950s. International
organisations such as the British Commonwealth adopted a series of measures to
pressurise South Africa, such as economic sanctions, condemnations and diplomatic
isolations.
—
Therefore, the South African government was under tremendous stress. In the 1980s, the
international community continued to increase their pressure on South Africa. South
Africa’s trade suffered a serious blow from the US economic sanction. This successfully
urged South Africa to abandon apartheid.
1.2 Persistent struggles of the South African blacks
—
Since the 1960s, armed struggles of the ANC had never stopped. They only attacked
government facilities without hurting civilians. Gradually, the ANC gained international
sympathy and support.
—
The Western countries, one after another, demanded the South Africa government to
release Mandela and put great diplomatic pressure on South Africa.
2
Negative factor: inadequate international co-operation
—
The UN and the British Commonwealth once imposed economic sanctions and arms
embargoes on South Africa. However, the ineffective implementation of such policies by
some countries allowed South Africa to maintain its economic stability and to free itself
from military threats.
—
Despite continuous international condemnations, apartheid had been enforced for almost
half a century until 1991. The persistence of apartheid, to a certain extent, was related to
the inadequate international co-operation.
D
Roles of the United Nations in peacemaking efforts
i.
Establishment of the UN
—
During WWII, countries such as the US and Britain were already pondering upon the
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failure of the League of Nations. They advocated the establishment of an international
organisation with strong economic and military power that included all major powers.
—
Britain’s Prime Minister Churchill and the US President Roosevelt drew up the Atlantic
Charter in August 1941. They were determined to establish a more comprehensive and
permanent general security system.
—
In 1942, 26 Allied nations showed their support to the Atlantic Charter by signing the
United Nations Declaration.
—
51 representatives of the Allied nations met in San Francisco and approved the United
Nations Charter in June 1945.
—
On 24 October, the United Nations Charter became effective and the United Nations (UN)
was officially established. Its headquarters is in New York City.
ii.
Objectives of the UN
—
According to the UN Charter, the objectives of the UN were:

To maintain international peace and security, and take collective measures for the
prevention and removal of threats to the peace.

To develop friendly international relations according to the principles of equal rights
and national self-determination.

To promote international co-operation for solving economic, social and cultural
problems.

To be a centre for co-ordinating the actions of all nations to achieve the above aims.
iii. The organisation of the United Nations
—
According to the UN Charter, the UN consists of 6 major bodies with different duties.
General Assembly


It meets once a year in
Secretariat

It is responsible for all
Security Council

It is responsible for maintaining
September, but extra
administrative affairs,
international peace and proposing
meetings can be held at
including preparation of
sanctions on nations that threaten
any time in case of
agenda for meetings as
peace.
emergency.
well as translation of
All major resolutions,
documents.
and non-permanent members. The
It is headed by the
5 permanent members are the US,
related to the
Secretary-General. His
Russia (the USSR before 1992),
maintaining of world
duties include reporting
Britain, France and China. The 10
peace and security as
the affairs that might
non-permanent members are
well as the acceptance of
threaten peace to the
elected by the General Assembly
new members, must be
General Assembly and
for a term of 2 years.
passed by two-thirds of
Security Council, as
votes. Others can be
well as mediating
all permanent members. This
passed with a simple
international disputes.
means they have the veto power.
such as suggestions

majority.
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

It consists of permanent members
All resolutions must be agreed by
New Exploring World History (Second Edition)
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
Economic and Social
International Court of
Council (ECOSOC)
Justice
It is responsible for
Its main duty is to settle

It supervised the administration of
directing and
disputes among nations,
trust territories and helped them
co-ordinating the UN
and interprets the UN
obtain autonomy or independence.
economic, social,
Charter and international
humanitarian and
laws wherever
after the independence of the last
cultural activities, and
necessary.
trust territory, Palau.
giving suggestions to
those related affairs.


Trusteeship Council
It consists of 54


It suspended operation in 1994
It is located in The
Hague, the Netherlands.
It is formed by 15 judges
member states elected
who are selected by the
by the General
General Assembly and
Assembly with a term of
the Security Council.
3 years.

