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Every year, as the Nile River flooded its banks, the people of ancient Egypt sang a hymn of praise. They honored the river for nourishing the land and filling their storehouses with food: “If the Nile smiles, the Earth is joyous Every stomach is full of rejoicing Every spine is happy, Every jawbone crushes its food.” —“Hymn to the Nile,” quoted in The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians (Erman) In time, a powerful civilization emerged that depended on the control of river waters. Geography of the Nile Valley “Egypt,” said the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, “is wholly the gift of the Nile.” Longest river in the world (4,157 miles) Flows north Northernmost 600 miles open to navigation Rich, irrigated “Black Land,” generally no more than 10 miles wide, The “Red Land,” a sun-baked desert that stretches across North Africa. Farming villages dotted the narrow band of land watered by the Nile no more than 12 miles wide. 1 Geography of the Nile Valley The desert protected Egypt from invasion, it also limited where people could settle. North was the Mediterranean Sea West was the Sahara Desert East was the Nubian Desert and Red Sea South were the CATARACTS – steep canyons with large rapids Chains of small farming communities with no fortifications Annual flooding from July to October brought new soil and water to the valley Farmers used irrigation canals Egyptian calendar was based upon the flood cycle of the river of 365 days GEOMETRY was developed to restore landmarks wiped out by flooding HEIROGLYPHICS – Egyptian writing system – was developed to record property ownership 2 The Inundation (Akhet) June to September When the river Nile flooded, water, mud and silt from the river was washed up over the river banks creating a fertile growing area. During the period of the flood the Egyptian farmers spent time mending and making tools and looking after the animals. Many farmers also worked for the pharaoh during this time building pyramids and temples. Growing (Peret) October to February As soon as the flood began to recede the Ancient Egyptians ploughed the soil ready for sowing. They had hand ploughs or larger ones that were pulled by oxen. Seeds were then sown into the newly ploughed soil. Goats and other animals then walked over the fields to push the seeds into the ground. Crops grown included wheat, barley, flax, onions, leeks, garlic, beans, lettuce, lentils, cabbages, radishes, turnips, grapes, figs, plums and melons. Harvest (Shemu) March to May Grain was cut using a sickle. The cut grain was then tied into bundles and carried away. Wheat was made into bread, barley was made into beer and flax was made into linen cloth. Papyrus reeds that grew naturally along the banks of the Nile were used to make sandals, boats, baskets, mats and paper. Cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, ducks, goats, and oxen were raised by farmers for their meat, milk, hides and also to help with farming. 3 Geography of the Nile Valley Geography of the Nile Valley Farmers took advantage of the fertile soil of the Nile Valley They grew wheat and FLAX, a plant whose fibers were used for clothing. This tomb painting shows the importance of agriculture to ancient Egyptian life. The man guides an ox-drawn plow. Then, the woman plants seeds in the newly turned soil. YEARLY FLOODS YEARLY FLOODS The Nile rises in the highlands of Ethiopia and the lakes of central Africa. People had to cooperate to control the Nile floods. Every spring, rains in this interior region send water racing down streams that feed the Nile River. They built dikes, reservoirs, and irrigation ditches to channel the rising river and store water for the dry season. In ancient times, Egyptians eagerly awaited the annual flood. It soaked the land with life-giving water and deposited a layer of rich SILT, or soil. UNITING THE LAND Ancient Egypt had two distinct regions, Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. UPPER EGYPT stretched from the first cataract, or waterfall, of the Nile northward to within 100 miles of the Mediterranean. LOWER EGYPT covered the delta region where the Nile empties into the Mediterranean. A DELTA is a triangular area of marshland formed by deposits of silt at the mouth of some rivers. 4 UNITING THE LAND About 3100 BCE, MENES, the king of Upper Egypt, united the two regions. UNITING THE LAND UNITING THE LAND About 3100 BCE, MENES, the king of Upper Egypt, united the two regions. The Nile was used as a highway linking north and south. Pharaohs could send officials or armies to towns along the river. The Nile thus helped make Egypt the world's first unified state. The river served as a trade route. Egyptian merchants traveled up and down the Nile in sailboats and barges, exchanging the products of Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean world. The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three main periods: OLD KINGDOM MIDDLE KINGDOM NEW KINGDOM Although power passed from one DYNASTY, or family of rulers, to another, the land generally remained united. The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) Also known as the AGE OF THE PYRAMIDS A STRONG GOVERNMENT Egyptian rulers called PHARAOHS (fair ohz) organized a strong, centralized state. Pharaohs claimed divine support for their rule. Egyptians believed the pharaoh was a god. The pharaoh thus had absolute power, owning and ruling all the land in the kingdom. 