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Williams and Allen
Nov • Dec 2010
[ Athletic Training ]
Rehabilitation of Syndesmotic
(High) Ankle Sprains
Glenn N. Williams, PhD, PT, ATC,* and Eric J. Allen, MS, PT, ATC
Context: High ankle sprains are common in athletes who play contact sports. Most high ankle sprains are treated
nonsurgically with a rehabilitation program.
Evidence Acquisition: All years of PUBMED, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CINAHL PLUS, SPORTDiscuss,
Google Scholar, and Web of Science were searched to August 2010, cross-referencing existing publications. Keywords
included syndesmosis ankle sprain or high ankle sprain and the following terms: rehabilitation, treatment, cryotherapy, braces,
orthosis, therapeutic modalities, joint mobilization, massage, pain, pain medications, TENS (ie, transcutaneous electric nerve
stimulation), acupuncture, aquatic therapy, strength, neuromuscular training, perturbation training, and outcomes.
Results: Level of evidence, 5. A 3-phase rehabilitation program is described. The acute phase is directed at protecting
the joint while minimizing pain, inflammation, muscle weakness, and loss of motion. Most patients are treated with some
form of immobilization and have weightbearing restrictions. A range of therapeutic modalities are used to minimize pain
and inflammation. Gentle mobilization and resistance exercises are used to gain mobility and maintain muscle size and
strength. The subacute phase is directed at normalizing range of motion, strength, and function in activities of daily living.
Progressive mobilization and strengthening are hallmarks of this phase. Neuromuscular training is begun and becomes
the central component of rehabilitation. The advanced training phase focuses on preparing the patient for return to sports
participation. Perturbation of support surfaces, agility drills, plyometrics, and sport-specific training are central components
of this phase.
Conclusion: The rehabilitation guidelines discussed may assist clinicians in managing syndesmotic ankle sprains.
Keywords: syndesmosis ankle sprain; distal tibiofibular sprain; syndesmosis instability; ankle rehabilitation
S
yndesmotic ankle sprains (high ankle sprains) are a
challenging lower extremity injury for athletes and
sports health clinicians. Epidemiologic data suggest that
syndesmotic ankle sprains account for 11% to 17% of the ankle
sprains in athletic populations.15,24 Most of these injuries occur in
collision sports such as American football, wrestling, ice hockey,
rugby, and lacrosse. Fifty to seventy-five percent of the ankle
sprains in some collision sports are classified as syndesmotic
ankle injuries.13,28,46,59,64 The overall incidence of tibiofibular
syndesmosis sprains in the general public is unclear. However,
considering the epidemiologic data available on syndesmosis
sprains and the fact that about 10 million ankle sprains occur in
the United States each year, there is no doubt that the number
is large.8,42 Interest in this injury and its treatment has grown
due to several recent syndesmotic ankle sprains in high-profile
collegiate and professional athletes. Although it may appear
that high ankle sprains are becoming more prevalent, this
perception is more likely a product of increased awareness than
a true increase in the number of these injuries. The primary
purpose of this article is to discuss current concepts in the
rehabilitation of syndesmotic ankle sprains. We begin with a
brief overview of tibiofibular syndesmosis anatomy, mechanisms
of injury, assessment, and factors in determining surgical versus
nonsurgical intervention because this information provides
a framework for the discussion of rehabilitation. Detailed
reviews of these background topics are available for a more
comprehensive discussion of distal tibiofemoral syndesmosis
injuries.4,18,40,54,63,66
Anatomy Of The Distal Tibiofibular
Syndesmosis
The distal tibiofibular syndesmosis is a complex of connective
tissues that provide stability to the mortise of the talocrural
(ankle) joint. The principal structures of this joint complex
include the tibia, fibula, interosseous membrane, and
From the Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
*Address correspondence to Glenn N. Williams, PhD, PT, ATC, Assistant Professor, Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Iowa, 1-247 Medical Education
Building, Iowa City, IA 52242-1009 (e-mail: [email protected]).
