Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Foreword Diabetes is a national and state health priority. The AusDiab study indicated that approximately 940 000 people in Australia have diabetes.1 Every day 275 Australians develop diabetes2. The prevalence is increasing in Australia with the number of people with diabetes expected to double by 2010.3 The prevalence in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island peoples is reported to be two-four times higher than the non-indigenous population.3 Obesity, overweight, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, metabolic syndrome and physical inactivity all increase the risk of diabetes2. Diabetes impacts financially and socially upon the individual with diabetes, their families and carers and the community. The Diabco$t Australia study estimated the cost of diagnosed Type 2 diabetes as $3 billion per year.4 AusDiab 2005 reported that over a five year period those with previously diagnosed diabetes were twice as likely to die compared with those with normal glucose tolerance.2 Complications of diabetes can be significantly reduced by a combination of good glucose control and improved blood pressure levels. A 1% decrease in HbA1c has been associated with a 21% reduction in risk for all end points related to diabetes, including a 21% reduction in deaths related to diabetes, 14% reduction in myocardial infarction and a 37% reduction in microvasclar complications . Each 10 mmHg decrease in systolic blood pressure has been associated with reductions in risk of 12% for any complication related to diabetes, 15% for deaths related to diabetes, 11% for myocardial infarction and 13 % for microvasculr complications.5 Therefore any interventions that improve blood glucose and blood pressure control are likely to have a significant positive impact. Lipid abnormalities are common in people with Type 2 diabetes and a major contributor to the increased incidence of cardiovascular disease that occurs in people with Type 2 diabetes. Treatment of cardiovascular risk factors, including dyslipidaemia is effective in reducing morbidity and mortality from macrovascular disease.6 In 1999 the Allied Health Diabetes Task Group developed Best Practice Guidelines for Type 2 Diabetes. Three sets of guidelines were developed and implemented; one set each for Dietitians, Diabetes Educators and Podiatrists. These guidelines were produced to address difficulties the Divisions of General Practice had with accessing public allied health services. As there have been a number of significant publications, strategies and reports that impact on the management of Type 2 diabetes, it was appropriate to review and revise the guidelines. The aim of the revised guidelines is to improve the management and care of individuals with Type 2 diabetes and to help health professionals and the individual with diabetes to work as a team by providing a framework of the services that need to be provided from diagnosis through the continuum of care. The guidelines provide: •assessment, management and education criteria that need to be addressed to achieve best practice through the continuum of care of diabetes •links to existing clinical guidelines/evidence based guidelines and resources to promote evidence based best practice •criteria other professionals should use when referring •information regarding the services that can be provided by a range of service providers-flexible competencies. •descriptions of the roles and responsibilities of each member of the multidisciplinary team These guidelines are not clinical practice guidelines. The revised guidelines have been entitled “Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes” to better reflect the content. The three sets of documents have been combined into one document to reflect a multidisciplinary team approach and self-management is promoted. The revision aims to better address the psychological issues associated with diabetes and the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island peoples. An increasing prevalence of Type 2 diabetes in young people, particularly in Aboriginal and Torres Strait communities is acknowledged. There are limited guidelines available for the management of Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescence and this is beyond the scope of these guidelines. It is recommended that when the Best Practice Guidelines for the Management of Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescence are reviewed that Type 2 diabetes be included. These guidelines are designed to be consistent with and to be used in conjunction with the Queensland Health Standard Care Pathway for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Adults and Diabetes Management in General Practice. The Queensland Health Standard Care Pathway has been revised at the same time as these guidelines to ensure consistency. This document and the Queensland Health Standard Care Pathway help to support the implementation of the National Chronic Disease Strategy, the National Service Improvement Framework for Diabetes 2006 and the Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease 2005-2015. I recognise the significant work done by professionals and professional associations involved in developing these guidelines and wish to thank every one involved. I am pleased to endorse these guidelines and encourage health professionals involved in the care of people with diabetes to strive for best practice by implementing the recommendations outlined in this document. Uschi Schreiber Director-General November 2006 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Acknowledgements Facilitator: Jane Musial Senior Project Officer Queensland Health Name Position Paula Bowman Principal Allied Health Advisor, Queensland Health Christine Kardash CEO South East Alliance of General Practice Dianne Bond A/CNC Diabetes Nurse Educator Cairns Base Hospital Peter Lazzarini Podiatrist, Community Health Pine Rivers, TPCH Helen Elliot Dietitian, Diabetes Australia- Queensland Michelle Robins Nurse Educator, Team Leader, Diabetes Allied Health, Logan Hospital, Chair- Qld Branch Australian Diabetes Educators Association Jan Parr Director Psychology, Cairns Health Service District Susan Ash Associate Professor, School of Public Health- Nutrition and Dietetics Claire Jackson Professor of General Practice and Primary Health Care and Head of Discipline, Discipline of General Practice School of Medicine Irene McCarthy Principal Project Officer Clinical Practice Improvement Centre, Diabetes Collaborative Jacquie Nankervis Principal Project Officer Clinical Practice Improvement Centre Dr Michael D’Emden Endocrinologist, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital Gerry Cleary Manager National Policy, Policy and Legislation Branch, Queensland Health Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Contents Chapter 1 Background......................................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 • Aim ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 • Management Goals . ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 • Table 1: Targets . ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 • Principles .....................................................................................................................................................................................................8 1.2. Models of Care/Service Delivery ................................................................................................................................................8 • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples ...................................................................................................................................9 • Examples of Models of Care . .................................................................................................................................................................9 1.3. Annual Cycle of Care . ........................................................................................................................................................................10 1.4. Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Adults Queensland Health Standard Care Pathway 2006 .......................................................................................................10 1.5. Education ..................................................................................................................................................................................................10 • Diabetes Self Management Education (DSME) .............................................................................................................................. 10 • Group Education . .................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 1.6. Incentives Supporting Diabetes Care ....................................................................................................................................10 • Practice Incentive Program (PIP) ......................................................................................................................................................... 10 • Patient Register and Recall/Reminder System ............................................................................................................................... 11 • Service Incentive Payment (SIP) ......................................................................................................................................................... 11 • Outcomes .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11 • Practice Nurse Incentive . ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11 • Chronic Disease Management (CDM) Medicare Items ............................................................................................................... 11 − GP Management Plan (GPMP, Item 721) ....................................................................................................................................... 11 − Review of a GP Management Plan (GPMP, Item 725) ................................................................................................................ 11 − Coordination of Team Care Arrangements (TCA- Item 723) ..................................................................................................... 11 − Coordination of a Review of a Team Care Arrangement (Item 727) ....................................................................................... 11 − Contribution to a Multidisciplinary Care Plan Being Prepared by Another Health or Care Provider (Item 729) ................................................................................................................................ 11 − Contribution to a Multidisciplinary Care Plan Being Prepared by Another Health or Care Provider for a Resident of an Aged Care Facility (Item 731) ........................................................ 12 • Allied Health and Dental Care Item Numbers ................................................................................................................................. 12 • Home Medicines Review (HMR) .......................................................................................................................................................... 12 1.7. Services/Resources to Assist the Management Of Type 2 Diabetes ................................................................ 12 • Diabetes Australia .................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 • National Diabetes Services Scheme (NDSS) ................................................................................................................................... 12 • Diabetes Management in General Practice ..................................................................................................................................... 12 • Diabetes Patient Record Forms ........................................................................................................................................................... 13 • Diabetes Network .................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 • Resources to Assist with the Management of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Peoples . ............................................. 13 • Smoking, Nutrition, Alcohol and Physical Activity (SNAP) ............................................................................................................ 3 • Lifestyle Prescriptions . .......................................................................................................................................................................... 13 • Chronic Disease Self Management Programs ................................................................................................................................. 14 • QUIT . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14 • Healthy Weight Program . ...................................................................................................................................................................... 14 • Lighten UP ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14 • Local Councils .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14 • Heart Foundation .................................................................................................................................................................................... 14 1.8 Government Strategies ................................................................................................................................................................... 14 • National Service Improvement Framework for Diabetes . ............................................................................................................ 14 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 • Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease ....................................................................................................................................... 14 • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health ................................................................................................................................... 15 1.9 Guidelines ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15 • Australian National Evidence Based Guidelines (NHMRC) ......................................................................................................... 15 • Other Guidelines ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes ...........................................................................................................................................................................16 2.1 Table 2 Assessment ...........................................................................................................................................................................16 2.2 Table 3 Management . ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Table 4 General Education and Counselling ..................................................................................................................... 24 2.4 Prevention And Management of Complications .............................................................................................................27 2.4.1 Table 5 Risk Factors .........................................................................................................................................................................27 • Blood glucose ..........................................................................................................................................................................................27 • Weight ........................................................................................................................................................................................................27 • Lipids ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................27 • Blood pressure . ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 • Smoking .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 • Alcohol ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 2.4.2 Table 6 Complications . ................................................................................................................................................................. 28 • Feet ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28 • Eyes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29 • Cardiovascular Disease ........................................................................................................................................................................ 30 • Kidneys . .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 2.5 Table 7 Specific Issues..................................................................................................................................................................... 30 • Medications ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30 • Diet/eating habits .................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 • Exercise ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 • Psychological Issues ............................................................................................................................................................................. 32 • Sick Days . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................33 • Nausea/ Vomiting ...................................................................................................................................................................................33 • Pregnancy ..................................................................................................................................................................................................33 • Driving ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34 • Travel . ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 34 • Sexual Issues .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 3 The Multidisciplinary Team . ...........................................................................................................................35 3.1 Educator .......................................................................................................................................................................................................35 • Goals and objectives . ............................................................................................................................................................................35 • Definition ...................................................................................................................................................................................................35 • Qualifications ...........................................................................................................................................................................................35 • Competencies ..........................................................................................................................................................................................35 • Role ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 • Referrals .....................................................................................................................................................................................................37 • Flexible Competencies . .........................................................................................................................................................................37 • Diabetes Resource Health Professional .......................................................................................................................................... 38 • Nurse Practitioner .................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 3.2 Dietitian . .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 • Rationale . ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 • Goals and objectives . ........................................................................................................................................................................... 38 • Role ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 38 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 • General Nutrition Therapy . .................................................................................................................................................................. 39 • Medical Nutrition Therapy ................................................................................................................................................................... 39 • Qualifications .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 • Standards of Professional Practice ................................................................................................................................................... 40 • Referrals .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 • Flexible Competencies . ........................................................................................................................................................................ 40 3.3 Indigenous Health Worker . ............................................................................................................................................................. 41 • Rationale . .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 41 • Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................................. 41 • Role ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 41 • Diabetes Health Workers ..................................................................................................................................................................... 42 • Nutrition Health Care ............................................................................................................................................................................ 42 • Referrals .....................................................................................................................................................................................................43 3.4 Podiatrist ....................................................................................................................................................................................................43 • Rationale . ..................................................................................................................................................................................................43 • Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................................ 44 • Role ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 44 − “Low Risk Foot” Management .........................................................................................................................................................45 − “At risk Foot” Management ..............................................................................................................................................................45 − “High risk Foot” Management ........................................................................................................................................................ 