Specialised agencies
under the ECOSOC
include the Food and
Agriculture Organisation
(FAO), the World Health
Organisation (WHO),
the International
Monetary Fund (IMF)
and the International
Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), etc.
iv.
Means used by the UN to resolve conflicts
1
Diplomatic mediation
—
The UN started with peaceful means to resolve conflicts.
—
After obtaining the permission of the parties in conflict, the UN will send observers to
investigate and observe the situation. The UN will then appoint a third party (whi ch can
be the Secretary-General) for mediation, prompting the conflicted parties to settle
disputes and reach ceasefire agreements through negotiation.
2
Peacekeeping operation
—
When the diplomatic mediation is not effective in resolving the conflicts, the UN can
strengthen its intervention and request the countries in conflict to stop fighting.
—
If both sides agree to a ceasefire, the Security Council will send neutral peacekeepers to
monitor the ceasefire in order to stabilise the situations and prevent further conflicts.
—
Peacekeepers can be divided into 2 groups:
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
Military observers: they consists of unarmed personnel who observe only the
enforcement of ceasefire arrangements;

Peacekeeping force: it includes armed personnel from different countries equipped
with preventive arms to stop conflicts by force where necessary. A peacekeeping
force will also provide civilians in conflicting areas with humanitarian relief and
help reconstruction.
3
Enforcement action
3.1 Non-violent pressurising
—
The Security Council attempts to weaken the economic and military power of the
peace-threatening countries by imposing economic sanctions and arms embargoes.
3.2 Military intervention
—
If the Security Council defines a country as an aggressor, it can authorise its member
states to form coalition forces and launch direct military attacks in order to restore peace.
The first military action of the UN was the Korean War in the 1950s. Another example
was the Gulf War in the 1990s.
3.3 Criminal prosecution
—
The Security Council can establish international criminal tribunals which are responsible
for prosecuting the political or military leaders who have committed crimes of
aggression or ethnic cleansing. For example, many Serbian military officers were
prosecuted during the Yugoslav Civil War.
v.
Roles of the UN in resolving major conflicts: case studies
1
Conflicts between Israel and the Arabs
1.1 UN intervention
Diplomatic mediation
Year
1947
Action
 The UN proposed the Partition Plan for Palestine in an
attempt to settle the conflict between the Jews and the Arabs.
 The Security Council passed a resolution to prompt the end of
war between Israel and the Arabs, and that all parties should
1967
respect and recognise the sovereignty, territorial integrity and
political independence of the countries in the region so as to
bring prolonged peace to the Middle East.
operation
Peacekeeping
 The UN helped arrange a ceasefire between Israel and the
Arabs after the outbreak of the Palestinian War, and formed
1948-1949
the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation
(UNTSO).
1956
 During the Suez Crisis, the UN arranged a ceasefire and sent
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1967
 During the Six-Day War, the UN arranged a ceasefire for the
Arabs.
 During the Yom Kippur War, the Security Council passed 3
resolutions to urge Israel and the Arabs to stop fighting, and
1973
sent a peacekeeping force to supervise the implementation of
the ceasefire agreement.
1982
 The UN requested Israel to stop its military actions at once
after its invasion of Lebanon.
1.2 Evaluation
—
The UN took immediate actions whenever there were outbreaks of Arab-Israeli conflicts
to mediate and help resolve the conflicts as soon as possible. It also sent peacekeeping
forces to monitor the execution of ceasefires.
—
The UN condemned Israel for using force to suppress Palestinians and recognised the
Palestinian right of independence.
—
It also actively helped solve the problem of refugees resulted from Arab-Israeli conflicts.
—
However, the UN efforts were limited by various factors.

During the Suez Crisis, Britain and France, which attacked Egypt, used the veto
power in the Security Council to prevent the UN from maintaining peace in the
region.

Moreover, during the Yom Kippur war, the first two ceasefire agreements arranged
by the Security Council broke down very soon.

The UN was unable to provide a lasting proposal to tackle the crux of the
Arab-Israeli conflicts.
—
In fact, by the late 20th century, the US played a more important role than the UN in the
Middle East peace process, as it arranged most of the peace talks and exercised greater
influence than the UN.
2
Racial conflicts in the Balkans
2.1 UN intervention
Year
Actions
mediation
Diplomatic

1991
The UN appointed Cyrus Vance, former US Secretary of
State, as a special envoy to mediate the Serb-Croat War in
an attempt to end the large-scale fighting.
1993

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The UN proposed many peace plans for the Bosnian War,
yet no agreement was made.
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
The UN stationed a peacekeeping force at Serb-inhabited
regions in Croatia to establish non-military zones for a
Peacekeeping operation
prolonged ceasefire.
1992

The Security Council sent military observers to monitor the
implementation of ceasefires arranged by the UN after the
outbreak of the Bosnian War.

The UN sent a peacekeeping force to Macedonia to prevent
it from being affected by the war.
1993

The UN sent a peacekeeping force to Bosnia and
Herzegovina and set up safe zones to protect the Bosnians.

1999
Kosovo was administered by the UN after the Kosovo War.
The UN helped Kosovo’s reconstruction and assisted the
Enforcement action
local people in achieving autonomy.
1992
1995

The UN imposed economic sanctions, including trade
embargoes and freezing of foreign assets, on Serbia.

The UN authorised NATO to bomb Serbia.