No potential conflict of interest declared.
DOI: 10.1177/1941738110384573
© 2010 The Author(s)
460
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4 ligaments: the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, the
posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, the interosseous
ligament, and the transverse tibiofibular ligament.4,16 The
anterior and posterior inferior tibiofibular ligaments are
strong ligaments that serve as primary stabilizers of the distal
tibiofibular joint.45,49,65 The interosseous tibiofibular ligament
is a thickening of the interosseous membrane about 10 to 15
mm proximal to the talocrural joint. Some have suggested that
this ligament functions like a spring, allowing some medial-tolateral splaying of the tibia and fibula during movement and
loading.45 The transverse tibiofibular ligament is a deep portion
of the posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament and posterior
capsule that has a fibrocartilaginous appearance.4,16,45 The
deltoid ligament serves as a secondary stabilizer to the distal
ankle syndesmosis and may therefore be injured along with the
syndesmotic connective tissues.4,16,55 Together, the connective
tissue complex of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis provides
a strong and stable ankle mortise. It is then no surprise that
significant injuries to this complex generally require high
loads, such as those experienced in collision sports or highvelocity trauma. It is also not surprising that a large number of
syndesmotic injuries involve fractures of the fibula or tibia.2
Mechanisms Of Injury
Forceful external rotation of the foot and ankle is the most
universally accepted mechanism of injury for syndesmotic
ankle sprains.12,19,20,26 In this mechanism, the talus is positioned
in the mortise when a high-magnitude external rotation
moment causes the talus to separate the distal tibia and fibula.
This is most commonly experienced (1) when an athlete
rapidly pivots internally off a foot planted in external rotation,
(2) when contact with another player applies a valgus load to
the leg while the foot is planted, or (3) when a direct blow
to the lateral aspect of the heel forces the foot and ankle of
a kneeling or fallen athlete into external rotation (toward
the ground).12,20,57 A less common mechanism of injury is
hyperdorsiflexion.20,28,45 In this mechanism, the widest portion
of the talus forcefully rotates into the ankle mortise. The
superiorly directed load forces the distal tibia and fibula
apart in much the same way a splitting mall or wedge forces
firewood to split apart. A number of other less common
mechanisms of injury have been reported, including straight
eversion,36,45 inversion of the ankle with a plantar flexed
foot,28,31,58 and internal rotation of the foot and ankle complex.58
Risk factors associated with syndesmotic ankle sprains include
participation in collision sports24,46 ; wearing rigid boots, as
in skiing and ice hockey22,64; and a planovalgus (flat) foot
alignment,63 which increases the likelihood of an externally
rotated foot alignment when the foot is planted.
Assessment
The patient’s report of the injury, description of symptoms, and
presentation usually provide a high suspicion of syndesmotic
ankle sprain. Most are unable to ambulate after injury without
Figure 1. An acute ankle injury including a tibiofibular
syndesmosis sprain. Note the edema and ecchymosis in the
region of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis and extending
up the leg. Acute tenderness to palpation was present
over the syndesmosis, and it extended approximately 6 in.
(15 cm) superiorly over the interosseous membrane.
the use of crutches. Increased pain and instability are typically
experienced if the patient attempts to push off the toes or
pivot inward with the foot planted. The amount of edema
is variable. Sprains that are isolated to the distal tibiofibular
ligaments often have a relatively small pocket of swelling over
the syndesmotic ligaments, whereas more extensive injuries
involving tears of the interosseous membrane and/or deltoid
ligament often have substantial swelling of the ankle and/or
distal leg (Figure 1).
Most patients exhibit point tenderness over the anterior
or posterior inferior tibiofibular ligaments. This tenderness
may extend up the leg when the interosseous membrane is
involved. Nussbaum and coworkers46 reported that there is a
significant association between how far tenderness extends
up the leg and how much time is lost from competition in
sports. Tenderness may also be observed over the deltoid
ligament or the lateral ankle ligaments because these structures
are frequently injured at the same time as the syndesmosis.
