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19. Weather, fauna and flora
What lovely, beautiful or horrible weather is, is subjective. The weather is always connected to
temperature, wind and rainfall. Some people like sunny days with clear cloudless sky and fine or fair
weather, when the sun is shining and it is a bright day. When the sky is overcast and cloudy, there is
less sun and it is dull. When clouds are near the ground, they create fogs. A thin fog is a mist. Both
make the visibility poorer and increase the risk of car accidents. When it is more than warm, it is hot
of boiling. The period of very hot weather is a heat wave. When the temperature is not too cold, it is
cool, when it is very cold it is freezing or icy. When the temperature is below zero, it is a frost. It is also
a white powder that covers the ground. During frosty days everything is frozen and rain turns into
snow. When the rain freezes but not into flakes, it hails. When it is raining cats and dogs or pouring
down it is a heavy rain, downpour or showers. Light rain with small raindrops is a drizzle. When it is
fresh, the coldness is pleasant, when it is chilly, it is not. In windy weather we feel colder. It is called a
wind-chill factor. Light wind is called a breeze. A wet day has a lot of rain and during a warm rainy
day it is humid. The small drops of water in the morning are dew. Humidity expresses how much water
is present in the air. Tropical climate has a very high humidity and desert areas very low. When it is
dry, it does not rain. Climate is the weather pattern typical for certain area. We recognize 5 main
types of climate: tropical, dry, warm temperate, cold temperate, cold. Weather is connected to day
to day weather conditions. If it changes a lot, the weather is unsettled and unpredictable. In a
temperate climate a year has four seasons: summer, autumn, winter and spring. Changing of seasons
is a result of our planet revolving around the sun. The weather influences not only what we wear but
also our activities. We watch weather forecast to know what weather we can expect. We cannot
predict the future weather perfectly but satellites and other high technology helps us to be more
precise. A weather forecaster shows the weather on a weather chart. Meteorologists study the
weather. Thermometer measures the temperature and barometer the air pressure, which has great
influence on the weather. They are located in weather station. When we travel into different
climates, we need to acclimatize. For example Africans who rarely experience sub-zero
temperatures and have never seen snow can find coping with the cold climate difficult. Some
animals migrate to warmer countries to avoid the winter period with lack of food. The colours that
appear when the sun is shining and it is raining at the same time is called a rainbow. Sometimes the
weather can be violent. Hurricanes and tornadoes destroy lives of many people and damage their
property. Lightning that accompanies thunderstorms can be dangerous, too. The weather is known
to affect people’s mood. It can make them feel energetic and happy or depressed and bored.
Some health conditions are weather-sensitive and people can suffer from headaches or other pains
in different parts of their bodies.
The seasons are caused by a combination of Earth’s tilt, Earth’s orbit and the effects of direct and
indirect sunlight.
Earth’s orbit – around the Sun – causes the seasons to change. Some people love the awakening of
nature after winter, plants and trees in blossom and fresh green colours, fresh air. We know 4 seasons
which are very different.
Spring
On the first day of spring there are 12 hours of daylight. Many people admire wild flowers growing
freely along roadways. All nature seems to be clean and fresh and many people need to go walking
to breathe fresh air and the beautiful smells different plants offer. Spring begins on the 21st March.
Nature begins to awake from its long winter sleep and new life begins. Nights get shorter and days
get longer. The snow melts as days become warmer. It can cause swelling of the streams and rivers
and there are often floods during this season. The weather in spring is very changeable and
unpredictable. The temperatures are often below 0°C at night, but the days are quite warm.
Sometimes the sun shines and soon after is overcast, rains or even snows. Typical spring flowers are
snowdrops and snowflakes, dandelions, daffodils, tulips, violets, catkins…
Summer
It begins on 21st June. The temperature rises to 25°C or more. In the morning there is often dew on
the grass, the sky is clear, no wind or just a fresh breeze blows. The weather is often hot and dry. But
on the other hand, when it is too hot for a long time, then the rain comes. Strong storms are typical
for summer. It clouds over, wind is stronger, it cools down and a heavy downpour with the lightning
starts. Sometimes there may be hailing or a cloudburst. It is connected with the holidays and warm
days which allow them to have some days off, spending them at the seaside or hiking in the
mountains. The days are long so people can stay out longer, having some time to meet their friends.
