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Fundamentals of Organizational Communication: Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values 9th Edition Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: •any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; •preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; •any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Introduction to Organizational Communication Individuals in Organizations Chapter Five Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Objectives Describe work force diversity Describe intrapersonal and interpersonal experiences of individuals in organizations Describe theories of motivation Relate motivation to communication behaviors Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Objectives Understand communication preferences for organizational life Understand how perceptions of communication competencies affect work satisfaction Describe the importance of trust for interpersonal relationships Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Objectives Describe workplace emotion, balance, and interpersonal relationships Describe technology and interpersonal relationships Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Objectives Understand cultural intelligence Value diversity Practice active listening skills Practice analysis capabilities Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Objectives Relate individual communication experiences to organizational identification, work performance, communication, and job satisfaction Identify personal needs in work settings Relate valuing diversity to interpersonal effectiveness Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Individuals in Organizations An individual’s organizational experiences result from The attitudes, beliefs, preferences, and abilities the individual brings to the organization How the organization seeks to influence the individual What types of organizational relationships the individual develops Relationship with his or her supervisor and peers Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Primary Communication Experiences of Individuals in Organizations as it Relates to Organizational Outcomes; Figure 5.1 Organizational Influences Organizational Goals and Culture Task Requirements Policies and Procedures Reward Systems Interpersonal Experiences Peers and Supervision Information Support Identification Expectations (Norms) Evaluation Power Individual Personal Needs Predispositions for Behavior Communication Competencies Expectations Skills Small-Group Experiences Work Groups Problem-Solving Groups Social Support Groups Roles Expectations (Norms Information Identification Innovation Power Organizational Outcomes Organizational Identification Job Performance Communication Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Terms Intrapersonal experiences - comprises our personal needs, predispositions for behavior, communication competencies, and expectations. Motivation - term to describe intrapersonal experiences that influence behavior. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Intrapersonal Experience The intrapersonal experience is based in part on self-concept, which in turn is influenced by a variety of past experiences, including various group affiliations. Our intrapersonal experience is composed of our personal needs, self-concept, predispositions for behavior, communication competencies, and expectations Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Intrapersonal Experience Abraham Maslow Behavior is influenced by internal needs such as safety and security, prestige and self-actualization Frederick Herzberg Described behavior as a result of both internal and external motivators B. F. Skinner Viewed reinforcement from the external environment as the primary influence for behavior Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer Workers’ job attitudes are a function of their communication activities. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Concept Hierarchy of needs - Maslow’s description of human behavior based on an ascending order of physiological, safety and security, love and social belonging, esteem and prestige, and self-actualization needs. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Concepts Self Actualization Esteem and Prestige Love & Social Belonging Safety and Security Physiological FIGURE 5.2 FIGURE 5.2 The NeedLevels Levels in Maslow’s Hierarchy The Need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs of Needs Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Concepts Motivation- the term used to describe intrapersonal experiences that influence behavior. We don’t see the motivation, but we see behavior. We infer unseen internal reactions have motivated that behavior. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Concepts Motivation-Hygiene theory - Herzberg’s description of human behavior based on the influence of both internal and external factors. The theory proposes that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not polar opposites, and what produces dissatisfaction with work when corrected will not necessarily produce motivation. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved BF. Skinner Rewards Theory Human behavior can be motivated and is influenced by rewards in the individuals’ environment Behavior reinforced through positive feedback or tangible rewards will be perpetuated, whereas behavior that does not receive positive reinforcement will be unlikely to continue Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Gerald Salancik and Jeffery Pfeiffer (1978) Social Information Processing Theory The individual’s perception of the job or task characteristics Information the social environment provides to the individual about what attitudes are appropriate (i.e., social information) The individual’s perception of the reasons for his or her past behaviors Needs are the results or outcomes produced by an individual’s perceptions and by the social information available in the work environment Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Gerald Salancik and Jeffery Pfeiffer (1978) How Social Information Influences Attitudes Overt, evaluative statements of coworkers directly shape individual worker attitudes Frequent talk among coworkers about certain dimensions of the job and work environment focuses attention on what is considered to be important or salient in the work setting Information from coworkers, or social information, helps an individual worker interpret and assign meaning to environmental cues and events in the work setting; and finally Social information influences the way an individual interprets his or her own needs Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Predispositions for Organizational Communication Behaviors Personally held preferences for particular types of communication situations or behaviors. These preferences are a result of intrapersonal needs (motivation), personal self-concept, past experiences, current information, and selfperception of communication competency. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Concepts Communication apprehension predisposition for behavior described as an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with others. Interpersonal experiences - descriptions of important one-on-one organizational relationships such as supervisors and subordinates and peer-to-peer. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Predispositions for Organizational Communication Behaviors Leadership and Conflict Preferences Individuals differ in their desire to lead others and in their perception of what is effective leadership. Individuals differ in how they approach conflict. Leadership and conflict preferences have been theorized to influence choice of communication strategies and tactics in leadership and conflict situations. leadership and conflict predispositions and preferences are an individual’s combined concern for tasks or goals and people relationships. These two concerns combine with past experiences and an assessment of the present situation to influence behavior Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Predispositions for Organizational Communication Behaviors Communication Competency Individuals’ perceptions of their communication competencies— knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values—influence their organizational experiences. When individuals believe their competencies are lower than those of others, they accept limited responsibilities. Individuals who assess their competencies as comparable to those of others may willingly accept new responsibilities as challenging and worthwhile. Perception of competency is related to communication apprehension, leadership, conflict preferences, past experiences, the presence or absence of particular skills, and deliberate attempts to improve competencies. As such, perception of competency can be described as a summing up of preferences and predispositions for organizational communication behavior. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Interpersonal Experiences Interpersonal relationships in organizations are formed for important task and social considerations. Unlike our personal relationships, the organization actually structures for us many interpersonal encounters necessary for task accomplishment. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Interpersonal Experiences People are more comfortable with those who are “like” themselves and with whom they share values We form positive impressions of those who have complementary rather than similar characteristics Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees The primary interpersonal relationship structured by the organization. Because it is formed to support task and job requirements, almost everyone in an organization The interaction of their characteristics influences the satisfaction each person feels with the other and helps determine the overall effectiveness of the relationship A supervisor who thinks an employee shares similar values is more likely to view that employee as competent. Employees are more likely to be satisfied with both work and supervision if they perceive a high degree of communication competency in the relationship. Employees’ satisfaction with their supervisors also has been found to be directly related to their perception of their own personal communication competence Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Leaders have limited time and resources and share both their personal and positional resources differently with their employees. In-group exchange is a high quality relationship characterized by high levels of information exchange, mutual support, informal influence, trust, and greater negotiating latitude and input in decision influence. Out-group exchange, a low quality relationship in which the opposite is observed (e.g., more formal supervision, less support, and less trust and attention from the superior)” (Jaesub Lee 1997, p. 269). Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Lee (2001) “Pelz effect” - The supervisor’s upward LMX with his or her own boss Individuals in high-quality LMX relationships were more likely than those in low-quality relationships to believe supervisors distributed resources fairly and used fair procedures and processes. These perceptions influenced how much employees reported sharing information, ideas, and resources with work group peers. In other words, the less favourable the relationships with the supervisor, the more likely individuals were to withhold information even from their peers. The quality of LMX also influences the continuing socialization of newcomers. The exchange influences the degree to which individuals identify or not with the organization. It is possible to say LMX can be characterized by both trust and doubt. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Nature of Communication Between Supervisors and Employees Supervisors who are high in communication apprehension are not as well liked as those lower in apprehension Relationships between supervisors and employees are influenced by a wide variety of communication behaviors; the predispositions, preferences, and abilities of both supervisors and employees; and overall work environments. Supervisors may spend from one-third to two-thirds of their time communicating with employees. Employees want and seek interaction with their supervisors The effectiveness of these message exchanges contributes to employees’ job satisfaction, quality of work performed, commitment, creativity, and overall communication satisfaction. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Communication from Employees to Supervisors Paul Krivonos (1982) – Upward Communication Employees tend to distort upward information, saying what they think will please their supervisors Employees tend to filter information and tell their supervisors what they, the employees, want them to know Employees often tell supervisors what they think the supervisor wants to hear Employees tend to pass personally favorable information to supervisors while not transmitting information that reflects negatively on themselves. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Communication from Employees to Supervisors Janet Fulk and Sirish Mani (1986) – Downward Communication The perception of supervisors’ downward communication, or the extent to which supervisors are perceived as actively withholding information, influences the accuracy of upward messages. The more the supervisor withholds, the more employees withhold and distort. If trust levels between supervisors and employees are low, and if employees have mobility aspirations they believe their supervisors can influence, there is likely to be a positivity bias that distorts upward communication. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Supervisor Influence Markku Jokisaari and Jari-erik Nurmi (2009) Levels of supervisor support were directly related to employee role clarity, job satisfaction, and changes in salary levels. Employees reporting high perceived supervisor support also reported role clarity and job satisfaction that was greater than employees perceiving lower supervisor support. Employees reporting high supervisor support enjoyed rates of salary increases that were higher than employees with less supervisor support. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Performance Expectations and Feedback Frequent gap in information and understanding between what the supervisor perceives and what an employee believes to be true. Supervisors and employees frequently differ on such important issues as basic job duties, performance expectations, amount and quality of communication exchange, and desirability of employee participation in decision making Donald Campbell (2000) - common supervisor expectations important for employees: Job and task competence Interpersonal effectiveness Organizational orientation Enterprising qualities Personal integrity Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Supervisors and Employees Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory) Mentors/Mentee Relationships The mentor engages in coaching and advice extending beyond immediate job requirements to include information on how to be viewed as a successful contributor to the organization and how to make decisions likely to result in favorable organizational recognition Mentors are most likely to select for mentoring those individuals who are similar to the mentor. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Peers Peers are all organizational members of approximately the same organizational structure, role, and responsibility levels Relationships with peers are characterized by both task and social interaction: peers communicate job information, advice, evaluation of performance, and personal feedback Peer Advice Networks and Performance Evaluations Peers are central to the advice networks in which most individuals participate. Advice networks form around information transfer, communicate professional values, and contribute to both retarding and stimulating innovation Peer Friendships provide overall positive benefits for organizational members including: improved workplace performance, reduced stress, favorable perceptions of personal support, a positive work environment, and the ability to engage in change and innovation. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Peers Negative Peer Relationships Patricia Sias and Tara Perry (2004) Five primary factors contributing to poor peer relationships and actual relationship deterioration: Problem personality Distracting life events Conflicting expectations Promotion Betrayal Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Customers, Clients and Vendors Relationships are based on exchanges of information about products, services, timing, delivery, quality, and cost. These relationships often are established through telemediated channels but remain important to the goals of all the parties involved in the relationship Clarity of expectations among these parties is critical Network Links and Network Roles Liaisons Bridges Individuals who participate in linked communication behaviors but who are not usually in liaison or bridge roles – not influential Nonparticipants Routinely receive information and determine whether to transmit that information to the next link or links in the chain Participants Link groups together by having membership in two or more groups. Gatekeepers Link or connect groups with common information without being members of either group Formal members of groups but do not affiliate with others in the group to the extent that participants do Isolates all function differently in communication networks An individual with few or no communication links throughout the organization Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Terms Valuing diversity - ability to understand and appreciate the contributions that differences in people can make to organizations. Diverse people bring different intrapersonal attitudes, experiences, expectations, and competencies to organizations. These differences can contribute to organizational effectiveness when those with different styles and values work together in interpersonal relationships characterized by mutual understanding, respect, and satisfaction. Differences can produce conflict, tension, stereotyping, harassment, discrimination, abusive control, and exclusion, all of which contribute to a variety of negative organizational outcomes. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Trust and Interpersonal Relationships Trust can be viewed as positive expectations about the behavior of others based on roles, relationships, experiences, and interdependencies Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Workplace Emotion, Balance and Interpersonal Relationships Understanding the various types of workplace emotion and how they relate to balance between the personal and professional contributes to our abilities to understand complex organizational environments. The issue is not whether emotion at work is relevant to our interpersonal relationships but how emotion impacts work and relationships. E-mail exchanges routinely feature punctuation marks to assist with the lack of nonverbal cues such as smiles or frowns to express emotion Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Technology and Interpersonal Relationships The virtual work environment is creating new challenges and experiences. Technology has changed and is changing literally all types of relationships in which we engage We work across time zones, different languages, cultural differences, and geographic locations. We work with people without extensive information about their backgrounds, values, or experiences. We are expected to work effectively with others, using a variety of communications technologies Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Increasing Interpersonal Effectiveness Cultural Intelligence An individual’s ability to understand the behaviors of other people in terms of three classifications: those that are universally human, those that are specific to an individual, and those that are rooted in culture Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Increasing Interpersonal Effectiveness Barriers to Valuing Diversity and Positive Approaches Preconceptions and Beliefs That Foster Inaccurate Information and Confusion between Perceptions of Behaviors and Actual Behaviors Stereotypes That Limit the Potential Contributions of Individuals Based on Their Membership in a Group or Class Positive Approach: Tolerance for Ambiguity Prejudices That Produce Negative Emotional Reactions to Others Positive Approach: Personalize Knowledge and Perceptions Positive Approach: Nonjudgmentalness Stylistic Differences in Personal Communication That Inhibit Interpersonal Relationships Positive Approach: Display of Respect Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Brenda Allen (2004) Mindful and Proactive Interactions What preconceived notions do I have about this person based on social identity characteristics (whether we seem different or similar)? Are those notions positive, negative, or neutral? What’s the source of those preconceptions? Will my preconceptions facilitate or impede communication? Am I open to learning about this person and myself during this interaction? Why or why not? Am I willing to be changed as a result of this interaction or experience? What communication tools can I use to try to create genuine communication? FIGURE 5.5 Brenda Allen’s Checklist for Mindful and Proactive Interactions Based on Brenda Allen, Difference Matters: Communicating Social Identity, 2004, p. 202. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Terms Active listening - processes of hearing, assigning meaning, and verifying our interpretations. Increases the accuracy of message reception, enabling responses based on what was said, not on what might have been said. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Terms Descriptive messages - messages characterized by ownership of perceptions and conclusions and language which presents facts, events, and circumstances all parties to communication are likely to observe or experience personally. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Key Terms Message ownership - attempts to verbally communicate individual perceptions and feelings without attempting to establish blame or find unnecessary corroboration. Descriptive language - language choice based on facts, events, and behavior as opposed to language choice describing attitudes, blame, or other subjective and vague concepts. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Discussion Question #1 Describe an organization of which you have been a part. Outline your intrapersonal and interpersonal experiences. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Discussion Question #2 If you were the head of a large organization, what theory or approach to motivation would you use? Why? Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Discussion Question #3 If you were the head of a large organization, what kind of superior-employee and peer relationships would you encourage? Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Discussion Question #4 Describe an occasion when an individual communication experience affected your sense of: organizational identification, work performance, trust, communication, or job satisfaction. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved Discussion Question #5 Describe an occasion when either valuing diversity, active listening, verbal ownership, or descriptive language contributed to organizational communication. Copyright © © 2012, 2009,2009, 20062006 Pearson Education, Inc.Inc. All All rights reserved Copyright 2015, 2012, Pearson Education, rights reserved