46 − “Acute Complication” Management ............................................................................................................................................. 46 • Qualifications ...........................................................................................................................................................................................47 • Standards of Professional Practice ....................................................................................................................................................47 • Referrals .....................................................................................................................................................................................................47 • Flexible Competencies . .........................................................................................................................................................................47 3.5 Psychologist ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 48 • Rationale . ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 • Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................................ 48 • Qualifications .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 49 • Standards of Professional Practice ................................................................................................................................................... 49 • Referrals .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 49 • Flexible Competencies . ........................................................................................................................................................................ 50 3.6 General Practitioner ........................................................................................................................................................................... 50 3.7 Other Members of the Team . ........................................................................................................................................................ 50 • Endocrinologist . ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 50 • Exercise Professional/ Physiotherapist ........................................................................................................................................... 50 • Pharmacist ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 50 • Social Worker • Ophthalmologist/Optometrist ............................................................................................................................................................ 51 • Nephrologist ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51 • Vascular Surgeon . ................................................................................................................................................................................... 51 • Oral Health/Dentist ................................................................................................................................................................................ 51 Appendix .........................................................................................................................................................................................................52 1 Basic Foot Screening Checklist ...........................................................................................................................................................52 2 Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Clinical Pathway . ................................................................................................ 55 3 Wraight et al’s Clinical Assessment and Investigations and Management of Acute Diabetic Foot Complications .............................................................................................................................................. 57 References .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 58 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Chapter 1 Background 1.1 Introduction Aim The aim of the revised guidelines is to improve the management and care of individuals with Type 2 diabetes and to help health professionals and the individual with diabetes to work as a team by providing a framework of the services that need to be provided from diagnosis through the continuum of care. The guidelines provide: •assessment, management and education criteria that need to be addressed to achieve best practice through the continuum of care of diabetes •links to existing clinical guidelines/evidence based guidelines and resources to promote evidence based best practice •criteria other professionals should use when referring •information regarding the services that can be provided by a range of service providers-flexible competencies. •descriptions of the roles and responsibilities of each member of the multidisciplinary team Management Goals The goals of management are to: •limit the progression of diabetes •improve self management of diabetes •decrease risk of complications •manage existing complications •decrease hospital admissions •improve quality of life and •maintain functional capacity and independence Table 1 Targets 7 Fasting BGL 4-6 mmol/L HbA1c <7 % LDL <2.5 mmol/L Cholesterol <4.0 mmol/L HDL Cholesterol > 1.0 mmol/L Triglycerides <2 mmol/L Blood Pressure <130/80 BMI <25kg/m2 Waist circumference <94 cm-men <80 cm-females Urinary Albumin Excretion <20 µg/min timed overnight collection <20mg/L spot collection <3.5 mg/mmol women <2.5 mg/mmol men albumin creatinine ratio eGFR >60 ml/min/1.73m2 Cigarette Consumption Zero Alcohol Intake <4 standard drinks (40g)/day (men) <2 standard drink (20g)/day (women) Physical Activity At least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity on most, preferably all days. Plus, if able, some regular vigorous activity.28 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Principles The principles underlying these guidelines are consistent with the Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease8 and are listed below. •People with diabetes should be provided with information, education and skills to enable self-management. •Support should be provided to encourage healthy lifestyle choices. •Services should be based upon best practice and available evidence. •Services need to be flexible to meet varying needs and provided through the continuum of care. •Treatment and management should be patient focused taking into consideration the individual’s needs, wants and expectations. •Services should be equitable across metropolitan, rural and remote areas. •Specific needs of people from diverse cultural backgrounds including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders should be addressed and catered for. •An integrated, coordinated and multidisciplinary team approach should be adopted. •A coordinator of care should be nominated. 1.2 Models of Care/Service delivery The delivery of health services has to change to accommodate the increasing impact of chronic diseases. The Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease 2005-2015 suggests that there needs to be greater emphasis upon primary prevention, an increased focus on community or home based services and the strengthening of partnerships between the community, primary health care providers and the acute sector.8 Communication between the individual with diabetes and service providers across sectors is essential to ensure effective transition between acute, primary care and community services. Services should be evidence based where evidence exists and span the continuum of care. A multidisciplinary team approach that involves the individual in decision making and promotes self-management is recommended. The appointment of a care coordinator to assist the individual in all aspects of management and to coordinate support services is recommended. The care coordinator maybe the patient, the General Practitioner, Nurse, Diabetes Educator, Indigenous Health Worker, Remote Area Health Nurse or another appropriate member of the team. Providers of service should aim for best practice and implement evidence based clinical management diabetes guidelines where they exist. Systems should be in place to detect and manage complications early. The implementation of a diabetes register and recall system is recommended. Effective care for people with diabetes must address psychological and social issues as part of ongoing care.8 Models of care need to be responsive to cultural, geographical and literacy needs. Particular attention needs to be given to addressing the needs of older Australians, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and rural and remote areas. Models of care should be practical, sustainable and cost effective. To ensure quality and safety, data should be collected, analysed and compared with benchmarks to monitor performance.3, 8 The American Diabetes Association suggests that the optimal management of diabetes requires an organised, systematic approach and a coordinated team of health care professionals. According to the American Diabetes Association the features of successful programs reported in the literature include:9 •Improving education of health care professionals regarding standards of care through formal and informal education programs. •Delivery of Diabetes Self Management Education (DSME) which has shown to increase adherence to standards of care. •Adoption of practice guidelines. Guidelines should be readily accessible at the point of service. •Use of checklists that mirror guidelines. •Use of automated reminders that report process and outcome data to service providers and identify at risk patients. •Quality improvement programs. •Practice changes such as clustering of diabetes visits into specific times and /or organising access to multiple health professionals on a single day. •Tracking systems with either an electronic medical record or patient registry. •Non-automated reminders such as chart stickers, flow sheets and mail outs. •Availability of case management services. •Availability and involvement of expert consultants. Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples The National Improvement Framework for Diabetes suggests that the best practice model for the delivery of primary health care to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities is the provision of Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services as well as mainstream services. 3 The National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health: Framework for Action by Governments 2003 recommends that the following principles be applied when designing health services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: 8, 10 •cultural respect •holistic approach to health including physical, spiritual, cultural, emotional and social wellbeing, community capacity and governance •whole of health sector responsibility •community control of the primary health services •government and non-government and private organisations within and outside the health sector working in partnership with the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health sector •decision making capacity devolved to the local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities •health promotion and illness prevention activities •building the capacity of the health services and communities to respond to health needs and take responsibility for health outcomes •accountability for health outcomes and effective use of funds by community and mainstream services. The document can be accessed through the webpage below. http://www.health.gov.au/internet/wcms/publishing.nsf/Content/health-oatsih-pubs-healthstrategy.htm/$FILE/ nsfatsihfinal.pdf Examples of Models of Care 3 Person/Patient Centred Care The Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease 2005-2015 defines Person Centred Care as care that respects the people at the centre of care. The individual performs an integral role in their care and is considered an expert on his/her condition.8 Patient centred education involves the patient and the carer in planning the education. The patient’s opinions, ideas and feelings are sought and considered and the patient is involved in the decision making process.3 It promotes respect, dignity, autonomy and informed decision making. Self management and empowerment is essential in person centred care.8 The benefits include, increased satisfaction with care, reduced levels of anxiety, improved adherence to treatment, symptom resolution and improved physiological and functional status.3 Diabetes Shared Care 3 Shared care is the joint management of a patient by the general practitioner and a hospital specialist. Effective communication strategies are critical to ensure information is exchanged between both providers. This model helps to facilitate the integration of care across primary and secondary health care sectors. Positive outcomes have been achieved with the shared care model provided there is adequate support and communication from the hospital specialists.3 Overland et el suggest that while diabetes management can occur largely in the primary care setting, there are some patients such as those with macrovascualr complications that require referral to a specialist. Systems should be implemented that support the general practitioners to care for their patients in the primary care setting while also facilitating access to specialists for those patients that require them.11 Care in General Practice 3 Quality diabetes care can be achieved in general practice provided care is structured. This can be facilitated by the implementation of a diabetes register, a recall system, flow charts, review charts, goal setting and care planning.3 Access to specialists and practice nurse involvement in education and clinical checks results in better quality care.12 General Practitioner Mini Clinics and Educational Outreach 3 The National Service Improvement Framework for Diabetes states that “mini clinics” based in general practice are effective in improving processes of care and glycaemic control. These mini clinics are special clinics possibly coordinated by practice nurses and outside routine consultations. Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 1.3 Annual Cycle of Care Medicare Australia provides a Service Incentive Payment (see below for details) to general practitioners (GPs) who as a minimum complete the prescribed annual cycle of care for their patients with diabetes. The Annual Cycle of Care dictates the minimum levels of care that need to be provided. Individuals with complications, risk factors or co-morbid conditions will require care beyond that outlined in the annual cycle of care. The annual cycle of care is described in Diabetes Management in General Practice.7 1.4 Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Adults - Queensland Health Standard Care Pathway 2006 The Standard Care Pathway is an integrated diabetes management guideline based upon available evidence or consensus where evidence does not exist. It provides best practice guidelines and criteria for screening, diagnosis, stabilisation, ongoing review and referral. After initial stabilisation, quarterly reviews are recommended with the six and twelve month reviews being more comprehensive. The provision of care that is consistent with the Standard Care Pathway will exceed the minimum levels of care required by the Annual Cycle of Care to enable the GP to claim a Service Incentive Payment. While the Annual Cycle of Care dictates minimum levels of care, the Standard Care Pathway promotes best practice. Therefore implementation of the Standard Care Pathway is recommended where practical. A patient brochure has been developed to complement the pathway. The patient brochure provides checklists to inform patients of the level of care they should expect. The brochure also provides patients with recommendations regarding referral to other members of the multidisciplinary team. 1.5 Education Diabetes Self Management Education (DSME) The Australian Diabetes Educators Association defines diabetes self management education as, “the process of facilitating the development of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that enable the person with diabetes to perform self care on a day to day basis.”13 DSME is an integral component of diabetes care. It aims to achieve self care behaviours such as appropriate lifestyle choices, compliance with medications and blood glucose monitoring. Lifestyle issues targeted include smoking, nutrition, alcohol and physical activity. The individual is encouraged to identify problems and possible solutions and to take appropriate actions to reduce the risk of complications. DSME needs to be planned, structured and focused upon the individual with diabetes. It involves assessment of the patient’s needs and goal setting. The process should be documented, evaluated, revised as required and communicated to other members of the multidisciplinary team.14,15 Demographic background including culture, literacy, and education level should be considered when planning and implementing DSME. The involvement of a multidisciplinary team with an identified coordinator of care is recommended.14,15 The team will include as a minimum, a Credentialed Diabetes Educator, a dietitian and a podiatrist. 14 The providers of DSME should have received training specific to diabetes and participate in continuing education in the areas of diabetes management, behavioural interventions , and teaching, learning and counselling skills. 14,15 For further information refer to the Australian Diabetes Educators Association’s National Standards for Diabetes Education Programs. 14 Group Education Deakin et el.’s systematic review of group based, patient centred educational programs for people with Type 2 diabetes found that group based training is an effective way of providing self management education and skills. Outcomes include significant improvements in knowledge, fasting blood glucose, glycated haemoglobin, systolic blood pressure and decreased diabetes medication requirements. Group based programs delivered annually may result in longer-term improvements in clinical outcomes. Programs can be delivered by any health professional provided they are trained to deliver diabetes education programs. Size of groups does not appear to alter the effectiveness of education. 5 Rickheim compared group education with intensive individual consultations and found that individual consultations were less effective than the group programs. 16 Issues such as culture, ethnic background, literacy, disability and geography may make group education inappropriate for some individuals in which case individual consultations are recommended. 1.6 Incentives Supporting Diabetes Care Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing Practice Incentives Program (PIP) The aim of the Practice Incentives Program, Diabetes Incentive is to enhance prevention, promote earlier detection and diagnosis and improve the management of diabetes. The diabetes incentive consists of three components, patient register and recall system, service incentive payment-diabetes (SIP-diabetes) and an outcomes component. 10 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Patient Register and Recall/Reminder System Practices receive a one off payment if they use a patient register and a recall/reminder system for their patients with diabetes. Service Incentive Payment (SIP) GPs that have a patient register and recall system will receive a payment once a year per patient that has had the Annual Cycle of Care implemented. Doctors need to use a diabetes specific Medicare item number to inform Medicare Australia that the annual cycle of care has been completed for each patient. Outcomes A diabetes outcome payment is made to practices that reach target levels of care for their patients with diabetes. Practices will receive a payment per patient with diabetes if an Annual Cycle of Care for a target proportion of their patients with diabetes has been completed. Practice Nurses Incentive Funding is available to employ practice nurses in eligible general practices. The practice must be located in a rural area or an area of need. The aim of the incentive is increase the employment of practice nurses to support the management of chronic diseases, to provide clinical support and to undertake population health activities. This enables the GP to spend more time on diagnosis and clinical care. The practice must be participating in the PIP and employ a practice nurse for equivalent to two sessions per week per full time GP equivalent. The funding is capped at one full time equivalent nurse per practice. Chronic Disease Management (CDM) Medicare Items Chronic Disease Management Items provide a Medicare rebate for health assessments, care planning and case conferencing services for patients with a chronic condition and multidisciplinary care needs. These items have replaced the Enhanced Primary Care Items. The new CDM items have increased patient eligibility and increased the flexibility in who can provide the services. The CDM items apply to patients living in the community, private inpatients being discharged from hospital and residents of aged care facilities. GPs can be assisted by practice nurses, aboriginal health workers and other health professionals in providing the CDM items. The GP must see the patient and confirm all assessments and arrangements but the practice nurse can assist with the assessment, identify patient needs, facilitate communication and discuss costs with the patient. The CDM Items: GP Management Plan (GPMP- Item 721) GPs have access to a Medicare rebate per patient for preparing and reviewing GP Management Plans for patients with one or more chronic or terminal medical conditions. The GPMP is developed between the GP and the patient with a chronic condition. The GP maybe assisted by a practice nurse or other health worker in the development of a GPMP. A GPMP should be prepared once every two years and supported by regular review services. Review of a GP Management Plan (GP MP- Item 725) A Medicare rebate can be claimed for the review of a GPMP. The GPMP needs to be reviewed and any changes need to be documented. A date for the next review needs to be determined. Reviews should occur every six months or earlier if clinically indicated. The practice nurse or other health workers can assist in the review. Coordination of Team Care Arrangements (TCA- Item 723) A rebate is available for a GP to coordinate a Team Care Arrangement for an eligible patient. Patients are eligible for a TCA involving care from a multidisciplinary team if they have a chronic or terminal medical condition and require ongoing care from a multidisciplinary team including at least three health care providers. A TCA involves the GP and at least two other health or community care providers. The recommended frequency for a TCA is once every two years supported by regular review services. Coordination of a Review of Team Care Arrangements (Item 727) A rebate is payable for coordination of a review of the TCA. This should occur every six months or more frequently if clinically indicated. The GP collaborates with other members of the team to review progress. A practice nurse or other health worker may help the GP with this process. Any changes need to be documented. Contribution to a Multidisciplinary Care Plan Being Prepared by Another Health or Care Provider (Item 729) A rebate is payable to GPs for contribution to a multidisciplinary care plan prepared or reviewed by another provider. The recommended frequency is once every six months or more frequently if clinically indicated. 