People who love swimming, sailing or any other water sports can use all the days because the
weather is mostly suitable for practicing them. Young people like sitting outside and chatting long
without a siesta at midday because the hot weather influences their productivity and they prefer
working late at night. Their daily regime is put back a little – they go to bed quite late and start their
day at around nine or ten
Autumn
Autumn begins on 23rd September. The sun sets earlier and rises later so days get shorter. There is a
period of a few fine days which is called Indian summer. This is the time of harvest. The leaves start to
fall off the trees and grass turns yellow. Birds fly to the south. They migrate and other animals
hibernate. The whether is very unsettled, thy sky is often clouded, mornings are dull and it often looks
like rain. In the morning there is often fog. The temperature starts to drops and first frosts may appear.
It is chilly and rainy or it drizzles. It might attract people who like hiking in the woods where various
colours harmonise and make the atmosphere calm and relaxing. Daylight saving time does not save
time, it saves energy. The idea of daylight saving time was first suggested y Benjamin Franklin in 1784
and was first widely used during WW1. Some people do not like it because it is dark quite early, on
the other hand mornings are lighter and people feel more positive in the morning,
Winter
It starts on 21st December. In winter it snows, icy wind blows and there are hard frosts. Streams, rivers
and lakes are frozen over, snow is everywhere. The temperature drops to below zero, sometimes
more than 20°C. Icicles hang from the roof, the roads are slippery, and the snow crunches
underfoot. Popular with those who love the country covered with snow and the fresh air of frozen
nature. Plants and trees relax under the snow cover and fans of winter sports can practice them if
weather conditions are suitable for them. Some people love December because of Christmas.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place. It can be defined as the
conditions in the air above the Earth such as wind, rain or temperature at a particular time over a
particular area
Climate is defined as the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of years.
It is economically most significant in its effect on agriculture. Climatic factors such as the length of
the growing season, the total amount and seasonal distribution of precipitation, and the daily and
seasonal ranges of temperature restrict the kinds of crops and the types of livestock that can be
raised.
Climate varies from place to place and sometimes it is difficult to say which climatic zone the
country belongs to. In general we could say that we recognize 5 main types of climate
 Tropical
 Dry
 Warm temperate
 Cold temperate
 Cold
Each climatic zone has different weather pattern. Slovakia is situated in the warm temperate
zone.This zone is characteristic for the alternation of four seasons-spring, summer, autumn and winter.
Each season lasts about three months and has different characteristics.
Spring
- begins on the 21st March
- in spring nature begins to awake from its long winter sleep and new life begins
- nights get shorter and days get longer
- the snow melts as days become warmer. It can cause swelling of the streams and rivers and there
are often floods during this season
- the weather in spring is very changeable and unpredictable. The temperature is quite lowdurint the
night, but the days are quite warm. But the weather changes very quickly. Sometimes the sun shines
and after a while, there is overcast or it rains or even snows.
- Typical spring flowers are snowdrops,dandelions, daffodils, tulips, violets
Summer
- begins on 21st Jun
- the temperature rises to 25°C or more
- in the morning there is often dew on the grass, the sky is clear, no wind or just a fresh breeze flows.
The weather is often hot and dry
- on the other hand, when it is too hot for a long time, then the rain comes. Strong storms are typical
for summer.It clouds over, wind is stronger, it cools down and a heavy downpour with the lightning
starts. Sometimes there may be hailing or a clowdburst
- after the rain you can sometimes see a beautiful rainbow in the sky
Autumn
- begins on 23rd September
- the sun sets earlier and rises later so days get shorter
- there is a period of a few fine days which is called Indian summer.This is the time of harvest. The
leaves start to fall off the trees and grass turns yellow. Birds fly to the south.
- the wether is very unsettled, thy sky is often clouded, mornings are dull and it often looks like rain.In
the morning there is often fog
- the temperature starts to fall and first frost may appear. It is often chilly and rainy or it drizzles.
Winter
- starts on 21st December
- it snows, icy wind blows and there are hard frosts. Streems, rivers and lakes are frozen, snow is
everywhere
- the temperature drops to below zero, usually around - 10°C. The roads and streets are slippery, the
snow crunches underfoot.
- winter is time for winter pleasures such as throwing snowballs, building snowmen, sledging, sliding,
skating or skiing.
FAUNA AND FLORA
Flora
Plants are adapted to the climate they live in. Trees in rainforests have broad leaves, shaped to
encourage the heavy rain to run off the leaves. The large leaves encourage transpiration so the
plants don´t overheat.
In very dry climates plants may develop an ability to store water, sucha s the cactus, which also has
its leaves reduced into tiny spines which reduce transpiration to almost nothig so its precious water is
conserved. At the first sign of drought plants close their leaf pores to prevent wilting and slowing
down growth so that they need less water.
Coniferous plant also have small spiky leaves so that they don´t lose too much water during the
frozen winters.
