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Chapter 6
Atmospheric Forces and Wind
ATMO 1300
SUMMER 2016
Daily Wx
Last Time
• Temperature
– How is it measured
– Diurnal, annual, interannual cycles
– Annual variations depend on:
•
•
•
•
Latitude
Surface type/bodies of water
Elevation/aspect
Cloud cover
Last Time
• Stability
– Determines vertical motion tendency
– Determines type of cloud that may form
– Related to buoyancy
• Positive buoyancy  Unstable
• Negative buoyancy or neutral buoyancy  Stable
– Compare the temperature of a parcel of air to that of
the environment
– Tp > Te  unstable
– Tp < Te  stable
– Neutral when equal
Fig. 3-18, p. 73
Last Time
• Stability
– 4 types of stability (3 for now)
• Absolutely unstable, absolutely stable, neutrally stable
– Environmental temperature profiles measured
with weather balloons and radiosonde
instruments
• Temperature inversions
– Impacts on severe storms and agriculture
– Radiation induced or geographically (i.e.
mountain valley cold-air draining)
• Wind chill and the heat index
Chapter 6
Atmospheric Forces and Wind
ATMO 1300
SUMMER 2016
Chapter 6
Atmospheric Forces and Wind
•
•
•
•
Motions
Balance of Forces
Atmospheric Maps
High and Low Pressure
First…what is wind?
• The large-scale motion of
air molecules (i.e., not
thermal motion)
• It is a vector: in that it has
a speed and direction.
• Speed can be measured
as:
– Miles per hour (mph)
– Nautical miles per hour
(knots, kts)
– Meters per second (m/s)
Fig. 6-1, p. 180
Force
• Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
F = ma
Force = mass x acceleration
• Imbalance of forces causes net motion
Forces We Will Consider
• Gravity
• Pressure Gradient Force
• Coriolis Force (due to Earth’s rotation)
• Centrifugal Force / Centripetal Acceleration
• Friction
Gravitational Force
• Attraction of two objects to each other
• Proportional to mass of objects
F = G ( m1 x m2 / r * r )
• For us, gravity works downwards towards
Earth’s surface
Pressure Gradient Force
• Gradient – the change in a quantity over a
distance
• Pressure gradient – the change in
atmospheric pressure over a distance
• Pressure gradient force – the resultant net
force due to the change in atmospheric
pressure over a distance
Pressure Gradient Force
• Sets the air in motion
• Directed from high to
low pressure
•
Figure from www.met.tamu.edu/class/ATMO151
Pressure Gradient Force on the
Weather Map
• H = High pressure (pressure
decreases in all directions from
center)
• L = Low pressure (pressure
increases in all directions from
center)
• The contour lines are called
isobars: lines of constant air
pressure
• Strength of resultant wind is
proportional to the isobar
spacing
• Less spacing = stronger
pressure gradient = stronger
winds
Fig. 6-4, p. 182
A Typical Surface Weather Map
A Typical Surface Weather Map
Strong P.G.
Weak P.G.
Weak P.G.
Pressure Measurements
• Station Pressure – the pressure observed
at some location. Depends on amount of
mass above that location
• Sea Level Pressure (SLP) – Station
pressure converted to sea level. The
pressure measured if the station were at
sea level
Why SLP is Important
• Pressure change in the vertical is much
greater than in the horizontal.
• Stations at a higher altitude will always
record a lower pressure due to the vertical
pressure change.
• We are interested in horizontal pressure
changes because they cause air to move
Why SLP is Important
• Denver elevation –
5000 ft (~ 1 mile)
• Galveston – close to
Sea Level (~ 0 ft)
Denver
Galveston
Why SLP is Important (cont’d)
• Pressure decreases 10 mb/100 meters in
elevation on average in lower troposphere
• Must remove elevation factor to obtain a
true picture of the horizontal pressure
variations.