5 The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) Pharaohs took pride in preserving justice and order. One wise vizier, Ptah-hotep (tah hoh tehp), took an interest in training young officials. Based on his vast experience of government, he wrote a book, Instruction of Ptah-hotep. In it, he advised his son on how to avoid the errors he had seen in other officials: A pharaoh depended on a VIZIER, or chief minister, to supervise the business of government. Under the vizier, various departments looked after such matters as tax collection, farming, and the allimportant irrigation system. Thousands of scribes carried out the vizier's instructions. “If you are sitting at the table of one greater than you, take what he may give when it is set before you. Let your face be cast down until he addresses you, and you should speak only when he addresses you.” —Instruction of Ptah-hotep The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) THE PYRAMIDS THE PYRAMIDS The pyramids were tombs for eternity. Egyptians believed in an afterlife, they preserved the bodies of their dead rulers and provided them with everything they would need in their new lives. To complete the pyramids: workers hauled and lifted millions of limestone blocks, some weighing two tons or more. The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) THE PYRAMIDS THE PYRAMIDS To complete the pyramids: builders had no iron tools or wheeled vehicles. To complete the pyramids: Workers quarried the stones by hand, pulled them on sleds to the site, and hoisted them up earthen ramps. 6 The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) The Old Kingdom (about 2700 BCE–2200 BCE) THE PYRAMIDS THE PYRAMIDS Building a pyramid took so long that often a pharaoh would begin to build his tomb as soon as he inherited the throne. The pyramids suggest the strength of ancient Egyptian civilization. These costly projects required enormous planning and organization. Thousands of farmers, who had to be fed each day, worked on the pyramids when not planting or harvesting crops. The Middle Kingdom (2050 BCE-1800 BCE) The Middle Kingdom (2050 BCE-1800 BCE) The Middle Kingdom was a turbulent period. Also known as the CULTURAL AGE The Nile did not rise as regularly as it had. Power struggles, crop failures, and the cost of the pyramids contributed to the collapse of the Old Kingdom. After more than a century of disunity, new pharaohs reunited the land, ushering in the Middle Kingdom. Corruption and rebellions were common. Strong rulers did organize a large drainage project, creating vast new stretches of ARABLE, or farmable, land. Egyptian armies occupied part of NUBIA, the goldrich land to the south. Traders also had greater contacts with the peoples of the Middle East and the Mediterranean island of Crete. The Middle Kingdom (2050 BCE-1800 BCE) The New Kingdom (about 1550 BCE-1100 BCE) Catastrophe struck about 1700 BCE when foreign invaders, the HYKSOS (hihk sohs), occupied the delta region. Also known as the AGE OF EMPIRE They awed the Egyptians with their CHARIOTS, two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicles. The Hyksos, soon adopted Egyptian customs, beliefs, and names. even After more than 100 years, new Egyptian leaders arose. They drove out the Hyksos and set up the New Kingdom. During the New Kingdom, powerful and ambitious pharaohs created a large empire. At its height, the Egyptian empire reached the Euphrates River. This age of conquest brought Egypt into greater contact with southwestern Asia as well as with other parts of Africa. 7 The New Kingdom (about 1550 BCE-1100 BCE) The New Kingdom (about 1550 BCE-1100 BCE) POWERFUL RULERS POWERFUL RULERS HATSHEPSUT c. 1540 BCE–1482 BCE HATSHEPSUT c. 1540 BCE–1482 BCE Hatshepsut was the daughter of one pharaoh and the widow of another On the walls of her funeral temple, Hatshepsut left behind a record of her 20-year reign. Like some earlier Egyptian queens, she began ruling in the name of a male heir who was too young to take the throne From 1503 BCE to 1482 BCE, she encouraged trade with eastern Mediterranean lands and along the Red Sea coast of Africa. She took the bold step of declaring herself pharaoh and won the support of key officials. Because Egyptians thought of their rulers as male, she wore a false beard as a sign of authority The New Kingdom (about 1550 BCE-1100 BCE) The New Kingdom (about 1550 BCE-1100 BCE) POWERFUL RULERS After years of fighting, the Egyptians and Hittites signed a peace treaty, the first such document known to have survived in history. RAMSES II was the most powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom Between 1290 BCE and 1224 BCE Ramses II pushed Egyptian rule northward as far as Syria It declared that Egypt and the Hittites “shall be at peace and in brotherhood forever.” On temples and monuments, he boasted of his conquests The New Kingdom (about 1550 BCE-1100 BCE) EGYPT AND NUBIA DECLINE The Nile kingdom of NUBIA (also known as Kush) developed to the south of Egypt. After Ramses II, Egyptian power slowly declined. Invaders, such as the Assyrians and Persians, conquered the Nile region. For centuries, Egyptians traded or fought with their southern neighbor The Egyptians acquired gold, ivory, cattle, and slaves During the New Kingdom, Egypt conquered Nubia Later, Greek and Roman armies came from the north. Each new conqueror was eager to add the fertile Nile Valley to a growing empire. Ramses II used gold from Nubia to pay charioteers in his army. Nubians served in Egyptian armies Much Egyptian art of this period shows Nubian soldiers, musicians, or prisoners 8 EGYPT AND NUBIA As Egypt declined, Nubia regained its independence In 750 BCE, Nubian kings marched north, adding Egypt to their own lands Nubians saw themselves as restorers of Egyptian glory Respected ancient Egyptian traditions About 650 BCE, Assyrians, armed with iron weapons, conquered Egypt They pushed the Nubians back into their original homeland, where Nubians ruled for 1,000 years more 9