Grasses roll their laeves into tubes to protect their leaf pores from the drying effect of the wind.
Tropical air plants have moisture sensitive plugs attached totheir leaf pores which are pulled down
over the pores, sealing them to hold winds which make them grow thicker and more stunded stems
to strengthen and prevent themselves from being blown over.
Fauna
Many animals are adapted to the weather, and the place where they are found is tied closely to the
climate and its impact on the availability of suitable food. Over time, animals will also adapt to
changes in the local climate, or will gradually move to a more suitable area.
Animals living in the coldest parts of the world, such as seal and polar bears, have thick layers of fat
under their skin to protect them from the cold. Polar bears have hair on their feet to help them keep
their footing on ice.
Some animals hibernate during the coldest part of the year, living off stored fat and water to survive.
Others, such as toads do the same during periods of drought, lying dormant in the mud until the next
rains.
Many animals migrate to breeding areas to escape starvation during the winter season when food is
harder to find.
In hot places, animals can often store water in their bodies such as camels, or are adapted to live no
only tiny amounts of moisture. Many come out only at night to hunt and feed.
THE INFLUENCE OF WEATHER ON THE MOOD AND LIFESTYLE
Weather can affect people´s mood. When the weather is fine people feel happy, they are in a good
mood, they laugh and enjoy life. But when the weather is bad, people feel depressed, bored, suffer
from headache or feel pain in their bones. That´s why the English use the phrase´to feel under the
weather´ when you don´t feel very well.
There are many ways how people can predict weather. We have meteorologists who prepare
weather forecasts for us, but not everybody relies on them.
But we can forecast the weather on our own from the clouds, the moon, the behaviour of birds and
insects, or from plants. Some people are weather sensitive and they feel the weather changes in
their bones, organs, they feel headache, or they feel pain in their scars.
NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural disaster - is the effect or consequence of a combination of a natural hazard( a physical
event, e. g. earthquake, landslide, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, flood, avalanche) and
human activities. It is an event that has an effect on people resulting from the natural processes in
the environment.
Because of the lack of appropriate emergency and warning systems all these events lead to
financial, material and human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to
support or resist the disaster, their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation:
“disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability”.
A natural hazard will never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e. g. stron
earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has been strongly disputed because the events
wouldn´t simply happen, wouldn´t be disasters or hazards, without human involvement.
Examples of natural disasters:
Avalanches, Earthquakes, Volcanic eruptions, Floods, Limnic eruptions, Tsunamis, Blizzards, Cyclonic
stroms, Droughts, Hailstorms, Heat waves, Tornadoes, Fires
Human influences
The weather conditions change suddenly and the human activities have a very bad affect. The most
serious ecological problem is that our Earth is warming up. The North and South Poles begin to melt
and sea levels rise. This is caused by the greenhouse affect.
The growing numbers of cars on roads contribute much to air pollution. Factories produce carbondioxide, dangerous compounds of sulphur. These get into the air. Acid rains kill trees, or they get into
the rain and make it infertile. Some factories are built near rivers and they put their chemical waste
into it.
People have intelligence, and for this reason they must solve these ecological problems and rave this
planet for future generations. Very important ecological organizations are the Greenpeace and the
Friends of the Earth. They try to make realize for people the importance of the protecting the nature.
ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as
well as all the nonliving, physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact,
such as air, soil, water, and sunlight. It is all the organisms in a given area, along with the nonliving
factors with which they interact; a biological community and its physical environment. It can be
either natural, or artificial - created by humans.