11 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Contribution to a Multidisciplinary Care Plan Being Prepared by Another Health or Care Provider for a Resident of an Aged Care Facility (Item 731) As above for patients that are residents of an aged care facility. A GPMP and a diabetes SIP can be claimed for the same patient as these services are complimentary. A review of a GPMP and the SIP should not be claimed within three months of each other as the services required overlap. A GPMP and TCA and a SIP can be claimed as patients with a TCA will have complex needs that can not be met by the SIP alone. Allied Health and Dental Care Item Numbers Patients who have both a GPMP and TCA or who previously had an Enhanced Primary Care plan can access allied health and dental items on the Medicare Benefits Schedule. Residents of aged care homes whose GP has contributed to a care plan prepared by the aged care facility also have access to allied health and dental items. Patients can claim for five allied health rebates and three dental care services per year. These services can be provided either individually or in a group. The need for services should be documented in the patient’s care plan. Health professionals eligible for patient rebates include- Credentialled Diabetes Educators employed in private practice, dietitians, podiatrists, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health workers, psychologists, speech pathologists, occupational therapists, audiologists, chiropractors, exercise physiologists, mental health workers, osteopaths and physiotherapists. Allied health professionals need to be registered with Medicare Australia and provide a written report regarding the service provided to the referring GP. Home Medicines Review (HMR) A medication review is a review of the patient’s prescribed, over the counter and complimentary medicines that occurs for patients living at home in the community. The review is conducted by a general practitioner, community pharmacist and an accredited pharmacist. The review includes the development of a management plan and may occur in the surgery, home or health care setting. Both the general practitioner and the accredited pharmacist are remunerated for this service. For further information regarding the above refer to the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing website. www.health.gov.au/internet/wcms/Publishing.nsf/Content/health-epc-index.htm 1.7 Services/Resources to Assist the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes Australia - Queensland Diabetes Australia, which is a member of the International Diabetes Federation, is a consumer organisation consisting of medical, scientific, health and research professionals. The organisation works to increase public awareness of diabetes, actively contributes to research and is an advocate for people with diabetes in Australia. Diabetes Australia-Queensland Branch (DAQ) is part of Diabetes Australia, which operates in all States and Territories of Australia. A data base of Queensland diabetes services can be accessed through the DAQ web site. http://www.daq.org.au/diabeteslink/ It provides members with discounts on Diabetes Australia products, support, education, resources and services to manage diabetes. A comprehensive series of fact sheets, books, and other educational resources are available from Diabetes Australia. A multilingual web site including multilingual resources can also be accessed through Diabetes Australia. Diabetes Australia GPO BOX 9824 In your capital city PH: 1300 136 588 www.diabetesaustralia.com.au National Diabetes Services Scheme (NDSS) Diabetes Australia coordinates the NDSS on behalf of the Commonwealth Government. The scheme provides information, free syringes and pen needles for people with diabetes. NDSS registrants receive a resource pack containing basic information on diabetes, diabetes self management and where to go for help. Individuals who have registered with the NDSS will also receive subsides for the cost of testing strips and insulin pump consumables. A data base of those who have registered with the NDSS is also maintained. Diabetes Management in General Practice 7 This booklet produced by the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners and Diabetes Australia provides guidelines for the management of Type 2 Diabetes in general practice. This easy to read booklet provides guidelines and recommendations for screening, diagnosis, assessment, management and review. Specific issues such as medications, complications, sick days, pregnancy, travel and driving are all addressed. The following guidelines for care and referral aim to complement the Diabetes Management in General Practice booklet and refer to it often as a valuable resource. The use of both resources is recommended. 12 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Diabetes Patient Record Forms 7 The RACGP have developed diabetes patient record forms including clinical management targets and incorporating the NDOQRIN minimum data set. These forms provide a continuous clinical record and facilitate the implementation of best practice guidelines, care planning, referral and communication. A copy of the form is exhibited in the Diabetes Management in General Practice Booklet. Forms can be ordered through RACGP and Diabetes Australia. Work is being conducted to produce an electronic version of the form. Diabetes Network The Queensland Health Clinical Practice Improvement Centre (CPIC) Diabetes Network was initiated in 2005. A network is a state-wide collaboration of clinicians who share a common goal, and work together to identify gaps between evidence and practice, in order to improve aspects of patient care and achieve change at a local level. In contrast to a collaborative, the network also advises budget holders on spending to address inequities of services. It achieves this through hosting 6-monthly statewide workshops for multidisciplinary groups of Queensland Health staff currently working with patients with diabetes throughout Queensland and across a range of health settings including acute, community and administration. The Diabetes Network has identified five key areas in which to target service improvement efforts. These include: •Intensive management of Type 1 diabetes •Management of Type 2 diabetes and the community interface •Diabetes in pregnancy •Paediatric diabetes •Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander issues and regional/rural issues in diabetes Further information is available at www.health.qld.gov.au/cpic Queensland Health staff can also access CPIC resources through http://qheps.health.qld.gov.au/cpic/ Resources to Assist with the Management of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Peoples •Communication Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/frames.htm •Office for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, Aust Govt Dept Health and Ageing http://www.health.gov.au/internet/wcms/publishing.nsf/Content/Office%20for%20Aboriginal%20and%20Torres %20Strait%20Islander%20Health%20(OATSIH)-1 •Warnock’s Indigenous Diabetic Foot Resources and Workshops http://www.sarrah.org.au/IDF=121 Smoking, Nutrition, Alcohol and Physical Activity (SNAP) 17,18 SNAP is an integrated framework to support the management of behavioural risk factors in general practice. The framework provides a system wide approach to the identification and management of behavioural risk factors. It provides evidence based information and patient information resources covering smoking, nutrition, alcohol and physical activity. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners have published SNAP- A population health guide to behavioural risk factors in general practice.18 This guide provides information covering why behavioural risk factors need to be addressed and guidelines to assess the patient’s readiness to change. A five step model for detection, assessment and management of risk factors is also provided. Clinical strategies, business strategies and resources to address SNAP risk factors are provided. Copies can be accessed from http://www.health.gov.au.pubhlth/ about/gp/ Lifestyle Prescriptions 19 A lifestyle prescription consists of written recommendations that are provided to the patient to help the implementation of healthy lifestyle behaviours. Lifestyle prescriptions are recommended to address SNAP behavioural risk factors. A Lifescript Resource Kit has been developed to assist GPs and their practices to manage lifestyle risk factors. The kit consists of consumer resources, practitioner resources, an educational CD-ROM and an implementation manual. Lifestyle script pads are available to write individualised lifestyle recommendations. The pads can also be used to refer patients to other services. Assessment tools and guidelines for each risk factor are available. More details are available at the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing Websitehttp://www.health.gov.au/internet/wcms/publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-lifescripts-index.htm 13 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Chronic Disease Self Management Programs: •Kate Lorig Self Management Program •Flinders Self Management Program •Queensland Arthritis Foundation: The Chronic Disease Self Management Program The Queensland Arthritis Foundation provides chronic disease self management programs in the community. The courses which involve client participation are facilitated by two trained leaders, one or both of whom have a chronic disease themselves. Subjects covered include: techniques to deal with problems such as frustration, fatigue, pain and isolation, appropriate exercise, medications, communication with family, friends and health professionals, nutrition and use of community resources. Arthritis Queensland 1800 011 041. http://www.arthritis.org.au/content/view/28/47/ QUIT Quitline is a 24 hour counselling service for people who want to give up smoking. Quitline: 131 848 The QUIT web site provides statistics, resources and information for health professionals and the public regarding smoking and giving up. http://www.quitnow.info.au/ Healthy Weight Programs The healthy weight program is a weight control program designed for Indigenous people. Contact your local Community Health Centre to find out if this program is available in your local area. Lighten Up Lighten up is a weight control program delivered through Community Health Centres. Contact your local Community Health Centre to find out if this program is available in your local area. Local Councils Some local councils run physical activity programs and manage community physical activity facilities. Contact your local council to find out what is available in your local area. Heart Foundation The Heart Foundation offers a comprehensive series of publications, resources and programs to assist with the prevention and management of heart disease. It also conducts and supports research into heart, stroke and blood vessel disease. ‘Just Walk It’ which is organised through the Heart Foundation, Queensland is a group walking program. It is a free program which aims to help people become more physically active by walking regularly as part of a group. ‘Just Walk It’ groups are located throughout Brisbane and regional Queensland. For more details phone: 3872 2500 or log onto the following web site http://www.heartfoundation.com.au/index.cfm?page=210 Heart Foundation http://www.heartfoundation.com.au/ Queensland Division Ph: (07) 3854 1696 1.8 Government Strategies National Service Improvement Framework for Diabetes3 This framework complements the National Chronic Disease Strategy and is a national approach to improving the prevention and management of diabetes. The framework identifies where critical improvements can be made to health services at state, territory and national levels. The framework recognises that services for diabetes need to be provided through the continuum of care, from prevention through to the advanced stages of the disease.3 Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease8 “This statewide strategy aims to engage all stakeholders involved in the prevention, intervention and management of chronic disease at a system, service and individual level across the continuum of care. It identifies evidence based 14 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 approaches to prevent or reduce behavioural and lifestyle risk factors and supports better care for people with chronic disease and their carers/families.” 8 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health • National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health 200310 • Productivity Commission’s Strategic Framework for Overcoming Indigenous Diseases20 • Cultural Respect Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Islander Health 2004-200921 • National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition Strategy and Action Plan 2000-201022 1.9 Guidelines Australian- National Evidence Based Guidelines23 National evidence based guidelines are being prepared for the prevention, detection and management of Type 2 Diabetes. The guidelines are being prepared by a consortium led by Diabetes Australia and in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) standards. When completed, there will be nine guidelines: 1*Primary Prevention45 2*Case Detection and Diagnosis 44 3*Diagnosis and Management of Hypertension 38 4*Prevention and Detection of Macro vascular Disease6 5*Identification and Management of Diabetic Foot Disease40 6Blood Glucose Control 7*Lipids 39 8Renal Disease 9Education. *Guidelines have been completed and are available on the Diabetes Australia Website and the NHMRC website. http://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/education_info/nebg.html http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/subjects/diabetes.htm Other Guidelines •Guidelines-Management and Care of Diabetes in the Elderly, Australian Diabetes Educators Association (ADEA) , 2003 24 •Best Practice Guidelines for the Management of Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents, Queensland Health, 200225 •National Standards for Diabetes Education Programs, ADEA 200114 •Dietetic Practice Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, endorsed by the Dietitians Association of Australia, 200626 •Australian Dietary Guidelines, Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing, NHMRC, 200327 •National Physical Activity Guidelines for Australians, Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing, NHMRC, 199928 •NHMRC Guidelines- Clinical Practice Guidelines For the Management of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, 200329 •National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Clinical Practice Guidelines on the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy, Australian Diabetes Society (ADS), 200530 •Australian Podiatric Guidelines for Diabetes, Australian Podiatric Councils and Diabetes Australia, 1997 31 •Gestational Diabetes Mellitus- Management Guidelines, The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society, 1998 32 •The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in Relation to Pregnancy, The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society, 200533 •Smoking Cessation Guidelines for Australian General Practice, Department of Health and Ageing, 200434 •Australian Alcohol Guidelines: Health Risks and Benefits, NHMRC, 2001 35 •American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines for the Treatment and Management of Psychiatric Disorders36 •American Diabetes Association, Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2006 9 •Global Guideline for Type 2 Diabetes, International Diabetes Federation (IDF), 200537 15 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Chapter 2 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes The following tables provide health professionals with a framework for initial and ongoing assessment, management and education of adults with Type 2 Diabetes. The tables are not intended to be prescriptive but rather outline the parameters that need to be addressed, by whom and how often. Care that is consistent with the Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Adults- Queensland Health Standard Care Pathway 2006 is promoted. Referral and flexible competency criteria are provided. Resources including national evidence based clinical guidelines are listed to assist the implementation of best practice through the continuum of care. The Primary Care Coordinator referred to throughout the following guidelines is the designated individual who assists the client in all aspects of management and coordinates support services. The care coordinator maybe the patient, the General Practitioner, Nurse, Diabetes Educator, Indigenous Health Worker, Remote Area Health Nurse or another appropriate member of the team. At diagnosis it is recommended that all patients register with the NDSS to enable the patient to access resources and information about diabetes and to ensure their details are added to the National Data Base. Documentation of services provided and communication between the service providers and the patient and/or carer are essential throughout the continuum of care to ensure coordinated care is provided. 2.1 Table 2 Assessment What Frequency Who Referrals Resources Knowledge Diagnosis Every three months (3 mths) Primary Care Coordinator (e.g. GP/ Diabetes Educator/ Indigenous Health Worker/Remote Area Health Nurse) Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator Indigenous Health Worker Diabetes Management in General Practice7 (RACGP) http://www.racgp. org.au/folder. asp?id=1168 NDSS ph: 1300 136 588 http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/ndss/index. html Diabetes Australia - Queensland http://www.daq.org. au ph: 1300 136 588 Symptoms7 • Polyuria • Polydipsia • Polyphagia • Weight loss • Nocturia • Malaise • Altered vision • Recurrent infections • Neuropathic foot symptoms • Sexual issues DiagnosisPrimary Care comprehensive review Coordinator of symptoms 3 mths-check current and new symptoms Every 12 Months (12 mths)- comprehensive review Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator Dietitian Indigenous Health Worker Podiatrist Ophthalmologist Optometrist Psychologist Diabetes Management in General Practice7 (RACGP) Standard Care Pathway Annual Cycle of Care (RACGP) Complications • Macrovascular disease • Renal disease • Eye damage • Neuropathy (Sensory, motor, autonomic nerves) • Foot disease Diagnosis and 12 mths Consider referral to: Endocrinologist Nephrologists Ophthalmologist Optometrist Neurologist Cardiologist Diabetes Management in General Practice7 (RACGP) Standard Care Pathway Annual Cycle of Care Primary Care Coordinator 16 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What ECG6 Risk Factors for Complications & Investigations • Blood glucose • HbA1c • Blood pressure • Lipids - LDL - HDL - Triglycerides • Renal function - Urea - Creatinine - eGFR Frequency Diagnosis and every 2 yrs if > 50 yrs & > 1 risk factor Who Referrals Resources Vascular Specialist Podiatrist Psychologist Diabetes Educator Dietitian NHMRC Clinical Practice Guidelines on the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy 30 http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ synopses/cp56 covr. htm Evidenced based Guidelines for the Prevention and Detection of Macrovascular Disease in Type 2 Diabetes 6 http://www. diabetesaustralia.com. au/education_info/ nebg.htmlcovr.htm http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm See Section 2.4.2: Table 6 Complications-Feet and Section 3.4: Podiatry GP/Medical Officer Consider referral to: Cardiologist Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator Dietitian Indigenous Health Worker Exercise Professional Psychologist Endocrinologist Nephrologists Cardiologist Podiatrist Diagnosis, Every Visit Diagnosis, 3-6 mths 3mths if Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander/ on insulin or poor control Diagnosis, Every visit Diagnosis, 6 mths Diagnosis, 12 mths Diagnosis, 12 mths • Urine - Microalbuminuria - albumin - nitrates - leucocytes • Liver Function Tests Diagnosis, 12 mths • Height Diagnosis/as appropriate Standard Care Pathway Annual Cycle of Care Evidenced Based Guideline For the Diagnosis and Management of Hypertension in Type 2 Diabetes38 National Evidenced Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Lipid Control39 http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/education_ info/nebg.html http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm 17 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Frequency Who Referrals Resources • Weight, BMI Diagnosis, 3 mths • Waist circumference Diagnosis, 3 mths • Personal history Diagnosis • Family history Diagnosis • Life- SNAP - Smoking - Nutrition - Alcohol - Physical Activity Diagnosis, 3 mths Self Care Home blood glucose monitoring Foot checks and care Lifestyle (SNAP) Diagnosis, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to : Diabetes Educator Feet Risk Assessment and Examination40 • Peripheral neuropathy • Peripheral vascular disease • Foot deformity • Ulceration (See Section 2.4.2: Table 6 Complications-Feet and Section 3.4: Podiatry) Foot risk assessmentDiagnosis and 12 mths Foot inspecection-3 mths Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to : Podiatrist See Section 2.4.2: Table 6 Complications-Feet and Section 3.4: Podiatry section Appendix 1- Basic Foot Screening Checklist47 National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus – Identification & Management of Diabetic Foot Disease40 http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/education_ info/nebg.html http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm Eyes30 • Visual acuity • Fundal abnormality • Retinal abnormality (see section 2.4.2 Table 6 Complications- eyes for details) Diagnosis, 2yrs if no retinal abnormality If retinopathy detected- 3-12 mths depending on level of diabetic retinopathy Appropriately trained GP/Medical Officer Consider referral to: Ophthalmologist Optometrist NHMRC Clinical Practice Guidelines on the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy 30 http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ synopses/cp56 covr. htm Psychological Status9 • Adjustment • Depression • Anxiety • Stress • Anger • Cognition Diagnosis, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Psychologist ADA Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes, Psychological Assessment and Care, 20069 SNAP 17,18 http://www.racgp. org.au/guidelines/ snap/ 18 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Frequency Who Referrals Resources http://care. diabetesjournals.org/ cgi/content/full/29/ suppl_1/s4#SEC9 • Behaviour • Social (see section 2.5 Table 7: Specific IssuesPsychological Issues for details) Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice GuidelinesPsychological Aspects of Diabetes41 http://www.diabetes. ca/cpg2003/ chapters.aspx?psycho logicalaspectsofdiabe tes.htm Depression Anxiety Stress Scales 21 and 4242 The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10)92 Culture Diagnosis, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Indigenous Health Worker Telephone