Why SLP is Important
“Top of Atmosphere”
Denver
D
Galveston
5000
G
Sea Level
Remember, pressure is a measure of the amount of atmospheric mass
that is above a particular location. Because there is less air above Denver,
it will always have a lower pressure than Galveston regardless of what is
happening in the atmosphere.
If Station Pressures Were Used
• Lower pressure in
mountain areas
• Higher pressure in
coastal areas
• Not a true picture of
atmospheric effects
L
L
L
H
H
H
Sea Level Pressure
• Must remove the
elevation bias in the
pressure
measurements.
• Method: Convert
station pressure to sea
level pressure (move
the station to sea
level)
•
Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130
Converting to SLP
• Standard Atmosphere
• Rate of vertical
pressure change is
10mb/100meters
Denver
5000 ft
Sea
Level
Station Model
• Sea Level Pressure is
given in millibars
(mb).
• In the figure to the
right, the yellow
number is a CODED
value of pressure.
•
Figure from ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu
Surface Weather Map
• In terms of pressure observations, all the
stations are effectively at sea level.
Surface Weather Map
Why Analyze SLP? (cont’d)
• Helps identify the following features:
→
→
→
→
Low pressure center
High pressure center
Low pressure trough
High pressure ridge
Low Pressure Center
Figure from ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu
• Center of lowest
pressure
• Pressure increases
outward from the low
center
• Also called a cyclone
High Pressure Center
Figure from ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu
• Center of highest
pressure
• Pressure decreases
outward from the
high center
• Also called an
anticyclone
Low Pressure Trough
Figure from www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/basicwx.htm
• An elongated axis of
lower pressure
• Isobars are curved but
not closed as in a low
1000
1004
1008
1012
High Pressure Ridge
Figure from www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/basicwx.htm
• An elongated axis of
higher pressure
• Isobars are curved but
not closed as in a high
pressure center
1000
1004
1008
1012
Surface Weather Map
Surface Weather Map
Figure from www.rap.ucar.edu/weather/model
Pause For a Break
• Constant pressure maps
Constant Pressure Map
• Above the surface, we reverse the
approach and look at the altitude of a
given pressure surface, e.g. at what height
is the pressure 500 mb?
• We call these isobaric charts (or maps,
surfaces, levels, etc).
• So, why would the height of a pressure
level change?
Temperature & Pressure
• Listed to the side are two
columns containing air of
different temperature
• The total number of
molecules is identical in
each column
• At 5 km, will the pressure
be higher at Point 1 or
Point 2?
•
Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130
Effect of Temperature on Pressure
Figure from ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu
Construction of a 500 mb Map
upper left map from www.srh.noaa.gov/bmx/upperair/radiosnd.html
1
3
2
500
500
500
500
4
Constant Pressure Map
• Differences in height of a given pressure
value = horizontal pressure gradient
• Contour lines connect equal height values.
• Contours can be thought of in the same
way as isobars on a surface weather map
Fig. 6-7, p. 184
Pressure variations on a constant height surface (e.g., sea level) =
Height variations on a constant pressure surface (e.g., 500 mb)
L
H
A 500 mb Map
Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130
500 mb Chart
Constant Pressure Maps
• Standard constant pressure maps:
–
–
–
–
–
–
200 mb ~
250 mb ~
300 mb ~
500 mb ~
700 mb ~
850 mb ~
39,000 ft
34,000 ft
30,000 ft
18,000 ft
10,000 ft
5,000 ft
• Each level can highlight certain features in
the atmosphere. For instance, 200 – 300 mb
is used to analyze the jet stream.
Vertical Pressure Gradient
• There is a pressure gradient force directed
upward
• Pressure gradient force is much larger in
the vertical than in the horizontal
• Why doesn’t all air get sucked away from
the Earth?
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Fig. 6-13, p. 192
Centrifugal Force / Centripetal
Acceleration
• Due to change in direction of motion
• Example: Riding in a car, sharp curve,
which direction are you pushed?
• OUTWARDS! Your body still has
momentum in the original direction. This
“force” is an example of centrifugal force.