Examples of ecosystems: tundra, desert, forest, rainforest, savanna, steppe, urban ecosystem, human
ecosystem
VOCABULARY:
restrict - obmedziť, ohraničiť
warm temperate - teplé mierne
cold temperate- studené mierne
overcast - zatiahnutá obloha
snowdrop - snežienka
dandelions - púpava
daffodils - žltý narcis
violet - fialka
dew - rosenie, rosa
cloud over - zamračiť sa
lightning - blýskanie
hailling - krupobytie
clowdburst - prietrž mračien
harvest - žatva, zber úrody
drizzles - mrholí
slippery - šmykľavý, klzký
sledging - sánkovanie
sliding - kĺzanie
transpiration - odparenie
spines - tŕne
precious - cenná, drahocenná
conserved - uchovaná
at the first sign of draught - pri prvom náznaku
sucha
leaf - list, lístkový, listový
wilting - vädnutie
coniferous - ihličnatý
spiky - špicatý, ostrý, ostnatý
tubes - rúrky, tribuce
moisture - vlhko, vhlkosť
plugs - konektory/tŕne
sealing - tesnenie, tesniť, tesniace
thicker - silnejší, tučnejší
stunded stems - stopky
tied - zviazané
seal - tuleň
hibernate - prezimovať
toad - ropucha
lying dormant - spiace
breeding landslide - zosuv pôdy
resist - odolať, odolávať
resilience - pružnosť, elastickosť, ohybnosť
vulnerability - bezbrannosť, zraniteľnosť,
citlivosť, vystavenosť
disputed - diskutované, hádalo sa o tom
limnic eruptions - sladkovodné výbuchy
cyclonis storms - cyklónové búrky
hailstorms - krupobytie, búrka s krúpami
heat waves - vlny tepla
infertile - neúrodný
artificial - umelý
steppe - step
ECOSYSTEMS
ecosystem
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flora
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is a natural system, in which the life cycles of its parts are closely lined to each
other
plants
fauna
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animals
non-living environment
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water – in the form of rain or water in the soil
air – provides oxygen and carbon dioxide
solar energy – primary source of energy, heat and light
rocks – provide nutrients (permeable/impermeable)
soils – vary in depth, acidity, nutrients and fertility
plants, animals, insets and micro-organisms – harmony
people – disharmony
the world's major communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation
and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment
main source of energy is sunlight
sunlight is absorbed by green plants and converted through photosynthesis
energy passes through the ecosystem in the food chain
it´s an open system
plants/algae use carbon dioxide and water to make carbohydrates (energy) through
the photosynthesis process
living environment
biomes
photosynthesis
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food chain
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energy moves around within an ecosystem, from factor to factor, as producers and
consumers are eaten and this flow of energy is what we call the food chain.
recycling of nutrients
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some nutrients are part of a closed system
plants take up nutrients from the soil
they are returned back through dead bodies of animals
micro – water droplet
meso – freshwater pond, sand-dunes
global – tropical rainforest, coniferous forest
flow of energy
levels of ecosystems
ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is an environment containing a community of interdependent plants and animals. It is all the animals and
plants in a particular area, and the way in which they are related to each other and to their environment. Food chains
link animals to the plants/animals they eat and the animals that eat them.
Communities
Ecosystems are made up of both non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) factors.
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Abiotic factors are the elements of an ecosystem that are non-living. Nevertheless, they still have an affect on
the ecosystem. Water, temperature, relief, soil type, fire, and nutrients are all examples of abiotic factors.
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Biotic factors are the living elements of an ecosystem, i.e. plants and animals. All biotic factors require energy to
survive. These living organisms form a community within an ecosystem.
Biotic and abiotic factors are interrelated. If one factor is changed or removed, it impacts the availability of other
resources within the system.
Biotic and abiotic factors combine to create a system or more precisely, an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of
living and nonliving things considered as a unit. If a single factor is changed, perhaps by pollution or natural
phenomenon, the whole system could be altered
The community within an ecosystem is linked together by food chains. Biotic factors become linked in a food chain
when they eat one another. The start or bottom of a food chain is made up of producers, such as plants and algae.
Producers are at the start, or the bottom, of the food chain because they do not eat other biotic factors to get the
energy they need to survive. Instead of taking energy from food, producers get energy by converting it from carbon
dioxide and water using sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis explains how energy from the sun is captured by green plants and used to make food. Most of this
energy is used to carry on the plant's life activities. The rest of the energy is passed on as food to the next level of the
food chain.
Grass is a producer and gains its energy from photosynthesis
Other biotic factors in the food chain survive by eating the producers. This gives them the energy that the producers
obtained through photosynthesis. These biotic factors are called consumers because they eat other organisms to get
their energy, rather than taking it direct from sunlight. Biotic factors that eat consumers are also consumers and they
are often called carnivores. There are four types of consumer:
1.
Herbivores are organisms that eat plant matter (producers) to gain energy.
2.
Carnivores are organisms that eat meat to gain energy
3.
Omnivores are organisms that eat both plant (producer) and animal (consumer) matter to gain energy.
4.
Decomposers are organisms that feed on the remains of dead plant and animal matter. They help to speed up
the process of decay. They also assist in recycling nutrients back to producers in nutrient cycles.
Energy moves around within an ecosystem, from factor to factor, as producers and consumers are eaten. The flow of
energy in this way is what we call the food chain.
Biomes are defined as "the world's major communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation and
characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment" The importance of biomes cannot be
overestimated. Biomes have changed and moved many times during the history of life on Earth. More recently, human
activities have drastically altered these communities. Thus, conservation and preservation of biomes should be a major
concern to all.