Interpreter services Diabetes Australia, Multicultural Internet Resource and Cross Cultural Communication Program http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/ multilingualdiabetes/ index.htm QH Multicultural Health web site http://www. health.qld.gov.au/ multicultural/default. asp Cultural DiversityA Guide for Health Professionals http://www. health.qld.gov.au/ multicultural/cultdiv/ default.asp Disability Medications Diagnosis, As required Primary Care Coordinator Diagnosis, 3 mths GP/Medical Officer Disability Services Qld http://www.disability. qld.gov.au/ Consider referral to: • Symptoms Endocrinologist • Blood glucose Pharmacist • Complications • Risk factors for complications 19 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Frequency Who Immunisations Diagnosis, 12 mths Primary Care Coordinator Thyroid Function Test7 Diagnosis if family history/clinical suspicion GP/Medical Officer Referrals Initial, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator Document assessment results and communicate with other providers of care Diagnosis, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator 7 Referrals Resources Patient record Diabetes Patient Record Forms7 (RACGP) 2.2 Table 3 Management What Frequency Who Referrals Determine Primary Care Coordinator Diagnosis, 12 mths Patient and General Practitioner/ Medical Officer Consider referral to: Resources Diabetes Educator Indigenous Health Worker Remote Area Health Nurse Register with NDSS Goals Diagnosis Diagnosis, 12 mths Negotiate goals and objectives with the patient Review achievement of goals Patient and Credentialed Diabetes Educator/ GP/Medical Officer National Diabetes Services Scheme (NDSS) http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/ndss/index. html ph: 1300 136 588 Primary Care Coordinator and Patient Consider referral to: Psychologist Primary Care Coordinator and patient Consider referral to: 3 mths Management Plan • Develop management strategies to meet goals Diagnosis, 3 mths • Consider development/ review of “GP Management Plan” Diagnosis, 6mths • Consider establishment/ review “ Team Care Arrangement” Diagnosis, 6 mths • Manage acute symptoms Diagnosis, 3 mths • Optimise blood glucose Diagnosis, 3 mths Indigenous Health Worker Diabetes Educator Dietitian Endocrinologist Exercise Professional Podiatrist Psychologist Pharmacist Nephrologists GP/Medical Officer Ophthalmologist Optometrist 20 GP Management Plan (MBS Item:721) http://www.health. gov.au/internet/ wcms/publishing. nsf/Content/pcdprograms-epcchronicdiseaseforms/$FILE/ sform721gpmp.pdf Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Frequency • Optimise blood pressure Diagnosis, 3 mths • Optimise lipids Diagnosis, 6mths • Treat complications Diagnosis, As required • Optimise risk factors Who Referrals Resources Neurologist Team Care Arrangement (MBS Item: 727 ) Cardiologist Vascular Specialist Diagnosis, 3mths http://www.health. gov.au/internet/ wcms/publishing. nsf/Content/pcdprograms-epcchronicdisease-forms/ $FILE/sform723tca.pdf Standard Care Pathway Annual Cycle of Care Self Management/ Care/DSME13 Diagnosis, 3mths/as required Diabetes Educator ADEA National Standards for Diabetes Education Programs 200114 Encourage • Home blood glucose monitoring ADA National Standards for Diabetes Self Management Education15 • Self foot examinations and care • Lifestyle (see below) Lifestyle Encourage required lifestyle changes Diagnosis, 3mths Primary Care Coordinator Dietitian Exercise Professional • Smoking • Nutrition Refer for Medical Nutrition Therapy Consider referral to: Physiotherapist Psychologist Dietitian Indigenous Health Worker • Alcohol Group programs • Physical Activity Support Groups e.g. Diabetes Australia Healthy Lifestyle Workshops For more details see section 2.4.1 Table 5 Risk factors- Smoking and Alcohol and 2.5 Table 7 Specific Issues-, Diet, and Exercise Lifestyle Prescriptions 19 http://www.health. gov.au/internet/ wcms/publishing. nsf/Content/healthpubhlth-strateglifescripts-index. htm#kit Australian Dietary Guidelines 27 http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ synopses/dietsyn. Flexible Competencies htm Diabetes Resource Lighten Up to a Health Professional/ Healthy Lifestyle RN The Healthy Weight Program Australian Physical Activity Guidelines28 http://www.health. gov.au/internet/ wcms/publishing. nsf/Content/phdphysical-activityadults-pdf-cnt.htm QUIT http://www.quitnow. info.au/ 21 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Frequency Who Referrals Resources Smoking Cessation Guidelines for Australian General Practice 34 http://www.health. gov.au/internet/ wcms/publishing. nsf/Content/healthpubhlth-publicattobacco.htm/$FILE/ smoking_flip.pdf NHMRC Australian Alcohol Guidelines: Health Risks and Benefits35 http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/_ files/ds9.pdf Chronic Disease Self-Management Programs eg. Kate Lorig Flinders, Arthritis Foundation Diabetes Australia - Queensland Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Medications • Prescribe/adjust medications to treat symptoms, complications and risk factors for complications • Consider prophylactic aspirin6 • Provide education re medication and side effects. • Emphasize importance of compliance Diagnosis, Three months GP/Medical Officer Consider referral to: Endocrinologist Pharmacist Diabetes Educator Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Evidenced Based Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Hypertension in Type 2 Diabetes38 Evidenced based Guideline for the Prevention and Management of Macrovascular Disease in Type 2 Diabetes 6 http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/education_ info/nebg.html http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm Diabetes Education See Table 4- General Education and Counselling Diagnosis 3 mths/as required Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator Dietitian Podiatrist Exercise Professional Table 4: General Education and Counselling 22 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Frequency Who Referrals Resources Physiotherapist Psychologist Indigenous Health Worker Group programs Support Groups e.g. Diabetes Australia Healthy Lifestyle Workshops Flexible Competencies Diabetes Resource Health Professional/ RN Immunisations Diagnosis, 12 Months GP/Medical officer Emotional Support and Counselling Diagnosis, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Psychologist Address Impact of Cultural Issues Diagnosis, As required Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Indigenous Health Worker Address disability issues Diagnosis, As required Primary Care Coordinator Disability Services Qld Primary Care Coordinator Austroads Assessing Fitness to Drive43 Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Administer required immunisations Notify Driver Licensing Diagnosis Authority See resources listed for assessment of cultural issuesSection 2.1 Table 2 Assessment http://www.disability. qld.gov.au/ http://www. austroads.com.au/ aftd/index.html Add details to Patient Register +/- Recall system Diagnosis • Document goals, treatment and management in patient record/ GP Management Plan Diagnosis, 3 mths Update as required Primary Care Coordinator Primary Care Coordinator Flexible Competencies: Practice Nurse • Communicate management plan to patient and other providers of patient care • Consider establishment of patient held record Organise Required Referrals Diabetes Register/ Recall System Diagnosis, 3 mths Primary Care Coordinator 23 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 2.3 Table 4 General Education and Counselling The following table include questions patients may ask. These are designed to promote patient focused education. What Content Who Referrals Resources Definition • Define diabetes Consider referral to: NDSS What is diabetes? • Differentiate between Type 1 and Type 2 Primary Care Coordinator Diabetes Educator Diabetes Australia Queensland Dietitian Indigenous Health Worker Flexible CompetenciesDiabetes Resource Person, Practice Nurse, RN, Podiatrist, Pharmacist, Psychologist, Exercise professional Blood Glucose Control What is glucose? What affects blood glucose levels? How do I check blood glucose levels? • Discuss the link between glucose, insulin, food, exercise and illness • Define and explain cause of hyperglycaemia and hypoglycaemia • Self monitoring-measuring blood glucose Symptoms • No symptoms/signs (stress importance of I feel fine-are you sure treating diabetes even if I have diabetes and no symptoms are present) do I really have to treat it? • Polyuria • Polydipsia • Polyphagia • Weight loss • Nocturia • Malaise • Altered Vision • Recurrent infections • Poor wound healing • Neuropathy • Claudication • Sexual Issues Complications • Macrovascular disease What are the effects of diabetes? • Renal Disease • Eye damage • Neuropathy (Sensory, motor, autonomic nerves) • Foot Disease • Sexual issues • Infections 24 Diabetes Australia Qld: Diabetes link (diabetes service directory) http://www.daq.org. au Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals Resources Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Psychologist , Counsellor Flexible Competencies Diabetes Resource Health Professional, Practice Nurse, RN Dietitian Podiatrist Pharmacist Exercise professional NDSS Diabetes Australia - Queensland (Don’t Ignore Diabetes campaign) Diabetes Management in General Practice7 National Evidenced Based Guidelines for Case Detection and Diagnosis44 National Evidenced Based Guidelines for the Primary Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes45 http://www. diabetesaustralia.com. au/education_info/ nebg.html http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm General Treatment of Primary Care Diabetes Coordinator Can you cure Diabetes? • Explain no cure • Treatment Goals - Blood Glucose Control - Manage acute symptoms - Minimise complications and the risk of complications. - Targets How will my diabetes • Explain the role of be treated? - Diet/healthy eating How can I manage my - Exercise/activity diabetes? - Weight control - Medication - Self management - Complication screening - Regular review consistent with the Standard Care Pathway or the Annual Cycle of Care Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator Dietitian Indigenous Health Worker Flexible Competencies Diabetes Resource Health Professional, RN Exercise Professional Podiatrist Psychologist Pharmacist Practice Nurse Diabetes Management in General Practice7 NDSS Diabetes Australia Queensland Standard Care Pathway Annual Cycle of Care Risk Factors for • Family history Diabetes44 • Ethnic background Why did I get diabetes? • Weight • Gestational diabetes • Age • Lifestyle • Depression • Other eg hypertension, hyperlipidaemia Progression of diabetes Will I end up on Insulin? Explain the progression of diabetes and the possibility of progression from diet/ lifestyle control to tablets to insulin Hypoglycaemia Will I have a hypo? What do I do if I have a hypo? How can I prevent hypos? • Causes • Treatment • Prevention 25 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals Resources Home Blood Glucose Monitoring • Discuss the role of the Blood Glucose Meter Primary Care Coordinator Refer to Diabetes Educator NDSS How do I know if my glucose is well controlled? • Organise a Blood Glucose Meter if appropriate • Complete NDSS form How do I test my blood glucose at home? • Provide education regarding the use of a Blood Glucose Meter Patient Resources Provide list of resources with Primary Care contacts details Coordinator Diabetes Australia Queensland Refer as required NDSS Where can I get more information? Diabetes Australia Flexible competencies Queensland Pharmacist NDSS subagent Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Frequency of Review Discuss How often do I need to have a check up and by whom? • Frequency of review Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator, • Referrals Dietitian, • Team approach Indigenous Health Worker, • Self monitoring and management Podiatrist, • Model of Care/Clinics/ GP Psychologist, • Ensure patient details registered on recall system/register Exercise Professional Endocrinologist, Ophthalmologist Standard Care Pathway Managing your diabetes - What you should know (patient brochure) Queensland Health and Diabetes Australia - Queensland Annual Cycle of Care Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Optometrist Neurologist Cardiologist Vascular specialist Support groups associations Presenting to the Doctor When else do I need to go to the doctor? Discuss when to present to the doctor in addition to scheduled review appointments Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator, Dietitian, Indigenous Health Worker, • Complications • Lifestyle difficulties Podiatrist, • Poor blood glucose control Psychologist, • Medication issues Exercise Professional • Foot disease especially infections Endocrinologist, • Change in vision Optometrist • Chest pain Neurologist • Unwell/ vomiting/ infection/poor intake Cardiologist • Emotional Issues Support groups associations Ophthalmologist Vascular specialist 26 Diabetes Australia Queensland Diabetes Management in General Practice 1 Standard Care Pathway Managing your diabetes - What you should know (patient brochure) Queensland Health Annual Cycle of Care Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 2.4 Prevention and Management of Complications 2.4.1 Table 5 Risk Factors What Content Who Referrals Resources Blood Glucose Control • Review, manage and provide education including; Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: NDSS Diabetes Educator SNAP 17,18 Dietitian Lifestyle Prescriptions19 q Self monitoring Endocrinologist q Lifestyle q Medication Psychologist Diabetes Australia - Queensland Refer to Dietitian SNAP17,18 Consider referral to: Weight Watchers Exercise Professional http://www. weightwatchers.com. au/ q Other contributing factors eg illness, other medications Weight • Negotiate with the patient Primary Care to set realistic weight loss Coordinator and patient goals • Review and provide education/counselling q Diet Weight Control Group Dietitian Psychologist Surgeon q Medical Nutrition Therapy q Exercise Dietitian/ Primary Care Coordinator q Medication GP/Medical Officer q Surgery Lighten Up19 NHMRC GuidelinesOverweight and Obesity in Adults- A Guide for General Practitioners29 http://www.health. gov.au/internet/ wcms/publishing. nsf/Content/ obesityguidelinesguidelines-adults.htm • Provide Lifestyle Prescription Lifestyle Prescriptions19 Chronic Disease Self Management Programs Lipids39 • Review and encourage lifestyle changes especially diet and exercise Primary Care Coordinator SNAP17,18 Dietitian National Evidenced Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Lipid Control39 Exercise Professional Endocrinologist • Emphasise importance of weight loss if required • Review and improve blood glucose control if possible • Review medication requirements Consider referral to: GP/Medical Officer • Monitor lipids http://www. diabetesaustralia. com.au/education_ info/nebg.html http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm Chronic Disease Self Management Programs Diabetes Management in General Practice7 27 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Blood Pressure 38 Content Who Referrals Resources • Review lifestyle (SNAP) and recommend appropriate changes Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: SNAP17,18 Dietitian National Evidenced Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-Diagnosis and Management of Hypertension38 Diabetes Educator • Emphasize importance of weight loss if required • Review medications and compliance Exercise Professional GP/Medical Officer/ Endocrinologist • Consider ACE Inhibitor initially and combination therapy if required http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm Chronic Disease Self Management Programs • Emphasize importance of compliance with medications • Monitor at every visit Smoking • Emphasize benefits of stopping Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Primary Care Coordinator QUIT Psychologist • Counsel Diabetes Educator • Consider lifestyle prescription RN Smoking Cessation Guidelines for Australian General Practice34 Practice Nurse Smoke Check Diabetes Resource Person Lifestyle Script19 Consider referral to: Lifestyle Scripts 19 ATODS Psychologist NHMRC Australian Alcohol Guidelines: Health Risks and Benefits35 Who Referrals Resources Primary care Coordinator/ Podiatrist Consider a referral to a Podiatrist via Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Pathway48 (See Appendix 2) See Section 3.4: Podiatry Diabetic Foot Evidence and ‘Low’, ‘At’, ‘High’ Risk & “Acute Complications” Management Appendix 1: Basic Foot Screening Checklist (screening tool) 47 Appendix 2 : Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Pathway48 National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus – Identification & Management of Diabetic Foot Disease 40 http://www. diabetesaustralia.com. au/education_info/ nebg.html • Refer to QUIT • Consider nicotine adjunctive therapy or Bupropion34 Alcohol Consider referral to: • Assess intake • Educate re recommended intake Primary Care Coordinator Counsellor • Provide counselling to reduce intake if required Chronic Disease Self Management Programs 2.4.2 Table 6 Complications What Content Feet • Ensure annual screen for Foot Risk Status, i.e. assess Low Risk Foot for: (i.e. without q Peripheral Neuropathy Neuropathy, PVD, Foot q Peripheral vascular Deformity, Ulceration disease (PVD) or Amputation) q Foot deformity q Ulceration & Amputation 40 Refer to Basic Foot Screening Checklist 47 (See Appendix 1) • Inspect for Foot Complications • Educate : q Effects of hyperglycaemia on feet q Self foot care q Footwear choices q Services available to assist 28 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals Resources At Risk Foot • Consider further assessment and management of: Podiatrist, GP, Diabetes Educator Consider referral to: Australian Podiatric Councils & Diabetes Australia Australian Podiatric Guidelines for Diabetes 31 (i.e. Neuropathy, PVD or Foot Deformity) q Neurological status, q Vascular (i.e. Doppler, IHW trained in foot care PPG, Duplex), Deformity, q Dermatology (eg callus), q Footwear. • Reinforce above diabetic foot care education • Ensure appropriate pressure off-loading, (i.e. Foot Deformity pathological skincare, with Neuropathy &/or foot care & footwear. PVD, Previous Ulcer or Amputation) • Reinforce above diabetic foot care education. Podiatrist, GP, Wound Care Nurse, Diabetes Educator Acute Diabetic Foot (i.e. Foot Ulcer, Foot Infection, Ischaemic Pain, Charcot Foot) • Use ‘Clinical Assessment, Investigations & Management of Acute Diabetic Foot Complications’ tool46 (See Appendix 3) to assess and manage. Consider where appropriate: q Debridement q Dressing Regime q Pressure Off-Loading q Antibiotics q Specialist Referral Eyes30 • Ensure regular eye examinations q Assess visual acuity q Check for fundal or retinal abnormality q Check Cataracts If > 2cm cellulitis and/ or can probe wound to bone include urgently: Orthopaedic Surgeon or Surgical Podiatrist http://www.apodc. com.au/apodc/ diabetes. Refer < 0.5 Ankle Brachial Index or < 40mmHg Toe Pressures for further vascular investigations &/or Vascular Specialist Warnock’s Indigenous Foot Project Consider referral to: Appendix 3: Wraight et al’s Clinical Assessment and Investigations and Management of Acute Diabetic Foot Complications46 Endocrinologist, Vascular or Orthopaedic Surgeon or Surgical Podiatrist, Infectious Diseases Specialist, Plaster Technician & Orthotist QH Podiarty resources http://qheps.health. qld.gov.au/odb/ hau/allied/html/ disciplines/podiatry. htm Endocrinologist Vascular Surgeon Infectious Disease Specialist Orthopaedic Surgeon or Surgical Podiatrist Appropriately Trained GP/Medical Officer Outreach Eye Team q Check for Retinopathy/ Diabetic Macular Oedema • Optimise control of blood glucose and blood pressure Vascular Surgeon Neurologist or Orthotist q Biomechanical & Foot High Risk Foot Endocrinologist Primary Care Coordinator • Inform patient of the indications for urgent presentation to Ophthalmologist 29 Refer to Ophthalmologist/ Optometrist within 1 year of diagnosis, then every 2 years if no retinopathy, yearly once retinopathy identified Urgent referral if: • Diabetic retinopathy greater than the presence of occasional microaneurysms detected • Diabetic macular oedema • Declining visual acuity Standard Care Pathway NHMRC Clinical Practice Guidelines on the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy 30 http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ synopses/cp56 covr. htm Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals Resources Cardiovascular Disease6 • Assess and treat risk factors aggressively Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-Prevention and Detection of Macrovascular Disease 6 q Smoking Cardiologist Endocrinologist q Weight Diabetes Educator q Blood pressure Dietitian q Activity Exercise Professional q Lipids q Depression Psychologist http://www.nhmrc. gov.au/publications/ subjects/diabetes.htm Lifestyle Prescriptions19 Refer to Nephrologist and Dietitian if renal impairment is detected (eGFR < 60) ADA Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 20069 http://care. diabetesjournals.org/ cgi/content/full/29/ suppl_1/s4#SEC14 Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Evidenced Based Practice Guidelines for the Nutritional Management of Chronic Kidney Disease49 http://hi.bns.health. qld.gov.au/rbh/ dietetics/Clinical_ Information/Chronic_ kidney_disease_ guidelines.pdf • Lifestyle Reemphasize importance of lifestyle changes (consider lifestyle scripts) GP/Medical • Assess for atrial Officer fibrillation 6 • Resting ECG Perform every 2 years in people aged over 50 years who have one or more risk factors • Consider aspirin6 Kidneys7,9 • Provide education and treatment for: GP/Medical Officer q Blood glucose control q Blood pressure control • Monitor q Microalbuminuria q Urinary tract infections q GFR • Review Medication q Metformin q ACE inhibitors • Check cardiovascular risk • Avoid NSAS and radiocontrast media • Provide Medical Nutrition Therapy Dietitian 2.5 Table 7: Specific Issues What Content Who Referrals Resources Medications • Review medications q Side Effects q Actions q Dose q Timing q Contraindications q Effectiveness q Combinations q Change in health status GP/ Medical Officer Consider referral to Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Endocrinologist Accredited Pharmacist ADEA (02) 6287 4822 for Home Medicines Review www.adea.com.au 30 Pharmacist MIMS Diabetes Educator http://www.mims. com.au/ Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals Resources Consider referral to : Endocrinologist Diabetes Australia - Queensland Diabetes Educator MIMS • Alter medications as required • Educate q Side effects Diabetes Educator q Importance of Pharmacist compliance Oral Hypoglycaemic agents (OHAs) • Review blood glucose control, HbA1c GP/Medical Officer • Commence tablets as required • Educate and counsel q Reasons q Actions Diabetes Educator Pharmacist Pharmacist q Side Effects q Dose q Timing q Importance of compliance q Implications for commercial driver’s licence Insulin • Review blood glucose control, HbA1c Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to : Diabetes Educator Diabetes Australia - Queensland • Commence insulin as required GP/Medical Officer Dietitian