It is also important to assess the integrity of the fibula and
tibia given that fractures of one or both of these bones can
accompany syndesmosis injuries.2,20,36
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Table 1. Stress tests for distal tibiofibular syndesmosis sprains.
Stress Test
Description
Cotton17
The talus is translated from medial to lateral in the ankle mortise. The test result is positive if
there is excessive motion (compared to that of the opposite side) or pain.
Crossed leg35
The patient sits with the middle of the injured leg across the top of the opposite knee. Pressure is
applied to the medial aspect of the proximal tibia and fibula at or near the knee to apply shear
strain to the distal syndesmosis ligaments. The test result is positive if there is pain at the distal
tibiofibular joint. This is essentially a functional squeeze test performed by the patient.
External rotation12
The patient sits over the side of a examination table with the knee in approximately 90° of
flexion. The examiner stabilizes the leg midway of the tibial shaft and applies an external
rotation moment at the ankle. The test result is positive if there is pain in the region of the
distal syndesmosis ligaments or interosseous membrane.
Fibular translation48
The fibula is translated in an anteroposterior direction. The test result is positive with pain in the
region of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis.
Squeeze28
The tibia and fibula are compressed midway up the leg to apply shear strain to the distal
syndesmosis ligaments. The test result is positive if there is pain at the distal tibiofibular joint.
Several clinical tests for syndesmotic instability have been
described (Table 1). Each test is designed to apply stress to
the connective tissues of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis
through manual loading or by having the patient perform
a task that results in similar loading patterns. Beumer and
coworkers7 performed a biomechanical analysis of a subset
of these manual stress tests and determined that, with the
exception of the external rotation stress test, the small
displacements associated with these tests makes it unlikely
that they can distinguish widening of the mortise with a
syndesmotic injury from that of a normal syndesmosis. The
authors recommended that examiners consider the amount
of pain during these tests as an indication of syndesmosis
involvement rather than attempt to assess the extent of
widening or injury.7 A biomechanical study of the squeeze
test by Teitz and Harrington60 provides further support for
this approach. Alonso and coworkers1 assessed the reliability
of manual stress tests for syndesmotic ankle sprains and
the ability of these tests to predict return to function, and
they found that only the external rotation stress test had
good reliability and was predictive of the time that it took
to return to function. Williams et al63 recently described the
stabilization test in which the patient is asked to perform a
series of functional tasks (heel raise, walk, run, and/or vertical
hop) before and after athletic tape is applied circumferentially
around the distal tibiofibular joint (Figure 2). This test is
unique in that it attempts to stabilize the distal syndesmosis
and thereby reduce symptoms associated with instability
rather than reproduce the symptoms by applying stress to the
joint. The test result is positive if the patient’s symptoms are
significantly reduced when performing the tasks while taped.
Besides being used diagnostically after injury, clinical tests are
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important to rehabilitation specialists when assessing healing
and patients’ readiness for progression during the rehabilitation.
Imaging
Imaging is important when assessing syndesmotic ankle
sprains because there is a range of pathology that can present
with these injuries. Imaging results are also important to
the rehabilitation specialist because they provide important
information regarding the severity of the injury, issues that
can affect recovery and rehabilitation progression, and insight
on the health status of the joint (long-term prognosis). This
knowledge helps the rehabilitation specialist when planning
treatment and discussing the injury and expectations with a
patient.