FLOWS AND CYCLES
As well as the flow of energy through a food chain, other flows and cycles can be found within ecosystems. Ecosystems
have water cycles and nutrient cycles. So when an animal eats another animal or a plant it not only obtains that
organism's energy, but its water and nutrients as well. Different nutrients are passed around an ecosystem as
organisms consume other biotic and abiotic factors. Two important nutrients are carbon and nitrogen.
The carbon cycle
The carbon cycle describes how carbon circulates around an ecosystem. Carbon will change form. Sometimes it is an
element and sometimes a compound. Carbon is passed between living organisms and between non-living and living
systems. There are many different elements to the carbon cycle.
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Producers, eg plants/algae use carbon dioxide and water to make carbohydrates (energy) through the
photosynthesis process.
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Animals can not photosynthesise. When animals consume the producers they use the carbohydrates to provide
the energy for reproduction, growth and daily living. This process of creating energy is called respiration. It requires
oxygen and carbohydrates and produces as a by-product carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The CO2 is exhaled by
animals back into the atmosphere where the carbon cycle begins again.
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When organisms die, they decompose. This releases nutrients into the soil, but carbon remains stored in the
remains of the animals. It can remain stored for a very long time and can be still be used to provide energy - eg coal, oil.
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When this energy is released by humans through burning (eg oil) in industrial processes, carbon gasses, such as
carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere.
Water cycle
The water cycle describes how water moves from the ocean, to the atmosphere (evaporation), to land (rain) and back to
the ocean (rivers). On the way the water will be intercepted by plants and animals, both of which need water to
survive.
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plants need water for photosynthesis
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animals use water to remove toxins and stay cool (sweat)
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both plants and animals give off water as a by-product of respiration
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animals drink water but can also obtain water by consuming plants and animals that have stored water
TROPICAL CYCLONES
Formation
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formed over tropical oceans with temperatures over 27ºC
considerable depth of warm water
in late summer and early autumn
between latitudes of 5º and 20º of the Equator
Description
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warm air rises in a spiral movement
releases great heat energy
area of colder air in the centre – a central eye
over land rapidly decreases in strength
lifespan of 7-14 days
Effect
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winds exceeding 160 km/hr destroy building, uproot trees, disrupt power supplies
flooding and polluting of water supplies
bad effect on economy
the difference of coping with cyclones in MEDC and LEDC is huge
Warning
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see the poster
GLOBAL WARMING
the greenhouse effect
causes
effects
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 less heat escapes into space due to the greenhouse gases
 greenhouse gases in the atmosphere act as a blanket
 world temperatures rose by 0.6ºC last century
 predictions for this century is by another 5.8ºC
 this process is know as global warming
 carbon dioxide produced by road vehicles and burning fossil fuels
 CFCs in aerosols, air conditioners and refrigerators
 deforestation and burning of tropical rainforests …
rise of sea-levels (already by 0.2m)
 increasing of flooding and drought
icecaps and glaciers are melting
 problem with drinking water
sea-ice in the Artic reduced
 ecosystems rapidly changing
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rising of sea-levels causes flooding
40% of the world’s population live
within 100 km of the coast
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differences in crop yields get even bigger
insect-borne and water-borne deceases
ACID RAIN
characteristics
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first noted in Scandinavia in 1950s
the acid is formed in the air from sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
dry deposition – carried by winds onto surface
wet deposition – acids in the form of rain
clean rainwater has pH value between 5.5 – 6
effects
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the acidity of lakes kills fish and plant life
acidity of soils reduces crops
nutrients washed away in forests – trees die
health hazard connected with water supplies
building eroded by chemical action caused by acid rain
airconditioner/airconditioning