MIMS Primary Care Coordinator Endocrinologist NDSS • Educate and counsel Pharmacist NDSS Subagents RN Community Pharmacists q Actions q Complications/side Diabetes Resource Health Professional effects (insulin sites) q Hypoglycaemia q Dose q Frequency q Storage q Needles-supply and disposal q How to administer q Food q Physical Activity q Alcohol q Sick days q Travel q Implications for commercial driver’s licence 31 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals Resources Diet • Provide General Nutrition Education. • Provide Medical Nutrition Therapy q Nutrition assessment q Goals q Individualised nutrition prescription q Counselling/education q Evaluation Primary Care Coordinator Dietitian Refer to Dietitian See section 3.2: Dietitian Australian Dietary Guidelines27 Diabetes Australia Queensland Healthy Eating Workshops Dietetic Practice Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 26(endorsed by DAA) American Diabetes Association, Position Statement, Nutrition Principles and Recommendations 50 http://care. diabetesjournals. org/cgi/content/full/ diacare;27/suppl_1/s36 ADA Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes, 2006, 9 http://care. diabetesjournals.org/ cgi/content/full/29/ suppl_1/s4#SEC7 Exercise Primary Care • Assess contraindications/ cardiac risk/ensure medical Coordinator clearance for exercise • Assess current/past exercise patterns • Explain the benefits of exercise/motivate • Provide exercise prescription (consider using a Lifestyle Prescription) • Educate and counsel q Precautions q Blood glucose q Medication/insulin q Food q Foot wear Refer to Cardiologist if cardiac risk Consider referral to Exercise Professional Group Psychologist Flexible Competencies: RN Diabetes Resource Health Professional Practice Nurse Podiatrist Dietitian National Physical Activity Guidelines for Australians28 Lifestyle Prescriptions19 Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 20069 ADA Physical Activity/ Exercise and Diabetes 51 Psychological Issues • Examine and address poor adherence/poor control • Consider psychological issues q Adjustment q Depression q Anxiety q Stress q Anger q Cognition q Behaviour q Relationships Consider referral to: Psychologist Support Group Social Worker Global Guideline for Type 2 DiabetesPsychological Care, IDF, 2005 37 http://www.idf. org/webdata/docs/ IDF%20GGT2D.pdf Primary Care Coordinator/ Psychologist 32 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals • Address factors impacting upon management ADA Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes, Psychological Assessment and Care,20069 http://care. diabetesjournals.org/ cgi/content/full/29/ suppl_1/s4#SEC9 Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice GuidelinesPsychological Aspects of Diabetes41 http://www.diabetes. ca/cpg2003/chapters. aspx?psychologicalasp ectsofdiabetes.htm Australian Psychological Society Depression Anxiety Stress Scales 21 and 4242 The Kessler Psychological Distrress Scale (K10)92 APA Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders36 (American Psychiatric Association) q Family issues q Work q Adherence q Adjustment q Financial Impact q Sexual implications • Provide treatment/ counselling as required • Monitor regularly Sick Days Provide management strategies including; • Blood glucose testing • Medications • Meals and fluids • When to notify the Doctor Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: Diabetes Educator Dietitian Diabetes Resource Health Professional Practice Nurse Nausea/Vomiting • Consider medication causes • Assess, educate and treat for gastroparesis if appropriate • Consider prokinetics • Investigate cause further GP/Medical Officer Consider referral to Dietitian • Preconception issues q Blood Glucose control q Medications q Folate q Educate re complications of pregnancy, congenital abnormalities and complications of diabetes (retinopathy, hypertension, nephropathy) Primary Care Coordinator Pregnancy Resources Diabetes Australia - Queensland Guidelines for Sick Day Management Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Gastroenterologist • Pregnancy q Team care arrangement 33 Refer to: Obstetrician, Endocrinologist Ophthalmologist Diabetes Educator, Dietitian Paediatrician Consider referral to: Midwife Position StatementThe Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society (ADIPS) Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in Relation to Pregnancy,200533 ADIPS Gestational Diabetes MellitusManagement Guidelines32 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 What Content Who Referrals q Blood glucose control Resources http://www.adips. org/ q Medications q Eye review q Monitoring q Screen for and address complications of pregnancy, congenital abnormalities q Screen for and manage complications of diabetes (retinopathy, hypertension, nephropathy) q Delivery • Post partum follow up q Blood glucose control q Contraception q Ongoing assessment and management as per Standard Care Pathway/ as required Driving • Discuss and assess effects of: GP/Medical Officer Diabetes Management in General Practice q Treatment Assessing Fitness to Drive 200343 q Medications q Complications www.austroads.com. au/aftd/index.htm q Hypoglycaemia q Eyes Diabetes Australia - Queensland • Assess fitness to drive according to Driving Licensing Authority Standards • Complete and provide patient with Medical Certificate. Retain a copy in patient record. Inform and counsel patient of outcome Travel Provide advise re • Planning Primary Care Coordinator • Insurance Diabetes Educator • Food Diabetes Resource Health Professional • Medications RN • Monitoring • Medical letter Sexual Issues I am having sexual problems Consider referral to: • Optimise blood glucose control GP/Medical Officer Practice Nurse Primary Care Coordinator Consider referral to: • Consider micro vascular and macrovascular causes • Review medications • Offer treatment as appropriate and provide counselling 34 Endocrinologist Diabetes Australia - Queensland Diabetes Management in General Practice7 Relationships Australia Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Chapter 3 The Multidisciplinary Team 3.1 Diabetes Educator Goals: The goal of diabetes education is to provide the individual with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to carry out the daily medical and lifestyle recommendations for effective self management of Type 2 diabetes. The Objectives of Diabetes Education are 1 To improve metabolic control (blood glucose, lipids, blood pressure) 2To help decrease the risk of complications 3To improve quality of life 4To develop the knowledge and skills required to make appropriate choices to maintain or improve health 5 To ensure care is coordinated 6To increase community awareness of diabetes and help to reduce the risk of diabetes 7 To manage and develop diabetes services Definition of a Diabetes Educator: A Diabetes Educator is a full member of the Australian Diabetes Educators Association (ADEA) who is qualified to practice in nursing, dietetics, podiatry, psychology, medicine or Aboriginal Health. A Diabetes Educator has an acquired core body of knowledge and skills in biology and social sciences, the principles underpinning teaching and learning, skills in communication and counselling and experience and advanced knowledge in the care of people with diabetes and those at risk of developing diabetes. The role of diabetes education is part of their requirement of employment.52 A Credentialled Diabetes Educator™ is a full member of the ADEA who has completed an ADEA accredited post graduate Diabetes Education Course and in addition, has completed a supervised period of clinical placement and activities which fulfil the continuing education and professional development requirements of the ADEA Credentialling Program.52 Qualifications of a Diabetes Educator:52 The formal qualifications of a health professional undertaking the role of a Diabetes Educator should include: • Registered or endorsed to practice within their primary health field • Full member ADEA • Be Credentialled with the ADEA or working towards credentialing status. The ADEA recommends that all health professionals practising in the Diabetes Educator role attain the experience, academic and professional requirements necessary to be a Credentialled Diabetes Educator™ Core Competencies of Diabetes Educators53: Whether diabetes education occurs in a major metropolitan, tertiary referral institution or a remote and isolated community, key elements of practice pertaining to education are required to occur including: • Provision of optimal clinical care to people with diabetes • Provision of safe, effective client centred education to people with diabetes • Fulfilling a health promotion and community education function • Skills to organise and manage a diabetes service • Be professional responsible and accountable 53 The Role of the Diabetes Educator in the Management of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes: Diabetes education is a speciality practice requiring advanced knowledge, counselling and teaching skills. The role of the Diabetes Educator includes the provision of diabetes education, clinical care, research, policy development, service planning, and management as being essential to the future health of people with diabetes, people at risk of developing diabetes and the wider community.52 The primary role of the Diabetes Educator is to integrate diabetes education and treatment using a holistic approach and multidisciplinary team in accordance to professional standards, implementing problem solving approaches and evidence and best practice strategies.52 The ADEA has clearly defined the role of the Diabetes Educator which includes: 35 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Clinician: • Assessing clinical situations as well as assessing and addressing non-clinical variables that influence health • Assessing fixed and modifiable predisposing factors to hyperglycaemia, hypoglycaemia, complications and indicators of diabetes complications • Liaising with the client, family, carer and other members of the diabetes care team in planning, implementing and monitoring diabetes care Educator: • Assessing the current level of knowledge, attitude, skills and behaviour of the client and significant others in relation to diabetes management • Consulting with a client about whether, when, where and how to intervene Counsellor: • Using impartial, reflective and empathetic listening • Clarifying and reflecting • Providing feedback, constructive and empowering Care Coordinator: • Identifying needs that are not being met • Referring to other specialist nursing, medical or allied health professionals with appropriate skills • Regularly reviewing client progress • Communicating and reporting to the health care team Advocate: • Considering, identifying and promoting the person’s best interests within and beyond the context of the immediate consultation • Promoting the interests of Australians with diabetes within and beyond the health sector Consultant: Providing expert advice and resource information to: • Clients and their significant others • Health professionals and colleagues • The wider community • Government and non-government organisations and agencies • Developing specific diabetes care policies and procedures Research and Quality Improvement: • Undertaking clinical research • Evaluating and utilising evidence and consensus recommendations in practice • Participating in collaborative research and clinical trials • Conducting QI programs and using the findings to inform and improve practice Education: Developing, facilitating and participating in: • Client focused individual and group education programs • Health Professional continuing education programs • ‘Train the Trainer’ programs • Programs introducing new diabetes care technology • Continuing self-education and professional development Management: • Staff and resources • Participation in employer policy/health service planning • Developing of clinically focussed cost-effective programs to benefit the client, employer and the community • Maintenance of appropriate statistical records 36 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Leadership: • Acts as a role model for colleagues and peers 52 Education programs developed and implemented by Diabetes Educators must meet the ADEA National Standards for Diabetes Education Programs (2001).14 These standards are divided into three key areas that include: • Outcome Standards – changes that can be demonstrated as a result of diabetes education • Process Standards – processes required to meet the standards of education delivery, effectiveness of education, it’s timeliness and appropriateness • Structure Standards – resources required to support the processes and outcomes.14 The International Diabetes Federation has identified six key standards pertaining to the delivery of diabetes education which include: 1 Make structured patient education an integral part of the management of all people with Type 2 diabetes: • From around the time of diagnosis • On an ongoing basis, based on annual assessment of need • On request 2Use an appropriately trained multidisciplinary team to provide education to groups of people with diabetes, or individually if group work is considered unsuitable. Where desired, include a family member or friend. 3Include in education teams a health-care professional with specialist training in diabetes and delivery of education for people with diabetes 4Ensure the education is accessible to all people with diabetes, taking account of culture, ethnicity, psychosocial, and disability issues, perhaps delivering education in the community or a local diabetes centre, and in different languages 5 Use techniques of active learning (engagement in the process of learning and with content related to personal experience), adapted to personal choices and learning styles 6Use modern communications technologies to advance the methods of delivery of diabetes education37 Referrals: Ideally all patients should be referred to a Diabetes Educator upon diagnosis of diabetes and than be routinely reviewed. Referrals maybe generated from health professionals, health agencies or clients themselves. Diabetes Educators maybe referred to through a Team Care Arrangement in which case, patients can be reimbursed for services provided by private educators through Medicare. Referral to a Diabetes Educator is appropriate when there is: - New diagnosis of diabetes or Impaired Glucose Tolerance or Impaired Fasting glucose - Self management education indicated - HbA1c > 8% - Hypoglycaemic episodes - Onset of complications - Psychological, social, medical or adjustment issues/changes - Difficulties with managing diabetes anticipated/experienced - Change in management such as commencing insulin/ changes to other medications - Prior to planned surgery or travel - A person at risk for developing diabetes - Patient is planning pregnancy/pregnant - A woman with a past history of Gestational Diabetes Flexible Competencies In some areas of Queensland and in some circumstances, access to a Diabetes Educator is not always possible, requiring other health professionals to provide diabetes education. The other health professionals that can provide some elements of education are listed in the table under flexible competencies. These professionals can provide the elements of diabetes education within their professional scope of practice. These professionals are responsible for ensuring they provide accurate education within their scope of practice or for referring to other professionals if they do not have the expertise in dealing with specific problems. They are also responsible for ensuring the person has understood the education provided, correcting misconceptions and planning further education sessions if required. 37 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Definition of a Diabetes Resource Health Professional: A Diabetes Resource Health Professional may be an Associate Member of the ADEA, who has a professional interest and has attended diabetes-related professional activities pertaining to the care and management of diabetes mellitus. They maybe supported by a Diabetes Educator. They may provide limited education and support for people and their families with diabetes working within a reduced scope of practice compared to that of the Diabetes Educator. They may act as an effective referral base to Diabetes Educators and/or diabetes centres. An example of a Diabetes Resource Health Professional would be a Registered Nurse working within a General Practice setting. Definition of a Nurse Practitioner: A Nurse Practitioner is a registered nurse educated to function autonomously and collaboratively in an advanced and expanded clinical role. The Nurse Practitioner role includes assessment and management of clients using nursing knowledge and skills and may include but is not limited to: • The direct referral of clients to other health are professionals • Prescribing medications • Ordering diagnostic investigations (Policy on the Regulation of Nurse Practitioner in Queensland, QNC, 2005)54 3.2 Dietitian Rationale Overweight and obesity are strongly linked to the development of Type 2 diabetes. The prevalence of Type 2 diabetes is three-seven times higher in obese than normal weight adults. Moderate weight loss improves glycaemic control, reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease and can prevent the onset of diabetes in those with prediabetes. 55 There is unequivocal evidence that Type 2 diabetes can be delayed and possibly prevented by lifestyle interventions generally resulting in weight loss and increased physical activity in those at high risk of developing diabetes. 56 The United States Diabetes Prevention Program reported a 58% reduction in the incidence of diabetes when participants were treated with lifestyle interventions including improved diet and exercise compared with a 31 % reduction in the incidence of diabetes for the metformin treated group. Weight loss was the main predictor of diabetes risk reduction. For every kilogram lost, risk of diabetes was reduced by 13%. The primary approach to achieving weight loss is through diet and an increase in physical activity. The lifestyle intervention also reduced cardiovascular disease risk factors with a reduction in blood pressure and triglyceride levels and reduced the need for medication for lipid and blood pressure control.57 The Cochrane Review of Dietary Advice for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Adults reports that dietary advice plus exercise leads to a significant decrease in glycated haemoglobin of 0.9% at six months and a 1.0% decrease at twelve months.56 There is growing evidence that the provision of Medical Nutrition Therapy (MNT) provided by dietitians can reduce the risk of developing diabetes and improves diabetes outcomes in those with existing diabetes. Dietitians can help to achieve lifestyle habits that lead to significant reductions in the incidence of diabetes related health outcomes and improved cost effectiveness.58 Goals of Dietary Intervention in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes The goal of nutrition intervention in the management of diabetes is to promote optimal client well being, reduce the risk of complications and assist the management of existing complications. The objectives of nutrition intervention are 1 To achieve and maintain optimal nutritional status 2To contribute to optimal metabolic control (blood glucose, lipids, blood pressure) 3To achieve and maintain desired body weight/waist circumference/ required weight reduction 4To achieve and maintain positive lifestyle behaviour changes including healthy food choices and physical activity Role of the Dietitian in the Management of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Dietitians play an integral role in the management of people with Type 2 diabetes. The role of the dietitian is to facilitate the development of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours to enable the person with diabetes to make appropriate food choices with an outcome of better diabetes management and a reduced risk of diabetes complications.13 The role of the dietitian involves nutrition assessment, intervention, counselling, communication and evaluation. The dietitian aims to provide interventions that: 38 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 • are outcome focused • are consistent with evidence based approaches • are based on the therapeutic aspects of diet for both treatment and prevention of disease • are in accordance with professional standards and best practice guidelines • promote a self management philosophy. The nutritional management of Type 2 diabetes includes both general nutrition education and MNT 13 General Nutrition Education General nutrition education can be provided by dietitians and qualified Diabetes Educators. General nutrition education is a component of diabetes self management and can be provided in groups or individually. Individuals from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds requiring an interpreter, who have impaired vision or hearing, significant psychological/psychiatric conditions or who are actively non compliant are best seen individually. It is commenced at diagnosis and continues on an ongoing basis. Topics include13 • General information on the role of food in diabetes management • Basic food composition • General aims of dietary intervention • Prevention and treatment of hypoglycaemia • Role of carbohydrate containing foods with respect to medication • Adjustment to carbohydrate intake with respect to usual physical activity • Appropriate food choices for illnesses of short duration • Tips for cooking, shopping, eating out and recipe modification to promote healthy food choices • General recommendations regarding food requirements for travel, during fasting, shift work, religious or other occasions • General recommendations regarding alcohol consumption. Medical Nutrition Therapy Medical nutrition therapy (MNT) is individualised clinical nutrition intervention which can only be provided by qualified Dietitians eligible for the Accredited Practicing Dietitian credential.13 People with Type 1 diabetes, Type 2 diabetes, Gestational Diabetes, co morbidities and/or complications, specific life stage nutrition requirements or who are nutritionally compromised require MNT. A joint statement by the ADEA and DAA recommends that all people with diabetes should have access to a dietitian for MNT in order to achieve optimal nutritional management as part of their diabetes care. 13 MNT includes assessment, prescription, behavioural counselling and development of knowledge and skills. Detailed guidelines for nutrition assessment and intervention are provided by the Dietitians Association Australia (DAA) Dietetic Practice Guidelines for Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.26 Nutrition assessment includes an assessment of the diabetes treatment regimen, anthropometric data, diet history, blood glucose, glycosalated haemoglobin, blood pressure, lipids and renal function. Medical history and management, knowledge, physical activity, psychological and social factors are also assessed. The dietitian helps the patient to identify and agree to goals for long term management. This in conjunction with the nutrition assessment forms the basis for the nutrition prescription which is then developed and implemented. The nutrition prescription includes food and meal planning education based upon the individual’s required energy, macronutrient and micronutrient intake. Specific guidelines are provided as required to addresses the management of weight, blood glucose, lipids and blood pressure. Self management education is provided to enable the individual to make required changes to their eating habits and to encourage self monitoring of blood glucose. If the patient has no medical limitations, the dietitian may provide guidelines for physical activity or refer the patient to an exercise physiologist or other exercise professional for an exercise prescription. The dietitian will provide other members of the team with information regarding their assessment and intervention. Follow up appointments will be organised by the dietitian to evaluate the effectiveness of medical nutrition therapy (MNT) and to adjust therapy as required. Ongoing evaluation, education and communication will be provided and recommendations made to the referring practitioner as appropriate. 