The international criminal tribunal began to prosecute the
Serbian leaders in Bosnian and Herzegovina for their war
crimes.
2.2 Evaluation
—
The UN succeeded in preventing the war from spreading to Macedonia after the outbreak
of the Yugoslav Civil War.
—
However, the UN mediation efforts were not effective in resolving the conflicts among
different parties. Ceasefires were always violated.

During the Serb-Croat War, the UN non-military safe zones were attacked by the
Croats.

It also failed to stop the ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War, and some of its
peacekeepers were even captured as hostages.
—
The US and NATO led by the US played a more significant role than the UN:

The UN authorised NATO to bomb Serbia in 1995 and succeeded in forcing
Milosevic to accept the US mediation.

In 1999, NATO launched the Kosovo War without the consent from the Security
Council.
3
Apartheid in South Africa
3.1 UN intervention
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Year
Actions

was established. It was responsible for reporting the latest
1962
Diplomatic mediation
The United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid
development in South Africa to the General Assembly and
the Security Council.
1974

It suspended the eligibility of South Africa to participate in
the General Assembly until 1994.

1976
The UN set 21st March as the International Day for the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination to commemorate the
1960 Sharpeville Massacre.
1966
action
Enforcement
1982
1977

The UN declared the year 1982 to be the International Year
of Mobilisation for Sanctions against South Africa.

The Security Council imposed a voluntary arms embargo on
South Africa.

The Security Council imposed a compulsory arms embargo
on South Africa.
3.2 Evaluation
—
The UN drew international attention to apartheid by pressurising South Africa
continuously.
—
Despite the immense diplomatic pressure and overwhelming public opinion, apartheid
had been implemented for over 40 years in South Africa. This reflected that international
pressure was insufficient in producing a deterring effect.
—
Besides, many countries ignored the UN appeal for imposing economic sanctions on
South Africa.
—
In the 1960s, the US, Britain and France often vetoed the resolutions to punish South
Africa in the Security Council.
—
Even when the Security Council imposed a compulsory arms embargo on South Africa in
1977, it failed to force South Africa to compromise immediately.
vi. Overall evaluation of the UN peacemaking efforts
1
Achievements
1.1 Better than the League of Nations
—
The UN is more effective in maintaining international peace than the League of Nations
because of its composition and peacekeeping mechanisms:

All major powers are UN members;

All UN members must implement the Security Council’s resolution; and

The General Assembly of only requires a majority vote of 2/3 to pass important
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resolutions, which is more effective that the League that required a unanimous vote.
1.2 Successful in mediating international conflicts
—
The UN actively mediated many conflicts and helped achieve ceasefires. From
1948-2000, the UN launched more than 60 peacekeeping missions. For example,

The UN peacekeeping force was always performing its duty in the Middle East.
Therefore, for a number of times, the UN successfully prevented the Arab-Israeli
conflicts from escalating.

Moreover, during the period 1948-1995, the Security Council passed 14 resolutions
to impose economic sanctions or arms embargoes on 10 countries in total.
1.3 Arousing international concerns
—
The General Assembly and the Security Council provide the countries with a platform to
make speeches, arousing international concerns on regional conflicts and thus calling for
intervention.
—
In the 1970s, the UN invited the ANC representatives to attend the General Assembly in
order to discuss South Africa’s apartheid. This reinforced the diplomatic pressure on
South Africa.
2
Limitations
2.1 Inadequate intervention
—
The UN only mediated 34 of the 137 conflicts that took place between 1945 and 1989,
and played an active role in only 11 of them.
—
A research also showed the UN played a less important role in settling international
conflicts than the US and the NATO.
2.2 Failure to reach consensus
—
Whenever the Security Council faced a major conflict or a crisis, the permanent
members often placed their national interests first. Consensus was hard to achieve, and
this undermined the effectiveness of the peacekeeping actions.
—
During the Cold War, the US and the USSR often abused their veto power. For example,

The US vetoed the condemnation of Israel for many times,

The USSR vetoed the UN intervention when it sent troops to suppress the
democratic movement in Czechoslovakia.
2.3 Lack of a permanent independent force
—
The UN lacks a permanent independent force to carry out its decisions, and it has to seek
the consent of the Security Council for military action. When it does take military action,
it also has to rely on its member states for human resource and financial support. All
these affect the effectiveness of its peacekeeping missions.
2.4 Financial difficulties
—
The costs of the UN peacekeeping missions were huge. For example, the operation in
Yugoslavia in 1993 cost US$1.8 billion, which was twice as much as the other UN
expenditures.
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New Exploring World History (Second Edition)
Revision Notes
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The UN financial budget could only cover part of the peacekeeping costs. As for the
remaining costs, the UN had to rely on the extra donations from its member states.
—
In recent years, some members often owed membership fees and refused to shoulder the
peacekeeping burden. Thus, the UN lacked sufficient capital for peacekeeping missions.
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