an appliance that cools down the air in a home or building
avalanche a dangerous slide of snow down a mountain
below freezing
temperature less than 0 degrees Celsius/(32F)
blizzard
a storm with lots of snow and wind
boiling hot common expression for describing a very hot day
breeze
light wind
Celsius
measurement of temperature (0 degrees is freezing/100 is boiling)
chilly cold
clear when the sky is blue because no clouds are blocking the sun
cloud/cloudy
water in the sky that appears as a white or grey mass
cold spell
a period of colder than average weather
adjective
temperature in between warm and cold
degrees
measurement for temperature
drizzling
raining slightly
drought
a long period with no rainfall
Fahrenheit measurement of temperature (32 degrees is freezing/212 is boiling)
flood overflow of rain water
flurries very light snowfall
fog/foggy thick water vapour that blocks one's vision
forecast
the expected weather for the future
freezing cold common expression used to describe a very cold day
frost ice crystals on a frozen surface
frostbite
a skin condition caused by over exposure to the cold
hail
small pieces of ice that fall during a storm
heat stroke
a flu-like condition one can acquire after spending too long in the sun
heat-wave
extremely hot weather that is much higher than average--usually lasts a short
time
humid/humidity
moisture in the air
hurricane
a tropical storm with very strong wind and rain
icy
slippery because of ice
lightning
electric flash caused by two clouds hitting
minus/negative
indicates that a temperature is below zero
meteorologist
a person who studies weather patterns
mild temperature that is warmer than average(in a cold season)
puddle
collection of rain water
precipitation
rain or snow that falls on an area
partly cloudy term often used in a weather forecast to indicate that the skies are sunny and cloudy at
the same time
overcast
no sun is visible
rain/raining/rainy water that falls to earth
raindrop
a single measurement of rain
rainbow
a band of colours found in the sky after a rainfall
sleet(similar to hail) rain that freezes as it falls
shower
quick/light rainstorm
season
time of year characterized by certain weather
scorching/a scorcher
extremely hot temperature/a very hot day
raining cats and dogs
raining heavily
snow/snowy/snowing
frozen water that warms slightly as it falls to earth
smog heavy, dark cloud cover caused by pollution
slush/slushy snow on the ground that has been rained on
sunburn
painful red/pink skin caused by being in the sun too long
sun/sunshine/sunny the gassy star that warms the earth
snowstorm large amounts of wind and snow
sunscreen/suntan lotion cream that protects your skin from sun damage
sunglasses/shades dark eyewear that protects you from the sun
temperature how warm or cold the air is
suntan/tanned
brown/golden skin caused by long periods of sun exposure
tornado/cyclone violently spinning windstorm
thunder/thunderstorm
the crashing of clouds
thermometer
instrument for measuring the temperature of the air
UV (ultra violet) rays
the damaging rays from the sun
umbrella
held over one's head and body for rain protection
wind/windy blowing air outside
wind chill factor
when the wind makes the air feel colder than the actual temperature
WEATHER
USEFUL VOCABULARY:
WARM/ HOT WEATHER
STORMY WEATHER
SUNSHINE – svieti slnko
THE STORM IS DRAWING NEAR – búrka sa blíži
CLOUDLESS SKY - obloha bez mrakov
HAS BROKEN OVER US 
CLOSE - dusný
A DISTANT PEAL OF THUNDER - vzdialené hrmenie
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STIFLING - dusný
A CLAP OF THUNDER - úder hromu
 HUMID - teplý a vlhký
A FLASH OF LIGHTNING - blesk
 SCORCHING - sparný
THE LIGHTNING HAS STRUCK INTO THE
 DROUGHT LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR  SULTRY IT IS POURING WITH RAIN –
 UNBEARABLE A FLASH OF LIGHTNING –
 THE WEATHER IS DEAD CALM THE STORM DIES DOWN –
 THE SUN IS SHINING A / TO SLEET - dážď so snehom/ krúpami
 HEAT WAVE , GREAT HEAT
BE / BECOME OVERCAST COOL MILD WARM HOTSCORCHING 
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WET WEATHER
DRIZZLE / DRIZLING RAIN A SHOWER OCCASIONAL RAIN –
WINDY WEATHER
A BREEZE HURRICANE A GUST OF WIND -
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IT HAS BEEN RAINING ON AND OFF FOR 10 DAYS
DOWNPOUR CLOUDBURST A / TO FLOOD HAILSTORM / HAILSTONES DAMP HUMID –
CHILLY –
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COLD WEATHER
IN THE DEPTH OF WINTER THICK LAYER OF SNOW FLUFFY SNOW SLUSH SLEET FROST / THE FROST BREAKS UP THE ROADS ARE COVERED IN ICE ICY ROAD / ROAD COATED WITH ICE SNOWBOUND ROADS GET STUCK IN A SNOWDRIFT CLEAR THE SNOW FROM THE PAVEMENT BRING A SNOWPLOUGH INTO ACTION THE GROUND HAS STARTED TO THAW THE ICE / SNOW MELTS HOAR- FROST ICICLES HANG FROM THE ROOFS –
SNOW CRUNCHES –
SNOWDRIFT –
PILED UP BY THE WIND –
TO SNOW – SNOWFALL –
COLD
-
A BLUSTERY DAY THE HIGH
STRONG
WIND is blowing
HEAVY
from the north
WINDSTORM BLOW –BLEW –BLOWN -
CHILLY -
FOGGY WEATHER
HAZE / BE HAZY MIST
THE FOG IS LIFTING
SMOG
DENSE FOG INDIAN SUMMER TREES ARE BUDDING RAINBOWPUDDLE TURN YELLOW LEAVES FALL TO THE GROUND -
FREEZING -
WHAT INCONVENIENCES MAY WINTER WEATHER BRING ?