39 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Qualifications Mandatory Possession of a degree or post graduate qualification in Nutrition and Dietetics or recognised equivalent and eligibility for the status of Accredited Practicing Dietitian as governed by the Dietitians Association of Australia (DAA). Highly Desirable Accredited Practicing Dietitian (APD) A firm commitment to continuing education in the area of diabetes in either a formal of informal context. Membership to the Australian Diabetes Educators Association. Standards of Professional Practice To practice as a dietitian, dietitians must meet the Dietitians Association Australia Competency Based Standards for Entry Level Dietitians.59 The Code of Professional Conduct provides guidelines on legal responsibilities, ethics, professional conduct and practice for Accredited Practicing Dietitians.60 Referrals Ideally all patients should be referred to a dietitian upon diagnosis of diabetes. The ADEA and DAA recommend that all people with diabetes should have access to a dietitian for MNT in order to achieve optimal nutritional management as part of their diabetes care.13 As a minimum patients must be referred to a dietitian if - New Diagnosis - HbA1c > 8% - Episodes of hypoglycaemia - Obesity - Complications - Patient is planning pregnancy/pregnant - Change in management such as commencing insulin/ changes to other medications - Sudden unexplained weight loss or gain The DAA Dietetic Practice Guidelines for Type 2 Diabetes recommend that patients with Type 2 diabetes be referred to a dietitian within the first month after diagnosis. A series of 2-3 visits following diagnosis is recommended totally 2.5 hours. A review three months after initial dietary intervention should be scheduled to evaluate the effectiveness of nutritional management upon anthropometric and metabolic parameters. People with diabetes should receive ongoing MNT every 6-12 months. Patients identified as requiring basic care should have at least one visit of 1-1.5 hours and receive a follow up appointment after three months. Basic care is appropriate for self motivated individuals with near target blood glucose levels, a good diabetes knowledge base, good nutrition and physical activity habits and blood pressure and lipids within acceptable ranges. 26 The DAA Dietetic Practice Guidelines for Type 2 Diabetes outlines the assessment and intervention recommended for each visit. Note: Under Commonwealth Medicare arrangements, dietetic services are reimbursable items. To receive reimbursement, services must be provided by an Accredited Practising Dietitian working in private practice who has registered with Medicare Australia. The patient must have been referred to the dietitian through a Team Care Arrangement. Flexible Competencies Where an APD is not available or access limited, qualified Diabetes Educators should facilitate access to an APD to ensure appropriate nutritional management of the client. Consider using teleconferencing or other technology. When access to an APD is not possible, other health professionals may be required to provide General Nutrition Education. It is the responsibility of professionals to ensure they have the ability to carry out assessments and interventions within their professional scope of practice and supply information that is accurate and consistent with the current national recommendations/guidelines. It is the responsibility of the professional to refer to other professionals if they do not have expertise in dealing with specific problems. MNT can only be provided by a qualified dietitian. Dietitians are the professional group most skilled to effectively integrate information from all areas to optimise the nutritional management of people with diabetes. 40 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 3.3 Indigenous Health Worker Rationale The prevalence of diabetes is two to four times higher in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples than the nonindigenous population. Factors that contribute to the high incidence of disease in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples include lack of access to health care, social, political and environmental factors and specific health risk factors. All health services have a responsibility to ensure they provide effective and appropriate services to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. These services should address any barriers including, economic, distance and cultural that may limit access for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. 3 For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, it is culturally appropriate for diabetes education to be delivered by trained Indigenous health workers. Indigenous health workers are the best placed to consider cultural factors, environmental barriers and social obstacles to implementing interventions. The involvement of an Indigenous health worker is recommended in any education intervention provided to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with diabetes. Goal of the Indigenous Health Worker in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes To prevent and improve the management of diabetes in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait population. Objectives • To integrate diabetes management with cultural issues • To coordinate health care services across service sectors and the continuum of care • To improve lifestyle choices • To increase self management including self monitoring • To reduce the risk and onset of complications in this population • To improve metabolic control(blood glucose, lipids, blood pressure) • To increase knowledge of diabetes • To reduce the impact of diabetes upon quality of life The following is taken from The Queensland Health Aboriginal Health Worker and Torres Strait Islander Health Worker Customised Competency Standards, May 1999.61 Role of the Indigenous Health Worker Aboriginal health work and Torres Strait Islander health work is carried out in many different locations throughout Queensland – rural, remote, provincial, urban, coastal, inland and island. In each different district, the role of the health worker may vary. Each local community health worker faces the challenge of integrating health practice within the unique cultural needs of his/her community. Some health workers work alone, others in groups or teams and some are closely supervised by other health professionals or managers. Some health workers must make very complex decisions alone and need to be able to perform high level clinical interventions. All health workers provide direct services to individuals, families and communities, plan to meet future health needs, promote wellbeing and prevent ill health. Not all health workers undertake clinical practice, as the term “health” is used holistically and includes environmental, spiritual, psychological and social wellbeing. Indigenous health workers may perform the role of care coordinator and/or case- manager for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and they can provide education and support that is culturally appropriate. They are able perform a liaison role with other health service providers and act as an advocate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander needs and issues. In consultation with health workers across the state and specific service providers (Queensland Health), national competency standards have been adapted to Queensland Health standards and match each level of the Queensland Health Indigenous Health Worker Career Structure. The Indigenous Health Worker Career Structure for Queensland Health provides core responsibilities and roles for Health Workers employed at various levels of the structure. Level – 002 Health Workers at this level have a supervisor and they work in teams. Level – 003 Health Workers at this level are less likely to have a supervisor and are more likely to work alone. Level – 004 Health Workers at his level work very independently and many supervise the work of others. They are likely to represent and lobby on behalf of their organisation and or the community. They may do some program development. 41 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Level – 006, 007 This is a high level of work with a high level of responsibility including management of staff and programs. Work is more complicated, and Health Workers must manage difficult situations with little support from others. Diabetes Health Workers Diabetes prevention and management services are delivered under direction, which may be provided as close supervision or established guidelines that limit discretion. Diabetes Health Worker – Advanced 004/TO2 Health Workers at this level have highly developed skills, knowledge and training in a specialised area. Diabetes Health Worker – 006 The Diabetes Health Worker is responsible for the implementation, development and coordination of diabetes health or more programs in specific care in a District or across District basis. Coordinating and ensuring the standard of delivery of these programs in the communities is also a major responsibility. Competencies Deliver Diabetes Health Care The following are competencies required to deliver diabetes health care services either as a separate program or within a broad services model. 1 The provision of information to a community about diabetes prevention and management health services. 2Assess the need for diabetes prevention and management health services in the community 3Plan and implement care in consultation with other health professionals and other key community members. Manage Diabetes Health Care The following competencies are required to deliver, monitor and evaluate a broad range of diabetes services either by a separate diabetes prevention and management health care program or within a broad service model. 1 Monitor and plan diabetes prevention and management health services 2Ensure diabetes prevention and management health services are delivered appropriately 3Develop expertise of staff in diabetes prevention and management. Nutrition Health Care Nutritional Health Care is delivered under direction which may be provided as close supervision or established guidelines, which limit discretion. Nutrition Health Worker – Advanced 004/TO2 Health Workers at this level have highly developed skills, knowledge and training in a specialised area. Nutrition Health Worker – 006 The Nutrition Health Worker is responsible for the implementation, development and coordination of nutritional health or more programs in specific care in District or across District basis. Coordinating and ensuring the standard of delivery of these programs in the communities is also a major responsibility. Competencies Deliver Nutritional Health Care The following are competencies required: 1 Provide information to the community about nutrition. 2Assess nutritional status of individuals and a community 3Plan and implement care 4Plan and implement change Provide Nutritional Health Care The following are competencies required: 1 Undertake activities according to a plan 2Give nutrition education 42 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 3Ensure nutrition and physical activity choices are available to the community and promote these choices 4Assess the nutritional status of the community 5 Support environmental changes which support nutrition and health 6Provide feedback on progress to supervisor and community on implementation of plan 7 Support improved access to healthy food and exercise facilities/ opportunities Manage Nutritional Health Care The following are competencies required: 1 Monitor and plan services to improve nutrition and health. 2Ensure nutritional services are appropriate 3Advocate on nutrition issues Referrals: All Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples with diabetes particularly those in rural and remote areas should be given the opportunity to access an Indigenous health worker. With the high incidence of diabetes in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, all health workers who provide clinical care will be involved in the management of people with diabetes and can deliver care according to the competencies outlined above. They should seek advice and appropriately refer to other health and diabetes services providers in their area. In remote areas, the health worker may be the main care provider with remote area nurses, doctors and other health professionals visiting. They will have highly developed skills and are able to use more difficult competencies in different situations. 3.4 Podiatry Rationale Diabetic foot complications are the most common reason for diabetes related complication hospital admissions. (Level III-2 Evidence)40 Hospitalized diabetic foot complications are extremely costly, i.e.: • Internationally recognised average length of stays over 15 days (III-2),62,46 • Average diabetic foot ulcer treatment costs (without amputation) range from approx $12 500 (1994 Australian study)(III-2)40 to US$28 000(1999 study)63 Lower limb amputation in people with diabetes constitutes about 50% of all lower-limb amputations (III-2) 40,64 or an annual incidence of approximately 0.2% – 1.4% in the diabetic population (III-2). 63 About half of those having an amputation will have a subsequent amputation on the other limb (III-2)40 and some studies suggest a 40 - 50% five year survival rate post-amputation (III-2).62 Almost all amputations are preceded by a foot ulcer (III-2).40 Approximately 15% of diabetics will develop a foot ulcer or an estimated 1-4% annual incidence (III-2).63 Peripheral neuropathy, with or without peripheral vascular disease (PVD) and foot deformity, is a major underlying risk factor in people with diabetes developing a foot ulcer (1).40,62,63 Peripheral neuropathy affects approximately 12% of people with diabetes at diagnosis and 30% after 12 years (II).40 PVD affects approximately 8% at diagnosis and up to 45% after 20 years duration (III-2).40 Studies have demonstrated regular Podiatry care of patients with high risk diabetic feet (as opposed to control ‘high risk’ groups without podiatric care), reduces: re-ulceration, depth and infection rates of presenting ulcers and hospital admission days (II).63 The European St Vincent Declaration on Diabetes, as well as the Australian National Diabetes Strategy and Implementation Plan, have targeted the goal of reducing amputation rates by 50% by the year 2010. 64 Evidence suggests coordinated multi-disciplinary foot care teams (necessitating a minimum of a physician and podiatrist) can reduce lower limb amputation rates by up to 50% and ulceration costs up to 85% (III-2).40,65 If these targets are to be recognised then the basic evidence based practice (EBP) of diabetic foot risk assessment, identification and management of those with feet ‘at risk’ or of higher risk of ulceration and amputation needs to be prioritised.40 Unfortunately, studies suggest nearly 56% of people with diabetes do not receive an annual foot assessment and up to 84% of persons presenting to hospital with a diabetic foot complication had an incomplete basic foot and/or ulcer assessment (III-2).40,46 A recent retrospective study of a major tertiary Australian hospital highlighted the inadequate coordination of multi-disciplinary care of patients admitted with diabetic foot complications, i.e. patients were admitted under 11 different medical or surgical units, with an average of one interdepartmental referral per admission (IV).46 43 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 A number of tertiary Australian hospitals have addressed this lack of coordination by establishing Podiatry managed Multi-disciplinary Diabetic Foot Ulcer Clinics. The podiatrist’s responsibilities include: triaging assessments, coordinating case management and care by other specialties, and administrative management tasks. These podiatry managed clinics have anecdotally improved cost effectiveness and clinical outcomes of diabetic foot intervention (Expert Opinion (EO). 66 These Queensland Health Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes have been developed to improve the knowledge required by primary care health professionals to implement evidence based assessment, identification and management of the diabetic foot. This will subsequently reduce the substantial morbidity and costs associated with diabetic foot complications across Queensland. For further detailed evidence regarding the identification and management of the diabetic foot, please consult the Diabetes Australia’s ‘National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus- Part 6: Identification and Management of Diabetic Foot Disease’.40 http://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/education_info/nebg.html Goals of Podiatry Management of Type 2 Diabetes The goal of podiatry management of Type 2 diabetes is to “reduce the prevalence of foot and lower limb complications in Australians with Diabetes” 31 The podiatrist aims to provide expert care, advice and education for people with diabetes and other health professionals involved with the diabetic foot. The objectives of the Podiatrist are to: 1 Accurately assess and identify the Foot Risk Status 2Promote optimal metabolic control (blood glucose, lipids, blood pressure) 3Ensure appropriate plantar pressure reduction and footwear 4Increase knowledge and self care of diabetic foot complications 5 Increase awareness of the need for preventative foot care practices 6Promote EBP multidisciplinary team approaches to management 7 Promote infection control 8Achieve optimal wound care environments. Role of the Podiatrist in the Management of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes The role of the podiatrist involves providing and coordinating expert management of the person with diabetes across the continuum of care. The specific podiatric management, and that of the multi-disciplinary team, depends entirely on the patients assessed level of diabetic foot risk. This guideline has primarily adopted the Diabetes Australia’s ‘National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus- Part 6: Identification and Management of Diabetic Foot Disease’ 40 categories for determining the foot risk of people with diabetes, i.e.: I Low Risk – people without any of the below defined complications 40 II At Risk – people with • Peripheral neuropathy or • Peripheral vascular disease or • Foot deformity 40 IIIHigh Risk – people with • Foot deformity with peripheral neuropathy or peripheral vascular disease or • Previous foot ulcer or amputation40 IVAcute Complication – people with • Current foot ulcer +/- infection or • Charcot/Neuroarthropathic Joint or • Dry Gangrene or Acute Ischaemia 46 The diabetic foot risk can be easily assessed utilising foot risk assessment tools similar to the ‘Basic Foot Screening Checklist’ (Appendix I). 47 The diabetic foot risk assessment can be performed by other primary healthcare professionals, i.e.: • GPs and Diabetes Educators • Competent Nurses, Indigenous Health Workers, and Allied Health Assistants who have attended education sessions and passed competencies on the use of the diabetic foot risk assessment. 44 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Podiatric care has a role in all diabetic foot risk categories – although, the necessity for podiatry management is more vital as the foot risk increases. The health sector in which podiatric care is provided (i.e. Private or Public, Community or Hospital) may change to reflect the diabetic foot risk. Referral to the ‘Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Clinical Pathway’ (Appendix 2)48 is advised to determine the most appropriate and timely podiatry sector to access. ‘Low Risk’ Diabetic Foot Management The international consensus for ‘low risk’ diabetic foot assessment and management is a minimum diabetic foot assessment and inspection once per year (EO). 40 It is important to remember that “improvement in glycaemic control is effective in reducing the risk of the development and progression of neuropathy (and peripheral vascular disease) in Type 2 diabetes” (II). 40 It is recommended that all people with diabetes should receive specific foot-care education. High level evidence concludes foot-care education for persons with diabetes improves knowledge and self-management of their diabetic foot condition and may prevent diabetic foot ulceration and amputation (I). 40 Education can be provided individually or in group situations. Education should allow the patient to understand and/or implement various foot management issues and strategies. Topics of diabetic foot education should include: • Diabetes effects on foot health • Recognising risk factor signs and symptoms in foot complications • Understanding the importance and impact of controlling hyperglycaemia, hyperlipidaemia and hypertension on foot health • Basic daily foot inspection and care to maintain foot health • Understanding the importance of appropriate footwear choices • Identifying when and which health professionals to access when diabetic foot problems occur (especially infections). 