• Need sharp curvature in flow for this force
to be important (examples?)
Fig. 6-8, p. 185
Coriolis Force
• Due to the rotation of
the Earth
• Objects appear to be
deflected to the right
(following the
motion) in the
Northern Hemisphere
• Speed is unaffected,
only direction
2nd Edition: Fig. 6-9, p. 165
Coriolis Force
• Magnitude depends on 2 things:
Wind speed
Latitude
• Stronger wind → Stronger Coriolis force
• Zero Coriolis force at the equator;
maximum at the poles
Coriolis Force (cont’d)
• Acts at a right angle to the wind
• In the Northern Hemisphere, air is
deflected to the right of the direction of
motion.
• Only changes the direction of moving air,
not the wind speed
• Only an “apparent” force since we
observe from a rotating body (consider
motion from space)
Apparent Force?
Think Merry-Go-Round…
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GiMi-QPt1Xk
Coriolis Force (cont’d)
• MYTH: Water drains from a bathtub or
sink with a certain rotation due to the
Coriolis force.
• FACT: Coriolis force is too small to have
any noticeable influence on water
draining out of a tub or sink.
=> CORIOLIS WORKS ON LARGE
TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL SCALES
Friction
• Loss of momentum during travel due to
roughness of surface
• Air moving near the surface experiences
frictional drag, decreasing the wind speed.
• Friction is important in the lowest 1.5km
of the atmosphere.
• Friction is negligible above that layer
Friction: F = -kV
Recap
• Winds – large scale motion of air that is the result of forces in the
atmosphere, labeled by the direction they come from
• Forces
• Depend on mass and acceleration
• Have direction and magnitude
• Total force is the sum of all the forces
Forces
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gravity – acts downward towards the surface
PGF
• From H -> L pressure
• Stronger for larger changes (gradients) in pressure (or height on a
constant pressure chart) with distance, greatest in the vertical
Coriolis
• Deflects wind to the right of motion (NH)
• Applies to large time and space scales
• Stronger for higher winds and latitudes (closer to the pole)
Centrifugal
• Outward from curved flow
• Stronger for faster motion or tighter rotation
Friction – opposes flow near the surface, weaker over a smooth surface
We’ll cover force balances next time
Temperature & Pressure
• Listed to the side are two
columns containing air of
different temperature
• The total number of
molecules is identical in
each column
• At 5 km, will the pressure
be higher at Point 1 or
Point 2?
•
Figure from apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130
Pressure variations on a constant height surface (e.g., sea level) =
Height variations on a constant pressure surface (e.g., 500 mb)
L
H
Atmospheric Force Balances
• First, MUST have a pressure gradient
force (PGF) for the wind to blow.
• Otherwise, all other forces are irrelevant
• Already discussed hydrostatic balance, a
balance between the vertical PGF and
gravity. There are many others that
describe atmospheric flow…
Geostrophic Balance
Fig. 6-14, p. 193
Geostrophic Balance
• Balance between PGF and Coriolis force
Fig. 6-15, p. 193
Geostrophic Balance
• Therefore, wind blows parallel to isobars, which
is useful to consider when looking at weather
maps.
• In geostrophic balance, wind blows with low
pressure to the LEFT (as viewed from behind the
air parcel).
• Remember, Coriolis force must be relevant for
this balance to exist. Need large time and length
scales, for example, a mid-latitude cyclone (i.e., a
“storm system” or low pressure center like that
seen on the evening weather map…more later)
Winds in Upper Atmosphere
• Winds in upper atmosphere are largely
geostrophic
• Wind flows in a counterclockwise sense around
a low or trough
• Wind flows in a clockwise sense around a high
or ridge
• Winds near the surface are not geostrophic.
What force must be considered here?
• Where else might geostrophic balance not hold?