Radiographs are used to assess bony integrity and the
stability of the ankle mortise. Typical views used to assess
the joint include a weightbearing anteroposterior view, a
mortise view, and a lateral view. Although stress radiographs
have classically been defined as a method of assessing
syndesmotic stability, work by Beumer and colleagues,5
using radiostereometry and serial cutting of the syndesmotic
ligaments, suggests that stress radiographs probably offer little
advantage over plain views in assessing syndesmotic stability.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been shown to be
highly sensitive and specific to injuries of the distal tibiofibular
ligaments, and it has demonstrated excellent agreement among
raters.47,61 Moreover, MRI provides insight into the extent of
ankle injury and helps to identify concomitant injuries to
other structures in the region. In a retrospective review that
included 59 patients with acute or chronic syndesmotic ankle
sprains, Brown and coworkers14 found a high prevalence of
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within the syndesmosis, impingement of the distal fascicle
of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, heterotopic
ossification in the region of the syndesmosis, osteoarthritis,
and osteochondral lesions of the distal tibia, fibula, or talar
dome (S. Mosier-LaClair, H. Pike, G. Pomeroy, unpublished
data, 2000).3,4,12,14,48,53,58 Knowledge of these differential
diagnoses, comorbidities, and common sequelae are important
to the rehabilitation specialist because they are frequently
encountered when treating patients with syndesmosis injuries.
Nonsurgical Versus Surgical
Management
Figure 2. Taping used in the syndesmosis stabilization
test.64 Patients perform heel raises, walking, running,
and vertical hopping (if possible) before and after 1.5-in.
(3.8-cm) athletic tape is circumferentially applied over the
tibiofibular syndesmosis to provide joint stability. The test
result is positive if the patient’s complaints of pain and/
or instability in the region of the distal syndesmosis are
relieved with the taping.
other lesions, including anterior talofibular ligament sprains,
bone bruises, and osteochondral lesions. To date, there are no
reports that have assessed the association between the extent
of lesions on imaging and clinical presentation or long-term
outcomes. Hence, it is unclear if MRI findings are prognostic
of recovery time and outcomes. Research defining the clinical
significance of imaging results is required before conclusions
can be drawn on whether routine MRI is cost-beneficial in the
management of syndesmotic ankle sprains.
Differential Diagnosis
The differential diagnosis of acute syndesmotic ankle sprains
includes Maisonneuve fracture, Weber fractures (type B and
C), deltoid ligament sprain, and lateral ankle sprain.2,20,36,47 A
number of other injuries can accompany syndesmosis sprains,
including bone bruises and osteochondral lesions of the
distal tibiofibular joint or talus.14 In patients presenting with
chronic pain after syndesmotic ankle sprain, the differential
diagnosis includes latent syndesmotic instability, scarring
Surgery is indicated when there is frank instability based on a
disruption of normal tibiofibular relationships on radiographs.
Radiographic measurements of the lower extremities of fresh
cadavers have established the following “normal” tibiofibular
relationships (95% confidence intervals): (1) a tibiofibular clear
space of ≤ 6 mm on anteroposterior and mortise views and (2)
tibiofibular overlap of at least 6 mm or 42% of the fibular width
on the anteroposterior view and 1 mm on the mortise view.27
Although these tibiofibular relationships are widely accepted
in the orthopaedic community, there is evidence challenging
the clinical importance of these relationships.6,44 In addition to
radiographic evidence of syndesmosis instability, indications
for surgical treatment include the presence of fracture requiring
fixation in the absence of instability or evidence of other
surgically treatable lesions, such as a repairable syndesmotic
ligament tear, latent instability, scarring within the syndesmosis,
and calcification in the syndesmosis, which are common
causes of chronic pain after syndesmosis sprains.2,12,20,58,63 Frank
tibiofibular instability is rare in syndesmosis sprains without an
accompanying fracture.59 Nonsurgical management is usually
prescribed for most other clinical presentations. It is unclear if
a larger percentage of people who sustain syndesmotic sprains
would benefit from surgical treatment. The high incidence of
chronic pain, instability, and functional limitations after high
ankle sprain and the excellent surgical success rates suggest that
this may be the case.24,59,63 Arthroscopy directed at assessing
and treating undiagnosed instability or other syndesmotic
pathology is often helpful in patients who are making especially
slow progress in rehabilitation. Rehabilitation after surgery is
similar to that used in nonsurgical management but generally
progresses more slowly and includes a longer period of reduced
weightbearing with immobilization in either a weightbearing
cast or walking boot. Taylor and coworkers,59 however, recently
reported excellent results using a rehabilitation program
involving early weightbearing and mobilization in a small
sample of patients who underwent surgical fixation.