31 ‘Low Risk’ diabetic foot assessment, education and management may not require podiatry involvement, although it is advisable for patients to attend a podiatrist (in a group or individual situation), at least once, for early assessment and education after initial diagnosis. ‘At Risk’ Diabetic Foot Management The international consensus for ‘at risk’ diabetic foot assessment and management is that a diabetic foot risk assessment and inspection should occur every 3 to 6 months (EO).40 The benefits of managing ‘at risk’ feet regularly include the: • application of preventative practices, • monitoring the extent of foot risk, and, • early identification and treatment of specific foot problems, limiting the risk of ulceration and amputation. “The podiatrist is an essential member of the multi-disciplinary team” and should be regularly involved in these above ‘at risk’ assessments and inspections (II).40 The ‘at risk’ foot progression to a ‘high risk’ or ‘acute complication’ foot is commonly recognised to result from events causing repetitive stress or friction on areas of high plantar pressure, callus and/or foot deformities (III-2).40 These events occurring on an ‘at risk’ foot is frequently the precipitating factor which leads to ulceration and amputation (III-2).40 The podiatrists’ role in the ‘at risk’ foot should primarily concentrate on limiting factors that advance the development of the ‘high risk’ foot. The podiatrist may do this utilising various management techniques: • Consistently reinforcing the above education (See ‘Low Risk’ Diabetic Foot Management) and the importance of self foot-care behaviour (I) 40 • Ensuring appropriate footwear provision – –“plantar pressure can be reduced with moderately priced commercially available cross trainer shoes” (III-2) 40 –“therapeutic shoes in combination with podiatry care decrease amputation” (II) 40 • Construct insoles or orthotics to further reduce plantar pressures - “customised insoles have been shown to reduce ulcer recurrence” (III-2) 40 • Manually debride callus (III-1) 31,40,46 and major pathological nails • Ensure coordination of appropriate referrals to specialists for more severe ‘at risk’ foot complications (See Table 6 Complications- Feet ) 45 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 ‘At Risk’ diabetic foot assessment, education and management should involve regular podiatry management to apply routine preventative education, plantar pressure reduction and risk monitoring techniques. A podiatrists scope of practice is frequently best placed to provide coordination for ‘at risk’ diabetic foot management. ‘High Risk’ Diabetic Foot Management The international consensus for ‘high risk’ diabetic foot management is that a diabetic foot examination should occur every one to three months (EO).63,67 People with diabetes who have foot ulcers or with high risk feet should be cared for by a multi-disciplinary service which should include a physician and podiatrist and have ready access to a specialist nurse, orthotist and surgeon (I). 40 Recommendations to prevent amputation in people with high risk feet include regular foot examination, education, suitable footwear and orthotics, podiatry services, and early ulcer treatment including surgery where indicated (I).40 An evidence based multi-disciplinary foot-care team can : • Improve ulcer healing rates • Reduce ulcer recurrence rates • Reduce amputations by up to 50% (III-2).40 The podiatrist should seriously consider utilising all the aforementioned management techniques used for the ‘at risk’ foot. ‘Acute Complication’ Diabetic Foot Management Initial ‘acute complication’ diabetic foot management should occur as soon as practically possible and be reviewed normally every 1-2 weeks, via a multi-disciplinary team (EO).46,67 Every new ‘acute complication’, or ‘acute complication’ with delayed healing, should be reassessed for: 1 Peripheral Neuropathy (I) 2Peripheral Vascular Disease (I) 3 Foot Deformity (I) 4Infection (I). 40,46 A number of ‘acute complication’ management principles should be considered at each treatment, as appropriate such as : • Debridement (eg sharp) of wound (III-1) • Dressing regime (eg moist wound dressing) (EO) • Pressure Off-Loading (eg Removable Cast Walker) (III-1) • Antibiotics (i.e. for infection) (I).46 A number of specialist referrals should be considered with ‘acute complication’ management including: • Vascular, Orthopaedic or Podiatric Surgeons • Endocrinologist, Diabetes Educator or Dietitian • Plaster Technician or Orthotist • Radiologist • Infectious Diseases Specialist (III-2).40 Note: Ulcers ‘probed’ to bone or with >2cm surrounding cellulitis should be urgently referred to a Hospital MultiDisciplinary High Risk Foot Team.62 This guideline recommends the use of Wraight et al’s (2005) ‘Clinical Assessment, Investigations & Management of Acute Diabetic Foot Complications’ (Appendix 3) (I) 46 tool for each ‘acute complication’ presentation. The tool is a “multi-disciplinary, evidence-based, clinical guideline for the assessment, investigation and management of acute diabetes related complications”. (I) 46 The ‘high risk’, and ‘acute complications’ diabetic foot assessment, investigation and management, necessitates regular podiatry management in the community and/or hospital environment. Podiatrists’ are often best placed to triage acute diabetic foot complications prior to, or at, an admission, resulting in a reduction in: • inadequate coordination of care • lengthy waiting periods for outpatient specialist appointments • overall costs to the health system • amputation and associated morbidity (EO). 66 46 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Qualifications Mandatory Possession of a degree, or equivalent, in Podiatry, recognised by registration with the Podiatrists Board of Queensland. Highly Desirable A firm commitment to continuing education in the area of diabetes in either a formal of informal context. Recognition by the Australian Podiatry Association as an Accredited Podiatrist within the Accredited Podiatrist Program or equivalent. Standards of Professional Practice Podiatrists practicing in Queensland are required to abide by the Podiatrist’s Board of Queensland’s ‘Guidelines for Standards of Practice’ (2006).68 http://www.podiatryboard.qld.gov.au/DocsLibrary/Policies.htm These guidelines are founded on the Podiatrists Registration Act (2001) 68 and specifically include for diabetes management, Podiatrists: • must comply with: Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes best practice guidelines and the Australasian Podiatry Council’s Diabetes Guidelines • shall be responsible for the professional assessment, selection, and delivery of the management plan, particularly for those with “high risk” foot status.68 Referrals Community-based podiatrists normally accept referrals from all health care agencies, professionals and members of the public. Hospital-based podiatrists normally require referral from a Medical Officer. Ideally all patients should be referred to a podiatrist upon diagnosis of diabetes and have had a ‘Basic Foot Screen Checklist’ (Appendix 1) 47 completed to determine whom to refer. Referral to the ‘Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Clinical Pathway’ (Appendix 2) 48 is advised to determine the most appropriate and timely podiatry sector to access for the individual diabetic foot risk categories. As a minimum patients must be referred to a podiatrist when there are: Clinical signs or history of ‘At or High Risk Foot’, i.e.: - Foot ulceration - Foot amputation - Neuroarthropathy or Charcot Foot - Peripheral neuropathy - Peripheral vascular disease - Foot deformity Note: The numbers of podiatrists working within Queensland Health are limited, and thus, these podiatrists may only receive,‘at risk”, ‘high risk’ and/or “acute complication” diabetic foot referrals depending on the particular health service districts protocols. Under Commonwealth Medicare arrangements, private podiatry services are reimbursable items. To receive reimbursement services, a GP must place a patient on a Team Care Arrangement, and then, refer to the private podiatry practitioner who has registered with Medicare Australia. Flexible Competencies Unfortunately the healthcare system does not currently provide easily accessible education or podiatry services for people with diabetes whose feet are “at risk”. 40 Thus, the utilisation of the ‘Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Clinical Pathway’ (Appendix 2) 48 may aid the provision of podiatry care. Where a Podiatrist (public or private) is not available, or access extremely limited, General Practitioners and/or Diabetes Educators should coordinate ‘low’ and/or ‘at risk’ foot management and education. When access to a podiatrist is not possible, some elements of diabetic foot intervention may need to be provided by other healthcare professionals, including competently trained; • Indigenous Health Workers (Refer to Warnock’s (2005) Indigenous Diabetic Foot Project) – www.sarrah.org.au/ SARRAH/WhatsNew.asp 93 • Nurses • Allied Health Assistants. Podiatrists can facilitate accredited continuing education for other healthcare professionals in diabetes foot care. 47 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 ‘High risk’ and ‘acute complications’ management should definitely involve a podiatrist. If there is absolutely no access to a podiatrist, management can be coordinated by General Practitioners and/or Diabetes Educators with the aid of a Physician, Vascular Surgeon, Orthopaedic or Podiatric Surgeon, Infectious Diseases Specialist, Orthotist and/or Wound Care Nurse. Consideration of teleconferencing, telehealth or other technology to access and consult a podiatrist should be undertaken for ‘at risk’, ‘high risk’ and ‘acute complication’ diabetic foot management. It is the responsibility of the aforementioned professionals to refer to other professionals if they do not have expertise in dealing with specific problems. Podiatrists are the professional group most skilled to effectively integrate foot information from all areas to optimise the foot and lower limb management of people with diabetes. 3.5 Psychologists Rationale Increasingly the treatment of diabetes is moving from a focus on compliance where an individual carries out the treatment as directed by a health professional to a model of empowerment in which the emphasis is on the individual being responsible for the self management of their diabetes.69,70,71 Psychologists are involved in promoting self management through changing attitudes and motivation71,72 and encouraging appropriate lifestyle changes to reduce the risk of complications.73 Individuals with diabetes have been found to experience disproportionately high rates of psychological disorders and symptoms.74 Depression and anxiety disorders have been found to be the most common diagnoses, occurring far more often in individuals with diabetes than in the general population.75,76,77 Research suggests that depression is two to three times more prevalent in people with diabetes compared to the general population, affecting approximately one out of every five individuals.75, 76 Recent studies further suggest that depression may be an independent risk factor for developing Type 2 diabetes.78,79 Co-morbid depression is significantly associated with poorer diet and medication adherence, functional impairment, increased health care use and expenditure 80,81 and poor glycaemic control.82 Anxiety symptoms have also been found to be highly prevalent in individuals with diabetes, with 14% meeting the criteria for an anxiety disorder.76,83 Even when individuals with diabetes do not meet criteria for a clinical diagnosis of depression or anxiety, some studies suggest that approximately 40% are likely to experience significantly elevated levels of depressive and anxious symptomatology. 76, 83 Given the growing number of older individuals diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes, the impact of diabetes on cognitive abilities is becoming increasingly important.84 Research suggests that diabetes is associated with both subtle declines in cognitive function (as assessed by neuropsychological tests) and more profound declines in function (as assessed by clinical dementia criteria). 84,85, 86 A variety of other psychological conditions, including binge eating disorder, can also present in individuals with diabetes and compromise their ability to manage their diabetes. 87,88 The Global Guidelines for Type 2 diabetes (IDF Clinical Guidelines Task Force, 2005)37 states “There is RCT support for the efficacy of antidepressant treatment (in a mixed group of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes with major depressive disorder) and for cognitive behaviour therapy (in Type 2 diabetes with major depression ).37,41,89 There is growing evidence that psychological counselling can contribute to improved adherence and psychological outcomes in people with diabetes.90 A systematic review and meta-anlaysis has shown that, overall, psychological interventions are effective in improving glycaemic control in Type 2 diabetes.”91 Goal The goal of psychological intervention in the management of Type 2 Diabetes is to promote the optimal physical and emotional health of the person with diabetes. The objectives of psychological intervention are to 1 optimise the individual’s adjustment to the diagnosis 2optimise the emotional state of the individual 3optimise health behaviours and self management 4optimise adherence to treatment 5 optimise relationships with family and other health professionals that impact upon the management of the diabetes 6identify cognitive deficits and optimise management of the effects of deficits upon lifestyle and diabetes selfmanagement. 48 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Role of Psychologists in Management of Type 2 Diabetes The role of the psychologists includes • assessment of well being and psychological status including cognitive functioning • provision of emotional support and counselling • provision of behaviour therapy to facilitate self management, the implementation of treatment recommendations and healthy lifestyle choices • management of psychological and social disorders and issues • provision of staff training, education and advice According to the American Diabetes Association, assessment of psychological and social status should be included as part of the medical management of diabetes. Psychological screening would include but not be limited to attitudes about the illness, expectations for management and outcomes, affect/mood, quality of life, financial, social and emotional status and mental history. Screening for depression, eating disorders, and cognitive impairment is recommended when adherence to treatment is poor.9 Self management is critical to the effective treatment of diabetes. Psychologists help the individual to implement self management including appropriate lifestyle choices by facilitating changes in attitudes and motivation.71,72 Psychologists can assess and provide interventions to address nutrition, weight management, physical activity and smoking. This process involves, assessing readiness to change, developing personal goals, reducing barriers to change, providing problem solving skills and providing follow-up. Psychologists play a significant role in the assessment and management of the psychological issues associated with diabetes such as anxiety, depression, anger, stress, adjustment, adherence and cognition. Psychologists can provide emotional support and counselling to help the individual and family adjust to the diagnosis, treatment and expected outcomes and to help address family, work, financial, relationship and sexual issues. Anxiety, stress and depression can severely impact on ability to manage on a daily basis and to undertake self-care behaviour. Engaging in cognitive behaviour therapy provides an opportunity to learn strategies to cope with life difficulties and to engage in behaviours that can promote a healthy lifestyle. Psychologists are actively involved in providing consultancy and staff training in self management and strategies to manage emotional difficulties. Qualifications Mandatory Registered as a Psychologist in Queensland Highly Desirable Post-graduate studies in Clinical or Clinical Health Psychology Standards of Professional Practice Competency based standards for psychologists have been developed by the Australian Psychological Society and have been incorporated into undergraduate and post-graduate training in psychology. All Psychologists in Queensland are required to abide by the Australian Psychological Society Code of Ethics as they have been endorsed by the Psychologist Board of Queensland. Referrals Ideally individuals experiencing one or more of the following difficulties should be referred to a Psychologist • Difficulty adhering to diabetes treatment • Difficulty implementing required lifestyle changes/self care behaviours • Significant stress • Sexual dysfunction • Anxiety/frustration/anger • Depression • Frequent admissions for DKA • HbA1c > 8% • Needle Phobia 49 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 • Cognitive difficulties • Complex mental health history • Family/interpersonal conflict re diabetes care According to the American Diabetes Association, it is preferable to incorporate psychological treatment into routine care rather than wait for identification of a specific problem or deterioration in psychological status. Screening of psychological status should occur at diagnosis, during regular scheduled reviews, during acute episodes requiring hospitalisation, at onset of complications, with persistent poor glucose control or with poor adherence to treatment.9 Note: Under Commonwealth Medicare arrangements, private psychology services are reimbursable items. To receive reimbursement services a GP must place a patient on a Team Care Arrangement, and then, refer to the private psychologist who has registered with Medicare Australia. Flexible Competencies In situations where ready access to a psychologist is limited, it is essential that members of the diabetes team undertake training that enables them to screen and provide brief intervention for emotional difficulties, lifestyle risk factors and ability to undertake self-management. Consultation/ liaison with a psychologist is recommended. Referral to a psychologist is essential when emotional disorders; lifestyle risk factors and other factors are impacting on ability to undertake self-management activities. 3.6 General Practitioner The clinical role of the GP may vary considerably, depending on the setting, patient circumstances and requirements of care. One of the most crucial ongoing roles however is that as co-coordinator of patient care. Australians with diabetes have complex and changing support from a variety of health professionals - doctors, nurses, allied health personnel, pharmacists and community support groups. It is generally the GP who makes the diagnosis and stabilizes the patient over several weeks, with the assistance of dietitian, diabetes educator and other relevant health providers. This includes ensuring the patient understands the effects and challenges of diabetes, its optimal management and the many supports available to them in controlling the process long term. The general practice is the central repository of relevant health information for the patient and health care team, and instigator of appropriate care planning and quarterly review. The GP also checks annually to ensure important prevention and early detection assessments are completed. As patients are whole people and have active and changing physical, emotional and psycho-social dimensions to their health, the general practice is their reference point for wholistic and continuing care. 3.7 Referral To Other Health Professionals Referral criteria to the following professionals are listed below Endocrinologist • Existing co-morbidities/complications requiring review • Patient considering pregnancy or pregnant • HbA1c persistently > 8% following intervention by Diabetes Educator/Dietitian • Review of pharmacological management required Exercise Physiologists/ Physiotherapist • Conditions affecting activity levels/functional capacity eg. Musculo-skeletal conditions • Provision of specific physical activity prescription • Supervision of exercise in individual or group settings Pharmacist • Review of medications/education - action, effectiveness - dose, timing, combinations - side effects - contraindications - compliance - changes - insulin, Oral hypoglycaemic agents 50 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Ophthalmologist/Optometrist30 • Type 2 diabetes within first year of diagnosis • If patient is or becomes pregnant conduct a comprehensive eye examination within the first trimester • Refer to Ophthalmologist/Optometrist every two years if no retinopathy and yearly once Diabetic retinopathy is identified Urgent Referral to Ophthalmologist essential if • Diabetic retinopathy is found that is at a greater level than the presence of occasional microaneurysms30 • Diabetic Macular Oedema • Declining visual acuity30 Nephrologist • Impaired renal function, eGFR < 60ml/min/1.73m2 Vascular Surgeon • Symptoms and signs of ischaemia of lower limbs • Arterial ulceration • Carotid bruits Oral Health7 • Dental or periodontal problems • Yearly for routine review 51 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Appendices Appendix 1 Basic Foot Screening Checklist National Association of Diabetes Centres Australasian Podiatry Council Preventing Foot Complications in Diabetes Background Foot problems account for much of the morbidity, amputations and hospitalisations in people with diabetes. Most foot problems are preventable when identified early, treated appropriately and when people are educated to avoid these problems. Aims 1. To identify the ‘high risk’ foot using as indicators: • history of previous foot ulceration or amputation • peripheral neuropathy • peripheral vascular disease • foot deformity 2. To identify active foot problems checking for: • infection • ulcerations • calluses or corns • any skin breaks • nail disorders 3. To prevent amputations Screening 1. Ask the patient if they have experienced : • previous foot problems • symptoms of neuropathy • intermittent claudication 2. Look at both feet to find any active problems 3. Check foot pulses 4. Test for neuropathy by assessing protective sensation (with a 10 gram monofilament) 5. Assess footwear 6. Assess education need 7. Assess self care capacity including vision, mobility, social factors All people with diabetes need to have their feet examined using these 7 simple steps every 12 months or more often if problems are identified. National Diabetes Foot Screening Project January 2004 52 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 National Association of Diabetes Centres Australasian Podiatry Council Basic Foot Screening Checklist 1. Ask the patient neuropathic symptoms intermittent claudication previous foot ulcer amputation specify 2. Look at both feet Y Y N Y N N N SITE______________________ DATE ____/____/______ infection ulceration calluses or corns skin breaks nail disorders foot deformity Y Y Y Y Y Y LEFT 3. Check foot Y N N N N N N RIGHT Dorsalis pedis Y N Y N Posterior tibial Y N Y N pulses LEFT 4. Test for Monofilament neuropathy Y RIGHT N Y N detected at sites marked - o 5. Assess footwear style condition fit Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor 6. Assess education need Does the patient understand the effects of diabetes on foot health? Can the patient identify appropriate foot care practices? Are the patient’s feet adequately cared for? Y Y Y N N N Y Y Y N N N 7. Assess self care capacity Does the patient have impaired vision? Can the patient reach own feet for safe self care? Are there other factors influencing ability to safely care for own feet? All people with diabetes need to have their feet screened with these 7 simple steps every 12 months or more often if problems are identified National Diabetes Foot Screening Project January 2004 53 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 National Association of Diabetes Centres Australasian Podiatry Council Action Plan following Basic Foot Screening DATE OF REFERRAL ____/_____/____ PATIENT NAME SERVICE PROVIDER ____________________ Is the foot high risk ? If yes, why ? Yes No (re-check in 12 months) history of previous foot ulceration or amputation peripheral neuropathy peripheral vascular disease foot deformity other ___________________________________ Action* Record details of personnel referred to. Where resources are unavailable, indicate and describe alternative care provision 1. Ulceration or significant infection • referred to multidisciplinary team : 2. ‘High risk’ foot • referred to podiatrist and/or multidisciplinary team : • referred for medical assessment at least every 6 months