Geostrophic balance does not occur instantaneously…
Fig. 6-17, p. 195
Gradient Wind Balance
• Balance between PGF, Coriolis force, and
centrifugal force
• Examples: hurricanes
Fig. 6-16, p. 194
Cyclostrophic Balance
• Balance between PGF and centrifugal force
• Coriolis force not important
• Example: tornadoes
Surface Winds
• Friction slows the wind
• Coriolis force (dependent on wind speed)
is therefore reduced
• Pressure gradient force now exceeds
Coriolis force
• Wind flows across the isobars toward
lower pressure
• Called Guldberg-Mohn Balance
Near Surface
Wind
Fig. 6-18, p. 196
Fig. 6-19, p. 197
Surface Winds
Surface Winds
Figure from physics.uwstout.edu/wx/Notes/ch6notes.htm
Comparison
Surface Winds & Vertical Motion
• Vertical motion (rising or sinking air) is a
very important factor in weather.
• Rising air is needed to form clouds and
precipitation.
• How are surface winds related to vertical
motion?
Surface Winds & Vertical Motion
• Horizontal movement of air (wind) can
result in convergence or divergence.
• Areas of convergence are areas of rising air
• Areas of divergence are areas of sinking air
Convergence
• Convergence -- the net horizontal inflow
of air into an area.
• Results in upward motion
• Convergence occurs in areas of low
pressure (low pressure centers and
troughs)
• Lows and troughs are areas of rising air
Convergence
Fig. 6-24b, p. 202
Divergence
• Divergence -- the net horizontal outflow
of air from an area.
• Results in downward motion (subsidence)
• Divergence occurs in areas of high
pressure (high pressure centers and
ridges)
• Highs and ridges are areas of sinking air
(subsidence)
Divergence
Fig. 6-24a, p. 181
Sea Breeze
•
•
•
•
Land heats more rapidly than water
Lower pressure develops over land
Higher pressure over the water
An onshore flow results due to the PGF
Fig. 6-25, p. 203
Fig. 6-26a, p. 204
Fig. 6-26b, p. 204
Fig. 6-26c, p. 204
Fig. 6-26d, p. 204
Land Breeze
•
•
•
•
Land cools more rapidly than water at night
Higher pressure develops over land
Lower pressure over water
Offshore flow results due to PGF
Fig. 6-27, p. 205
Recap
• Winds – large scale motion of air that is the result of forces in the
atmosphere, labeled by the direction they come from
• Forces
• Depend on mass and acceleration
• Have direction and magnitude
• Total force is the sum of all the forces
Forces
• Gravity – acts downward towards the surface
• PGF
• From H -> L pressure
• Stronger for larger changes (gradients) in pressure (or height on
a constant pressure chart) with distance, greatest in the vertical
• Coriolis
• Deflects wind to the right of motion (NH)
• Applies to large time and space scales
• Stronger for higher winds and latitudes (closer to the pole)
• Centrifugal
• Outward from curved flow
• Stronger for faster motion or tighter rotation
• Friction – opposes flow near the surface, weaker over a smooth
surface
Balances
• Geostrophic
• Horizontal Coriolis & PGF
• Upper atmosphere
• Gradient
• Horizontal Coriolis & PGF & Cetrifugal
• Results in higher wind speeds around highs than lows
• Hydrostatic
• Vertical PGF & Gravity
• Keeps the air from leaving the atmosphere or compressing to
the surface
• Near surface (Guldberg-Mohn)
• Horizontal PGF & Coriolis & Friction
• Results in wind blowing across isobars towards lower pressure
More things to remember….
• Wind generally blows parallel to isobars with lower pressure on the
left, but at the surface
• Low pressure -> convergence -> upward motion
• High pressure -> divergence -> downward motion -> clear skies
• Sea level pressure – correction of station pressure based on the
altitude and the standard atmosphere in order to compare horizontal
changes (~10 mb for 100 m)
• Common features:
• High pressure center (closed) vs ridge (open), clockwise motion
• Low pressure center (closed) vs trough (open),
counterclockwise
• Constant pressure map – height at which the given pressure is
reached
• Warmer column = higher pressure at a given height = higher height
of a given pressure level