Rehabilitation
We are unaware of any randomized clinical trials or case
control studies that specifically investigate conservative
management of syndesmotic ankle sprains. Current
rehabilitation guidelines for syndesmosis ankle sprains are
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largely based on clinical experience; hence, our current
approach (as discussed in this article) is largely based on
clinical experience and a few case series (ie, Level 4 and 5
evidence).13,24,40,46,63 Most of the treatment principles employed
are similar to those used in treating patients with lateral
ankle sprains but with adaptations that take into account the
unique anatomy, physiology, and pathomechanics associated
with syndesmosis injuries. A recent survey of professionals
who frequently treat high-level athletes with syndesmotic
ankle sprains suggests that current management of high
ankle sprains includes a range of rehabilitation approaches
that extends from treating people with this injury exactly
the same as those with lateral ankle sprains to treating all
patients diagnosed with distal tibiofibular syndesmosis sprains
with 4 to 6 weeks of nonweightbearing ambulation with the
joint immobilized in a cast or boot (Foster and Williams,
unpublished data, 2005). Each rehabilitation program for acute
syndesmotic ankle sprains currently described in the peerreviewed literature is either a 3- or 4-phase program with timeor criterion-based progression.13,24,40,46,63
Our Preferred Approach
The 3-phase approach described in Table 2 provides a
general framework for treatment progression; however,
treatment is tailored to the individual patient’s presentation,
goals, and circumstances because these factors are highly
variable. Patients are carefully monitored with frequent
discussion of symptoms and concerns, observation of task
performance during rehabilitation, and regular assessment
using palpation, the external rotation test, and the stabilization
test. The information gained from this monitoring assists the
rehabilitation specialist in tailoring the approach to the patient.
Acute Phase
The primary goal of the acute phase of rehabilitation is to
protect the healing joint while minimizing pain, inflammation,
muscle weakness, and loss of joint motion. Protection is
provided by restricting joint movement in directions that may
strain healing ligaments and by modulating weightbearing.
An orthosis that provides stability to the syndesmosis joint
is usually prescribed to help achieve this goal.11,32,38 The
directions of motion restriction and degree of immobilization
depend on the physical exam and presentation. Limiting
external rotation is usually the primary concern. Most orthoses
provide some restraint to external rotation moments. Casts,
walking boots, and custom orthoses designed to limit external
rotation provide the greatest protection, whereas ankle
stirrups, athletic tape, and lace-up ankle braces provide less
syndesmosis stabilization. The decision on which orthosis to
use is usually made by the attending physician. This tailored
approach is preferred over a standardized protocol involving
complete immobilization and restricted weightbearing. Some
clinicians recommend limiting dorsiflexion with a posterior
splint or heel lift, but this is typically unnecessary in our
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experience. In theory, the syndesmosis must be able to
accept the anterior portion of the talus in dorsiflexion for
normal range of motion to return. Hence, strictly restricting
dorsiflexion can be counterproductive. Allowing dorsiflexion
through the full range of motion is usually helpful, providing
that forceful and ballistic dorsiflexion are avoided.
Most people who experience syndesmotic ankle sprains
are unable to bear their full weight during gait and therefore
require the use of an assistive device such as crutches.
Weightbearing guidelines are based on a patient’s symptoms
and the overall picture provided by the injury event, physical
examination, and imaging. Some people with relatively minor
complaints are able to ambulate with full weightbearing, but
most use crutches with weightbearing as tolerated. People with
more severe injuries are often treated with a short period of
more restricted weightbearing (1 to 2 weeks). Weightbearing
is progressed toward full weightbearing based on the patient’s
symptoms and exam. Full weightbearing is encouraged when
patients are able to ambulate on various surfaces and ascend/
descend stairs with minimal discomfort.