 THE HANDS GET NUMB –
 STIFF –
 FINGERS TINGLE WITH COLD –
 MITTENS –
 FROSTBITE –
 SLIPPERY – IT IS SLIPPERY OUTSIDE –
 SKID –
 PAVEMENTS AND ROADS ARE ICY -
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DAYS GET SHORTER / LONGER –
UNBEARABLE WEATHER BECOMES WARMER –
HARVEST THE SKY IS CLEAR –
CONIFERS IT KEEPS FINE –
GO MUSHROOMING THE NICE WEATHER IS BREAKING –
TREES SHED LEAVES IT IS TURNING BAD –
BARE THE SUN SETS / RISES FLOCK TOGETHER SUNSET / SUNRISE UNSETTLED , AWFUL GRASS TURNS YELLOW AND DRY –
WRETCHED LEAFY TREES –
NASTY , DULL THE THAW SETS IN / IT IS THAWING SHIVER WITH COLD COME INTO BLOSSOMCURSE THE WEATHER TEMPERATURE RISES / GOES UP/ DROPS / GOES DOWN / FALLS
MUD –
ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
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FLYING ASH SOOT DUST EXHAUST FUMES CAUSE POLLUTION OF THE AIR –
PETROL FUMES INFEST THE TOWN CENTRE –
EXCESSIVE AMOUNT OF RADON –
TO PROTECT THE LIVING ENVIRONMENT THE PROTECTION OF NATURE –
NATURAL DISASTERS
 DROUGHT  FLOOD  TYPHOON  AVALANCHES  TORNADOES –
SMOKE –
SOOT CATCHER –
A DUST CATCHER –
ENVIRONMENTALIST –
EARTHQUAKE –
TIDAL WAVE –
VOLCANIC ERUPTION –
HURRICANS –
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
ACID RAIN ANIMAL WELFARE BATTERY –HEN
CARBON MONOXIDE –
CONSERVATION EXHAUST FUMES FERTILIZERS GLOBAL WARMING /NON/ RENEWABLE RESOURCES OIL –SLICK
OZONE LAYER POLLUTION
UNLEADED PETROL -
AEROSOL –
ENDANGERED SPECIES –
BOTTLE BANK –
CLIMATE –
ENERGY –NUCLEAR
- SOLAR
FOREST FIRES –
GREENHOUSE EFFECT –
NUCLEAR - FALLOUT
- REACTOR –
PESTICIDE –
PROTECTED ANIMAL –
WASTE - NUCLEAR
- RADIOACTIVE –
WILDLIFE -
RAINFOREST -
FAUNA AND FLORA
VOCABULARY
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION –
BREEDING FLOCK OF SHEEP, COW, BULL -
CATTLE HERD OF CATTLE –
DAIRY HERD –
GAME HUNT GAMEKEEPER FORESTER POULTRY GRAZE PEDIGREE -
MAMMALS –
AMPHIBIANS –
FISH –
REPTILES –
RODENTS –
PREDATORS-
FAUNA
HORSE SHEEP GOAT PIG -
MARE EWE BILLY-GOAT SOW / BOAR
FOAL –
RAM KIDPIGGY –
LAMB –
TOM CATDOG RABBIT POULTRY / FOWLS –
COCK DUCKGOOSE/ GEESE
PIDGEON / HOMING PIDGEON
TURKEY DONKEYROE DEER / ROE BUCK
STAG FALLOW DEER ELK / MOOSE am / OTTER HAMSTER BEAR –
FOX FROG –
BAT –
RAT –
MOUSE - MICE
MOLE SNAKE VIPER POISON – POISONOUS -
PUSSY CATPUP / PUPPY –
HARE –
KITTEN –
HEN DRAKEGANDER DOVE – SQUAB
TURKEY-HEN –
BRAY –
DOE / ROE HIND REINDEER -
CHICKEN DUCKLINGGOSLING -
BEAVER HEDGEHOG WOLF –WOLVES VIXEN –
BADGER –
SQUIRREL –
WEASEL-
CREEP GRASS SNAKE –
HISS –
ADDER -
MOLEHILL –
BITE LIZARD -
TO CROW –
BEAK –
FAWN –
ANTLERS –
CHAMOIS –
BIRDS
