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104
Chapter 10 frontispiece.
Trains loaded with coal
departing from the
Rawhide coal mine near
Gillete, Wyoming
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of
Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia
University Press. Photograph by J. Foster
105
Figure 10.1. The fuels used to produce all energy worldwide, 2005
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy
Future, Columbia University Press. Data from Energy Information Agency, DOE
106
Table 10.1. Some common units of energy and power
Prefixes
Kilo (K)
103
Giga (G)
109
Peta (P)
1015
Mega (M)
106
Tera (T)
1012
Exa (E)
1018
Units and Some Common Amounts
Joule (J) = basic unit of energy
exajoule = 1018 joules
British thermal unit (Btu) = energy needed to heat 1 pound of water 1°F = 1,055 joules
1.055 exajoule = 1015 (1 quadrillion [quad]) Btu
Toe = tons of oil equivalent = 41.868 x 109 joules
1 million toe = 41.868 petajoule
Watt (W) = unit of power (work) = energy per unit time = 1 joule/sec
kilowatt = 1,000 watts, megawatt = 106 watts, gigawatt = 109 watts
Watt hours (WH) = energy = 1 W delivered over 1 hour = 1 joules/sec x 3,600 sec/hr = 3,600 joules
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 joules, 1 megawatt hour = 3.6 x 109 joules, 1 gigawatt hour = 3.6 x 1012
joules, 1 kilowatt hour = 3,413 Btu
Metric ton (t) = 1,000 kilograms
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global
Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press.
107
Figure 10.2. Emissions of CO2 from fossil-fuel burning according
to fuel type, 2000-2005 and projected to 2030
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy
Future, Columbia University Press. Data from Energy Information Agency, DOE
108
Figure 10.3. Annual emissions of CO2 from various sectors
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Rogner et al., 2007
109
Table 10.2. World’s recoverable coal reserves in
gigatons as of January 2003
Region/Country
Bituminous and
Anthracitea
United States
Subbituminous
Lignite
Total
112.2
100.1
30.4
250.9
Russia
49.1
97.4
10.4
157.0
China
62.2
33.7
18.6
114.5
India
90.1
0.0
2.4
92.4
Non-OECDb Europe, Eurasia
45.4
17.0
28.4
90.8
Australia, New Zealand
38.6
2.4
38.0
79.1
South Africa
47.2
0.2
0.0
47.3
OECD Europe
17.7
4.5
17.1
39.3
0.0
10.1
0.0
11.1
479.7
270.4
155.0
905.1
Brazil
World total
aAnthracite,
bOECD
bituminous, and lignite are different coal types with decreasing carbon and heat contents
= Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy
Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Energy Information Agency, DOE
110
Figure 10.4. Current and projected coal consumption in India,
the United States, China, and the rest of the world
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy
Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Energy Information Agency DOE
111
Table 10.3. Comparison of performance and cost of some
coal-fired, electricity-generating technologies
Subcritical
Pulverized
Coal (PC)
SuperCritical
PC
UltraSuperCritical PC
Subcritical
Circulating
Fluid Bed
SubIntegrated
critical Gas Combined
PC-oxy Cycle (IGCC)
CO2 capture?
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Efficiency (%)
34.3
25.1
38.5
29.3
43.3
34.1
34.8
25.5
30.6
38.4
31.2
CO2 emitteda
931
127
830
109
738
94
1,030 141
104
832
102
Costb
4.84
8.16
4.78
7.69
4.69
7.34
4.68
6.98
5.13
6.52
aIn
7.79
units of grams per kilowatt hour.
bCost
of electricity (COE) in cents per kilowatt hour. The COE is the constant dollar electricity price required over the life
of the plant to provide for all expenses and debt and bring in an acceptable rate of return to investors.
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming
and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: MIT
112
Figure 10.5. Simulation of
the shape of a CO2 plume
as it spreads through a
porous layer over a 20year period
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of
Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia
University Press. Source: Doughty and Pruess, 2004
113
Figure 10.6. Schematic
cross section and
location of the Sleipner
Project, Norwegian
North Sea
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Benson et al., 2005
114
Uranium-235 fission (example reaction)
uranium-235 + slow neutron 
barium-144 + krypton-90 + 2 neutrons + 200 megavolts
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming
and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. p. 198
115
Figure 10.7. Metatorbernite
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future,
Columbia University Press. Photograph by J. Newman, American Museum of Natural History
116
Table 10.4. Generating costs of wind and solar power in 2007 for
three different amounts of sunlight received and wind velocities
Received irradiance (watts per square meter per year)
1,700
2,000
2,300
Solar photovoltaic (cents per kilowatt hour)
29
25
21
Solar thermal (cents per kilowatt hour)
26
22
19
7.0-7.5
7.5-8.0
Wind velocity (meters per second at 50 meters
above ground)
On-shore turbines (cents per kilowatt hour)
4.6
Off-shore turbines (cents per kilowatt hour)
5.3
3.8
8.0-8.8
3.4
4.5
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Edmonds et al., 2007
117
Figure 10.8. Renewable sources of power as proportions of
total U.S. electric net summer capacity, 2006
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy
Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Energy Information Agency, DOE
118
Figure 10.9. Wind farm
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global
Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press.
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE
119
Figure 10.10. The growth of global installed wind power
capacity, 1996-2007
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global
Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press.
120
Table 10.5. National installed wind power capacities as of
the end of 2007
Capacity
(Megawatts)
Percentage
of World Capacity
Germany
22,247
23.6
7.0
United States
16,818
17.9
1.2a
Spain
15,145
16.1
11.8
India
8,000
8.5
4.0b
China
6,050
6.4
6.4
Denmark
3,125
3.3
21.2
Italy
2,726
2.9
1.7
France
2,454
2.6
1.2
United Kingdom
2,389
2.5
1.8
Portugal
2,150
2.3
9.3
Canada
1,846
2.0
1.1b
Netherlands
1,746
1.9
3.4
Japan
1,538
1.6
0.5b
Total Europe
57,136
60.7
3.8
94,123
100.0
1.8b
World total
Percentage of National
Electricity Demand
Note: Data are for countries with capacities greater than 1,000 megawatts.
aFor 2006; bAs a proportion of total national electricity generation.
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Global Wind Energy Council
121
Figure 10.11. An array of photovoltaic panels
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future,
Columbia University Press. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE, photograph by S. Wilcox
122
Figure 10.12. Parabolic
troughs
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming
and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE, photograph by W. Gretz
123
Figure 10.13. The worldwide growth of capacity from photovoltaic cells
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Data from British Petroleum 2007
124
Figure 10.14. The stabilization triangle and wedge: a way of thinking
about how to solve the emissions problem
E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global
Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press.