The methods of protecting the joint described above aid
in limiting pain and inflammation. Several other therapies
can be prescribed to address pain and inflammation. Tissue
compression, cryotherapy, and elevation are usually applied
together. Cryotherapy is used to reduce pain, whereas
compression and elevation are used to limit edema and
effusion, which may further assist with pain control.9,10,43 Pain
and anti-inflammatory medications are often prescribed.21,52,56
Other treatments used more selectively include transcutaneous
electric nerve stimulation,30,39 soft tissue massage directed
at “milking” edema from the foot and ankle,25 and manual
therapy (joint mobilization).23 Some athletes find alternative
therapies such as acupressure and acupuncture to be helpful in
relieving pain as well.34,37
Resistance exercise is prescribed early in the recovery
period to minimize muscle atrophy and weakness. Although
muscles demonstrating weakness62 or activation failure50,51
are the primary focus (usually, the triceps surae or peroneal
musculature), each major group about the ankle joint is
addressed to maintain muscle strength. Strengthening may be
performed using a variety of exercise approaches, including
elastic resistance bands or cords, ankle weights, or heel raise
exercises. Elastic resistance bands are especially well suited for
home use. When strict immobilization or nonweightbearing
ambulation is prescribed, isometric strengthening and
neuromuscular electrical stimulation are recommended to help
minimize muscle atrophy and weakness. Exercise is performed
in accordance with the previously described joint protection
guidelines given that promotion of healing is the primary goal
of this phase of treatment. Movement into external rotation and
endrange dorsiflexion is usually avoided during rehabilitation
in this phase. Exercise doses are prescribed in a manner that is
specific to each patient. Patients are progressed to the subacute
phase of treatment when they discontinue use of assistive
devices in ambulation.
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Table 2. Three-phase rehabilitation program.
Rehabilitation Phase
Acute
Goals, Sample Treatments, and Criteria for Progression
Goal: Joint protection while minimizing pain, inflammation, weakness, and loss of motion.
Joint protection: Immobilization in a walking cast, boot, custom orthosis, lace-up ankle brace, or
ankle stirrup. External rotation and end-range dorsiflexion are avoided.
Weightbearing: Based on assessment and patient symptoms—varies from nonweightbearing to
full weightbearing.
Pain and inflammation control: Compression, elevation, cryotherapy, electrical stimulation,
manual therapy, other modalities, and/or alternative therapies such as acupuncture.
Maintenance of strength and mobility: Gentle motion, cycle ergometer, progressive resistance
exercise with bands, cords, ankle weights, and/or electrical stimulation.
Progressed when: Able to ambulate in full weightbearing on various surfaces and traverse stairs
with minimal discomfort.
Subacute
Goal: Normalize joint mobility, strength, neuromuscular control, and return to basic function in
activities of daily living.
Mobility: Low-load, long-duration stretching with cords, bands, or towels; repetitive motion
through the range of motion; cycle ergometer; joint mobilization; and/or aquatic therapy.
Strengthening: Cords, bands, ankle weights, heel raises, step up/down, calf press with isotonic
equipment, and/or neuromuscular training exercises.
Neuromuscular training: Progressive use of air cushions, rocker boards, wobble boards, air-filled
domes, trampolines, or other perturbation of support surfaces.
Progressed when: Can jog and hop with minimal discomfort.
Advanced training
Goal: Prepare for return to sports participation.
Neuromuscular training: Perturbation of support surfaces.
Functional/agility drills: Running, jumping rope, hopping, shuffling, carioca, and/or figure-8
running with or without use of props such as cones, hurdles, and ladders.
Strength/power: Advanced strengthening, plyometrics.
Sports-specific drills: Dribbling drills, running reception patterns, shooting balls, skating/
rollerblading.
Return to sports when: Performs sport tasks at game speed with minimal discomfort and quality
movement.