and foot examination every 3 months : 3. Active foot problem • referred to podiatrist 4. Symptomatic peripheral vascular disease • referred to vascular surgeon : • involving endocrinologist / physician : 5. Symptomatic peripheral neuropathy • referred to endocrinologist : 6. Foot deformity or abnormality • referred to podiatrist : 7. Inadequate knowledge or foot care practices • referred to : • or education provided Yes *The patient’s General Practitioner or Local Medical Officer will usually be responsible for coordinating the patient’s care and should be informed of referrals, interventions and progress National Diabetes Foot Screening Project January 2004 54 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Appendix 2 Intergrated Diabetic Foot Continnum of Care Clinical Pathway Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Clinical Pathway National Health Priority Area directives and the new Commonwealth Government Medicare Plus initiative, has emphasised the need to re-establish communication between Private and Public Podiatry services. This collaboration will aim to provide seamless clinical care to our escalating Diabetic Population as well as strengthen the overall standing of our profession. The Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Pathway allows for the maximum utilisation of Medicare Plus and available government funding, supporting consumers across the disease morbidity continuum. We envisage this will provide benefits to private and public services and our patient population as a whole, via: • increased access to appropriate and collaborated services, • increased understanding and confidence in and within Podiatry services from clients and other health professions, & • an overall reduction in foot ulceration and amputation rates toward the European St Vincent Declaration on Diabetes Goal, “50% Amputation Reduction by 2010”. Using the Chart The Podiatrist can ascertain the consumer’s risk status based on the University of Texas Diabetes Risk Classification Scale simply by • Detection of 10g monofilament, • Palpation of pedal pulses, • Assessing for foot deformities, ulcers, infections and/or amputations. Once the risk status has been identified the consumer’s most appropriate management plan can be determined (i.e. Private, Public Podiatry or Medical Consultant). Specific leaflets will also be available to distribute to the patient as an initial more specific risk information source. Please state reason for referral, medical history and risk category on all referrals. QH Public Podiatry Service Queensland Health Podiatry uses up-to-date evidence based management to: • Reduce morbidity associated with National Health Priority Areas (i.e. Diabetes, Injury Prevention, Arthritis & Musculoskeletal Conditions) • Maintain and improve mobility of older persons and younger disabled clients to strengthen their independence • Provide optimum education/health promotion to clients, carers and other health professionals on pedal health • Improve overall professional development in accordance with latest evidence based management of pedal health. Public Podiatry services are offered through-out a range of settings and locations across Queensland, including: • Hospital Endocrinology, Vascular &/or Orthopaedic Depts. etc., • Primary and Community Health Services, • More Allied Health Services Program (MAHS) through rural Divisions of General Practices, • Respite Services & Residential Aged Homes Within the area of Diabetes and the High Risk Foot, Public Podiatrists, as members of a Multi-discipline Diabetes clinical team specifically target ‘At Risk’ and ‘High Risk’ Diabetic Foot complications to reduce and prevent ulceration and amputation of the lower limb. These teams also often provide group education services to the ‘Newly Diagnosed’ diabetic population. New Medicare items for Allied Health Services From 1 July 2004, people with chronic conditions and complex care needs (eg Diabetes) who are being managed through an Enhanced Primary Care (EPC) multidisciplinary care plan may be eligible for up to 5 allied health services per year on referral from their GP. GPs must use the EPC allied health or dental care referral form to refer patients to an eligible, HIC registered allied health professional or dentist. Allied health professionals and dentists may set their own fees. However, for each allied health item, the Medicare schedule fee is $51.75 with a Medicare rebate of $44.00 For more information contact HIC on 132 150 or www.hic.gov.au/providers Your Local Public Podiatrist is: (Place Stamp Here) 55 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Appendix 2 Intergrated Diabetic Foot Continnum of Care Clinical Pathway Referral Source: GP; Nurse; AH; Specialist Low Risk High Risk At Risk Cat 0 Cat 1 Cat 2 Cat 3 Cat 4 Cat 5 PVD/Ischaemic Protective Sensation Intact and Nil PVD Loss Protective Sensation and Nil PVD and Nil Foot Deformity Loss Protective Sensation and Foot Deformity +/- callous Loss Protective Sensation and Previous Foot Ulcer, Amputation or Charcot Foot Loss Protective Sensation, Noninfected Foot Ulcer Present and/or Acute Charcot Foot Loss Protective Sensation, Infected Foot Ulcer Present and/or Acute Charcot Foot Absent Foot pulses Hx Claudication, Vascular ulceration Gangrene Foot Health Leaflet 0 Foot Health Leaflet 1 Foot Health Leaflet 2 Foot Health Leaflet 3 RV in 12 Months on EPCP Referral RV in 3-4 Months on EPCP Referral RV in 2-3 Months some on EPCP Referral Patient happy to pay continue 1-8 Week Reviews Patient happy to pay for Wound Care Program 1-2X/52 RVs Refer Public Pod for non-EPCP Reviews Refer Public Pod for non-EPCP Reviews Refer Public Pod for 1-8 Weekly ‘At Risk’ Reviews Refer Public Pod for Urgent Wound Care Program or Casting (EPCP Cover) Private Podiatrist Foot Health Leaflet 4 (Foot Ulcers) (Patient Pays Extra Visits) Community Public Podiatrist Immediate Referral to GP or Hospital A&E & Pod with details of Infection (ie Superficial or Deep) Consultant Input • Endocrinologist • Vascular • Wound CNC • Orthopaedic • Infectious Dz. Hospital Podiatrist Legend EPCP = Enhanced Primary Care Plan A&E = Accident and Emergency Dz = Diseases CNC = Clinical Nurse Consultant PVD = Peripheral Vascular Disease Hx = History RV = Review References 1 Armstrong DG et al. J. Amer. Podiatr. Med. Assn. 1996; 86:311-316 2 Lanarkshire NHS Trust, Scotland, Diabetes Services - Diabetic Foot Management 3 Health Insurance Commission 2004 Health Care Providers: Fact Sheets http://www.hic.gov.au/providers/resources/incentives_allowances /medicare initiatives/pa8666 allied fact sheet.pdf 56 Foot Health Leaflet PVD Vascular Ulceration or Gangrene Immediate Referral to Hospital A&E /Vasc Dept Otherwise Referral to Public Pod for Doppler/PPG Studies or Hospital Vasc Department Community Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 Appendix 3 Wraight Et Al’s Clinical Assessment and Investigations and Management of Acute Diabetic Foot Complications 57 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 References 1. Dunstan D, Zimmet P, Wellborn T, et al. Diabesity and Associated Disorders in Australia-2000. The Accelerating Epidemic. The Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab). Melbourne: International Diabetes Institute, 2001. 2. Barr E, Magliano DJ, Polkinghorne KR, Atkins RC, Dunstan DN, Murray SG, Shaw JE. AusDiab 2005. The International Diabetes Institute, 2006. 3. Australian Health Priority Council (NHPAC). National Service Improvement Framework for Diabetes, Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra, 2006. 4. Colagiuri S, Colagiuri R, Conway B, Grainger D, Davey P. Diabco$t Australia: Assessing the Burden of Type 2 Diabetes in Australia. Diabetes Aust, Canberra, 2003. 5. Deakin T, Williams D. Group based self management strategies in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus The Cochrane Data Base of Systematic Reviews 2005, The Cochrane Collaboration Volume 1, 2006 6. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Part 5: Evidenced Based Guideline for the Prevention and Management of Macrovascular Disease in Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Australia Guideline Development Consortium. NHMRC endorsed 2004 7. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners and Diabetes Australia, Diabetes Management in General Practice, Tenth Edition, 2005/6. 8. Queensland Strategy for Chronic Disease 2005-2015, Queensland Health 2005 9. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes, position statement. Diabetes Care, 2006; 28:S4-S36. 10. National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health: Framework for Action by Governments 2003. NATSIHC Canberra.2003 11. Overland J, Mira M, Yue DK. Differential shared care for diabetes: does it provide the optimal partition between primary and specialist care? Diabetes UK. Diabetic Medicine, 2001;18, 554-557. 12. Holmwood CPP. Current approaches to diabetes control. How good are they? Australian Family Physician, 2001; 1129-33. 13. ADEA and DAA. Joint statement on the role of Accredited Practicing Dietitians and Diabetes Educators in the delivery of nutrition and diabetes self-management education services for people with diabetes. June 2005 14. Australian Diabetes Educators Association, National Standards for Diabetes Education Programs, 2001. 15. American Diabetes Association. National standards for diabetes self-management education. Diabetes Care, 2006; 29: S 78-S85. 16. Rickheim PL, Weaver TW, Flader JL, and Kendall DM. Assessment of group versus individual diabetes education: a randomized study. Diabetes Care 2002; 25(2):269-74. 17. Joint Advisory Group on General Practice and Population Health. Smoking, Nutrition, Alcohol and Physical Activity (SNAP) Framework for General Practice, Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra, 2001. 18. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners National Standing Committee. SNAP, A Population Health Guide to Behavioral Risk Factors in General Practice.2004. The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, Victoria, 2004 19. Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, Lifestyle Prescriptions. 20. Productivity Commission’s Strategic Framework for Overcoming Indigenous Diseases 21. Australian Health Ministers’ Council, Cultural Respect Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Islander Health 20042009, Dept Health South Aust. 2004 22. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition Strategy and Action Plan 2000-2010 23. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Australia Guideline Development Consortium ,http://www. diabetesaustralia.com.au/education_info/nebg.html 24. Australian Diabetes Educators Association (ADEA). Guidelines-Management and Care of Diabetes in the Elderly. ADEA 2003. 25. Queensland Health. Best Practice Guidelines for the Management of Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescence. Queensland Health, 2002. 58 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 26. Dietitians’ Association Australia, NSW Branch Special Interest Group. Dietetic Practice Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Endorsed by the Dietitians Association of Australia. 2006. 27. NHMRC. Australian Dietary Guidelines. Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing, NHMRC, 2003. 28. NHMRC. National Physical Activity Guidelines for Australians. Australian Government, Department of Health and Ageing, NHMRC, 1999 29. NHMRC - Clinical Practice Guidelines For the Management of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. NHMRC, 2003. 30. Mitchel P, Chua B, Patel I, Foran S, Ojaimi E. Amalgamated Literature Review on the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy, 2005, Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Diabetic Retinopathy. Centre for Vision Research, University of Sydney (Westmead Hospital). NHMRC. 2005. 31. Australian Podiatric Councils and Diabetes Australia. Australian Podiatric Guidelines for Diabetes. 1997. 32. Hoffman L, Nolan C, Wilson JD, Oats JJN, Simmons D, Gestational diabetes mellitus- management guidelines, The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. Medical Journal of Australia, 1998; 169: 93-97. 33. Mc Elduff A, Wah Cheung N, McIntyre HD, Lagstrom J, Oats JJN, Ross GP, Simmons D, Walters BNJ, Wein P. The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society consensus guidelines for the management of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes in relation to pregnancy, The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. Medical Journal of Australia, 2005; 183(7):373-377. 34. Dept Health and Ageing. Smoking Cessation Guidelines for Australian General Practice. Department of Health and Aging, 2004 35. Australian Alcohol Guidelines: Health Risks and Benefits. NHMRC, 2001 36. American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines for the Treatment and Management of Psychiatric Disorders. American Psychiatric Association, 2006. 37. International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Clinical Guidelines Taskforce. Global Guideline for Type 2 Diabetes, 2005. Brussels: IDF. 38. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital Diabetes. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Part 4: Evidence Based Guideline For the Diagnosis and Management of Hypertension in Type 2 Diabetes. Australia Guideline Development Consortium. NHMRC approved 2004. 39. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Part 7 Evidence Based Guidelines for Lipid Control in Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Australia Guideline Development Consortium, 2004. 40. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Part 6: Identification & Management of Diabetic Foot Disease. Diabetes Australia Guideline Development Consortium, 2005. 41. Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guideline Expert Committee. Canadian Diabetes Association clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes-Psychological aspects of diabetes 2003. Canadian Journal of Diabetes. 2003; 27 (supp 2) S50-S 52. 42. Antony MM, Bieling PJ, Cox B, Enns MW, Swinson R. Psychometric properties of the 42 item and 21 item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychology Assessment, 1995; vol 10. No 2, 176-181. 43. Ausroads. Assessing Fitness to Drive, Inc. Australia, 2003 44. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Part 3: Case Detection and Diagnosis. Diabetes Australia Guideline Development Consortium, 2001, NHMRC. 45. Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies, Prince Wales Hospital. National Evidence Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Part 2- Evidence Based Guideline for the Primary Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Australia Guideline Development Consortium, NHMRC endorsed 2001. 46. Wraight et al’s. Creation of a multi-disciplinary, evidence-based, clinical guideline for the assessment, investigation and management of acute diabetes related complications. Diabetic Medicine 2005: 22: 127–136. http://www. blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1464-5491.2004.01363.x 47. National Association of Diabetes Centres & Australasian Podiatry Council. National Diabetes Foot Screening Project - Basic Foot Screening Checklist. 2004. www.apodc.com.au/apodc/foot_assessment.pdf 48. Lazzarini PA. & Frakes KA. Integrated Diabetic Foot Continuum of Care Clinical Pathway. Queensland Health: Queensland Government. 2004. 59 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 49. Australian and NZ Guidelines Taskforce. Evidence Based Practice Guidelines for the Nutritional Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Queensland Health. 2003. 50. American Diabetes Association. Position statement, nutrition principles and recommendations in diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2004; 27:S36. 51. American Diabetes Association. Physical activity/exercise and diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2004; 27 S:58-62. 52. Australian Diabetes Educators Association. The Role of the Diabetes Educator in Australia. ADEA, 2001. 53. Australian Diabetes Educators Association. National Core Competencies for Diabetes Educators. ADEA, 2001. 54. Qld Nurses Council. Policy on the Regulation of Nurse Practitioner in Queensland. QNC, 2005. 55. Klein S, Sheard N, Pi-Sunyer X, Daly A, Wylie-Rosett, Kulkarni K, Clark N. Weight management through lifestyle modification for the prevention and management of Type2 diabetes: rationale and strategies. Diabetes Care, 2004; 27:2067-2073. 56. Moore H, Summerbell C, Hooper L, Cruikshank K, Vyas A, Johnstone P, Ashton V, Kopelman P. Dietary advise for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults. The Cochrane Data Base of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 2 Art No: CD004097, DOI: 10. 1002/14651858. CD 004097. pub3. 57. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Effects of changes in weight, diet and physical activity on the risks of diabetes with intensive lifestyle. Diabetes Care, 2002, 51 (supp 2):A28. 58. Delahanty. L, Nathan DM. Research navigating the course of clinical practice in diabetes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 2004,104:1846-1853. 59. Dietitian’s Association Australia. Competency Based Standards for Entry Level Dietitians. Dietitian’s Association Australia, 1999. 60. Dietitian’s Association Australia. Code of Professional Conduct. Dietitian’s Association Australia, 1999. 61. Queensland Health. The Queensland Health Aboriginal Health Worker and Torres Strait Islander Health Worker Customised Competency Standards, May 1999. 62. American College of Foot & Ankle Surgeons. Diabetic Foot Disorders– A Clinical Practice Guideline’. Park Ridge, IL: USA. 2000. 63. Singh et al. Preventing foot ulcers in patients with diabetes. JAMA, 2005: 293 (2): 217-228. www.jama.com 64. Australian Diabetes Society. The lower limb in people with diabetes – position statement of the Australian Diabetes Society. MJA, 2000: 173: 369-372. http://www.racp.edu.au/ads/statement_limb.htm 65. International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot. International Consensus on the Diabetic Foot – Practical Guidelines, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 1999. 66. .WA Health. Podiatry Work Value Evidence Document. WA Health: WA Government, 2004. 67. Lavery L. et al. Practical criteria for screening patients at high risk for diabetic foot ulceration. Arch Intern Med, 1998, 158(3):157-162, January 26. 68. Podiatrists Board of Queensland. Podiatrist Registration Act 2001 & ‘Guidelines for Standards of Practice’ 2006. Office of Health Practitioner Registration Boards: Qld Government. http://www.podiatryboard.qld.gov.au/ DocsLibrary/Policies.htm 69. Bodenheimer T, Lorig K, Holman H & Grumbach K. Patient self-management of chronic disease in primary care. JAMA, 2002; 288(19), 2469-2475. 70. Koenigsberg M R., Bartlett D, & Cramer JS. Facilitating treatment adherence with lifestyle changes in diabetes. Am Fam Physician, 2004 69(2), 309-316. 71. Norris SL, Engelgau MM. & Venat Narayan KM. Effectiveness of self-management training for Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 2001;24(3), 561 – 587. 72. Steed L., Crooke D, & Newman S. A systematic review of psychosocial outcomes following education, selfmanagement and psychological interventions in diabetes mellitus. Patient Education and Counseling, 2003; 51, 515. 73. Clark M. & Hampson SE. Implementing a psychological intervention to improve lifestyle self-management in patients with Type 2 diabetes. Patient Education and Counseling, 2001 42(3), 247-256. 74. Rubin RR. & Peyrot M. Psychological issues and treatments for people with diabetes. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2001; 57(4), 457-478. 75. Anderson RJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE & Lustman PJ. The prevalence of comorbid depression in adults with diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care, 2001; 24(6), 1069-1078. 60 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 76. Gavard JA, Lustman PJ & Clouse RE. Prevalence of depression in adults with diabetes. An epidemiological evaluation. Diabetes Care, 1993 16(8), 1167-1178. 77. Peyrot M. & Rubin RR. Levels and risks of depression and anxiety symptomatology among diabetic adults. Diabetes Care, 1997 20(4), 585-590. 78. Carnethon MR, Kinder LS, Fair JM., Stafford RS, & Fortmann SP. Symptoms of depression as a risk factor for incident diabetes: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Epidemiological Follow-up Study, 1971-1992. American Journal of Epidemiology, 2003; 158(5), 416-423. 79. Rubin RR. & Peyrot M. Was Willis right? Thoughts on the interaction of depression and diabetes. Diabetes/ Metabolism Research Review, 2002; 18(3), 173-175. 80. Ciechanowski PS, Katon WJ & Russo JE. Depression and diabetes: impact of depressive symptoms on adherence, function, and costs. Archive of Internal Medicine, 2000; 160(21), 3278-3285. 81. Kilbourne AM, Reynolds CF 3rd, Good CB, Sereika SM, Justice AC & Fine MJ. How does depression influence diabetes medication adherence in older patients? American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 2005; 13(3), 202-210. 82. Lustman PJ, Anderson RJ, Freedland KE, de Groot M, Carney RM & Clouse RE. Depression and poor glycaemic control: a meta-analytic review of the literature. Diabetes Care, 2000; 23(7), 934-942. 83. Grigsby AB, Anderson RJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE, & Lustman PJ. Prevalence of anxiety in adults with diabetes: a systematic review. J Psychosom Res, 2002 53(6), 1053-1060. 84. Gregg EW & Brown A. Cognitive and physical disabilities and aging-related complications of diabetes. Clinical Diabetes, 2003; 21, 113-118. 85. Fontbonne A, Berr C, Ducimetiere P & Alperovitch A. Changes in cognitive abilities over a 4-year period are unfavorably affected in elderly diabetic subjects: results of the Epidemiology of Vascular Ageing Study. Diabetes Care, 2001; 24(2), 366-370. 86. MacKnight C, Rockwood K, Awalt E, & McDowell I. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and vascular cognitive impairment in the Canadian Study of Health and Ageing. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 2002; 14(2), 77-83. 87. Crow S, Kendall D, Praus B & Thuras P. Binge eating and other psychopathology in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Int J Eat Disord, 2001; 30(2), 222-226. 88. Goodwin RD, Hoven CW & Spitzer RL. Diabetes and eating disorders in primary care. Int J Eat Disord, 2003; 33(1), 85-91. 89. Rubin RR, Ciechanowski P, Egede LE, Lin EH & Lustman PJ. Recognizing and treating depression in patients with diabetes. Current Diabetes Reports, 2004; 4(2), 119-125. 90. Snoek FJ, & Skinner TC. Psychological Counselling in problematic diabetes. Does it help? Diabetic Medicine, 2004; 19, 265-273. 91. Ismail K, Winkley K & Rabe-Hesketh S. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of psychological interventions to improve glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet, 2004; 363(9421), 1589-1597. 92. Kessler R & Mroczek D. Final versions of our Non-specific Psychological Distress Scale. Ann Arbor (MI), Survey Research Centre- of the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.1994. 93. Warnock J. Indigenous Foot Project Services of Australian Rural and Remote Allied Health (SARRAH): Department of Health and Ageing: Australian Government. 2005. www.sarrah.org.au/sarrah/whats new.asp 61 Guidelines for Care and Referral of Adults with Type 2 Diabetes 2006 64