Subacute Phase
The goal of the subacute phase is to normalize range of
motion, strength, gait, and function in the patient’s activities
of daily living. Progressive mobilization and strengthening
in the pain-free range of motion are the hallmarks of this
phase. Forceful external rotation and dorsiflexion continue
to be avoided; however, patients should be moving through
the full range of motion by the end of this phase. Joint
mobility is facilitated with the use of elastic resistance
bands or cords, towels, and the controlled use of body
weight. A cycle ergometer is an effective means of providing
mobilization while increasing tissue perfusion and activating
the musculature of the region. Low-load, long-duration
stretching that gently promotes tissue creep and joint
mobilization is effective when stiffness is present. Manual
joint mobilization should be performed in a manner that
applies little strain to the healing syndesmotic connective
tissues.23 If aquatic therapy or a whirlpool is available,
aquatic exercise can be used to mobilize the ankle joint in
a safe environment that most patients find beneficial and
pleasant.33
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The use of elastic resistance or ankle weights continues to
be the primary form of strengthening early in this phase. Later
in the subacute phase, strengthening is accomplished using
heel raises, forward and lateral stepping exercises, and calf
presses using isotonic weight machines or isokinetic devices.
Exercise is dosed with lower weight and higher repetitions
early in the phase and so progresses to higher-intensity, lowrepetition sets directed at increasing strength and muscle
size. Neuromuscular training is performed through balance
exercises on unstable surfaces, such as air cushions, wobble
boards, rocker boards, and air-filled domes (Figure 3).67,68
Early in the phase, these exercises are performed in doubleleg stance. The patient transitions to single-leg stance when
control is demonstrated. These balance training exercises are
performed with the knee extended or nearly extended so that
the dominant balance strategy is centered about the ankle.
Support surfaces advance from highly stable to less stable as
the patient’s strength, endurance, and control increases. Having the
patient perform exercise with the eyes closed and requiring
the patient to place attention on other tasks such as counting
backwards or catching/dribbling a ball further challenges
the neuromuscular system. Neuromuscular training exercises
such as those described above are used instead of traditional
strengthening exercises in patients who have little evidence
of muscle atrophy or weakness. However, in those with clear
evidence of atrophy and weakness, a combined approach is
recommended, including high-intensity strengthening and
progressive neuromuscular training. The external rotation
stress test12 and the stabilization test63 can be used to assess
healing and the patient’s readiness for more advanced exercise,
such as jogging and hopping. Careful monitoring and clear
communication regarding the presence of pain, postexercise
edema, or perception of instability are important in exercise
prescription and determining readiness for progression.
Patients are progressed to the advanced training phase when
they are able to jog and perform a series of hops without pain.
Advanced Training Phase
The goal of the advanced training phase is to prepare the
patient for return to full activity in sports or activities of
choice. More advanced neuromuscular training, agility drills,
and sport-specific tasks are the central components of this
phase.41,67,68 Exercises commonly used during this phase of
rehabilitation include perturbation of support surfaces, jumping
rope, hopping (forward, backward, and laterally), running,
shuffling, and agility drills, such as carioca or running figure-8
patterns (Figure 4). Exercises begin slow, with movement
in a single direction, and progressively become more quick,
intense, and dynamic. Athletic tape or a lace-up ankle brace
is usually used to support the joint. Props such as cones,
hurdles, ladders, and other devices can be used to advance the
difficulty of the exercises. Power is trained through bounding,
box jumping, and other plyometric training with athletes
whose sports participation involves explosive movement.29 As
the patient approaches return to sport, sport-specific drills such
466
as dribbling a basketball or a soccer ball, running football
reception patterns, or sprinting with quick changes in direction
are performed in a progressive fashion. Athletes are monitored
for quality of movement and symptoms of pain or instability
throughout this process. The patient is ready for return to
sport when he or she can perform sport-specific tasks at game
speed with good movement quality and little to no pain or
instability.
Outcomes
The recovery period after syndesmotic ankle sprains is highly
variable. One of the perplexing things about this injury is that
some people who initially appear to have relatively minor
injuries have protracted recovery periods, whereas others that
appear to have more severe injuries progress quite rapidly. This
suggests that current assessment methods are limited in their
sensitivity with respect to injury severity. Overall, people who
sustain syndesmotic ankle sprains typically experience much
longer recovery periods than do those who sustain lateral
ankle sprains.12,24,28,64 This fact and the variability in recovery
periods are important issues to discuss with individuals who
sustain syndesmosis injuries. Hopkinson and coworkers28
reported that individuals with syndesmotic ankle sprains
required an average of 55 days to return to full activity, which
was twice as long as those with grade III lateral ankle sprains.
Wright and colleagues’ report64 of syndesmotic ankle sprains
in National Hockey League players supports this length of
recovery; players in their study averaged 45 days to return
to game play (range, 6 to 137 days). Boytim and coworker’s
report12 of syndesmotic ankle sprains in National Football
League players provides a somewhat more optimistic picture,
given that players in their study missed only 6.3 practices
(range, 2 to 21) in comparison to an average of 1.1 (range, 0 to
12) for those with lateral ankle sprains. However, players with
high ankle sprains required about 3 times as many treatments
as those with lateral sprains. Chronic ankle dysfunction
(pain, instability, and functional limitations) is common after
this injury. Gerber et al24 reported that regardless of initial
grade of injury severity, people who sustained syndesmosis
sprains had a high incidence (more than 60%) of chronic
ankle pain, instability, and limitations in hopping when
evaluated 6 months after injury. However, all returned to sports
participation despite their reports of chronic ankle disability.
Summary
Syndesmotic ankle sprains account for 11% to 17% of all ankle
sprains in athletic populations. Most of these injuries occur in
collision sports such as American football, ice hockey, rugby,
lacrosse, and wrestling. Few people who sustain syndesmosis
sprains without fractures have radiographic evidence of
tibiofibular syndesmosis instability. Consequently, most
syndesmotic ankle sprains are treated nonsurgically with a
rehabilitation program. There are currently no randomized
clinical trials or case control studies to guide rehabilitation.
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vol. 2 • no. 6
SPORTS HEALTH
Figure 3. A sample progression of neuromuscular training exercises in the subacute phase of rehabilitation: A, double-leg balance
on a balance board; B, single-leg balance on an air cushion; C, single-leg balance on a balance board; D, single-leg resistive cord
exercises in which perturbation is applied via resisted movement of the opposite leg; E, double-leg weight shifts on a balance
dome; F, throwing a weighted ball against a rebounder while balancing on one leg on an air cushion.
Our preferred approach involves a 3-phase program. The
first phase is directed at promoting healing by protecting
the joint while minimizing pain, inflammation, muscle
weakness, and loss of motion. Patients transition from this
acute phase to the subacute phase of rehabilitation when
they are able to ambulate in full weightbearing with minimal
discomfort. The subacute phase of rehabilitation is directed
at normalizing range of motion, strength, gait, and basic
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Nov • Dec 2010
Figure 4. An example progression of functional/agility training exercises in the advanced training phase of rehabilitation: A, jumping
over hurdles; B, hopping over hurdles; C, timed figure-8 running; and D, timed 4-square hop test.
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vol. 2 • no. 6
SPORTS HEALTH
function in the patient’s activities of daily living. Patients
progress to the advanced training phase when they are able
to jog and hop without pain or instability. The advanced
training phase focuses on preparing the patient to return to
sports participation or his or her activities of choice. Athletes
are allowed to return to sport when they can perform their
sport-specific tasks at game speed with good movement
quality and no significant complaints of pain or instability.
Evidence suggests that syndesmosis sprains typically require
6 to 8 weeks for recovery, but this is variable. Chronic
pain, instability, and functional limitations are common
after syndesmosis sprains. Future research should focus on
developing more sensitive and specific physical examination
methods, assessing the predictive value of imaging after injury,
and evaluating the most appropriate treatment approaches for
the various presentations of syndesmotic ankle sprains.
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