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PREDATORY –
SONG BIRDS –
WATERFOWL –
MIGRATING BIRDS –
BLACKBIRD MAGPIE SKYLARK THRUSH STARLING RAVEN FALCON VULTURE PHEASANT BUDGIE -
NEST HATCH -
FINCH CUCKOO SPARROW ROBIN TIT CROW EAGLE GULL PARTRIDGE –
PEACOCK -
BUNTING NIGHTINGALE –
SWALLOW –
WOODPECKER –
STORK –
OWL –
HAWK –
SWAN –
TURTLE –DOVE –
OSTRICH -
JAY –
INSECTS - / BUGS - AM /
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HARMFUL
HARMLESS –
PEST -
FLEA SPIDER FLY LADY BIRD / lady bug AM /
GLOW WORM –
MOSQUITO / GNAT – AM -
HAVE AN AVERSION TO BE AFRAID OF TO FEAR –
LOUSE / LICE –
SPIN A WEB –
HORSEFLY DRAGON FLY –
BITE –BIT-BITTEN STING –STUNG –STUNG -
BUTTERFLY –
FIRE FLY –
MAY BEETLE / may bug AM /
BEE / HONEY BEE BUMBLE BEE HORNET COLORADO BEETLE / POTATO BEETLE BEETLE –
GRASSHOPPER –
TICK TRANSFER A DISEASE –
SCORPION ANT ANTHILL –
CRICKET CHIRP –
SNAKECATERPILLAR -
SNAILSHELL –
WASP –
EARTHWORM –
FISH
CARP SALMON SCALE -
TROUT EEL CLAW -
PIKE –
CRAYFISH –
BERRIES
BILBERRY CURRANT ROWANBERRY -
BLACKBERRY ELDERBERRY STRAWBERRY -
CRANBERRY –
GOOSEBERRY –
RASPBERRY –
FLOWERS
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WILD AND GARDEN FLOWERS ROCK PLANTS –
BE IN BLOOM –
FLOWER BUD –
A BUNCH OF FLOWERS –
BUTTERCUP CORNFLOWER LILY –OF –THE- VALLEY NARCISSUS PRIMROSECROCUS CHRYSANTHEMUM DAHLIA SNOWFLAKES -
MARSH MARIGOLD FORGET –ME – NOT TULIP LILY DANDELION IRIS DAISY NETTLE -
VIOLET –
ANEMONE –
DAFFODILCARNATION –
SNOWDROP –
ROSE –
OX –EYE –DAISY –
DOG –GRASS -
TREES
 FRUIT TREES –
 DECIDUOUS TREES  CONIFEROUS TREES –
APPLE TREE
CHERRY TREE APRICOT TREE -
GROVES VIRGIN FOREST ORCHARD PEAR TREE WILD CHERRY TREE BE IN BLOSSOM -
BUSHES HAVE BUDS PLUM TREE –
PEACH TREE –
COME INTO LEAF –
FIR LARCH –
PINE –
CONE -
ALDER -
ASH –
CONIFEROUS TREES:
SPRUCE YEW DECIDUOUS - LEAFY TREES :
ACACIA -
ASPEN HORNBEAM LIME OAK WILLOW – PUSSY WILLOWS -
BEECH CHESTNUT HAZEL POPLAR -
BIRCH –
ELM –
MAPLE –
ROWAN –
BUSHES
CURRANT RHODODENDRON IVY ELDERBERRY CATKINS -
GOOSEBERRIES AZALEA STRAWBERRIES –
HAWTHORN WILD –ROSE BUSH
LILAC –
FORSYTHIA –
BLACKTHORN –
HAZEL –BUSH –
VEGETABLES
BEETROOT CELERIAC LEEK PEPPER TURNIP BRUSSEL SPROUTS RADISH ASPARAGUS COURGETTE WATERCRESS -
BEANS CUCUMBER PARSLEY ONION CABBAGE BROCCOLI CAULIFLOWER SPINACH –
PUMPKIN BROCCOLI -
CARROTS –
GARLIC –
PEAS –
LETTUCE –
SAVOY –
HORSE RADISH –
KOHLRABI –
AUBERGINE –
MARROW –
HERBS
DILL PARSLEY –
CHIVES -
MARJORAM –
CHIEF CROPS
GRAIN CROPS:
CORN WHEAT OATS MILLET -
GRAIN BARLEY MAIZE BUCKWHEAT –
RYE –
RICE –
LEGUMES:
BEANS SOYA BEANS SUNFLOWER -
PEAS HOPS –
MUSTARD -
LENTILS –
RAPE –
POTATOES-
SWEDE TURNIP –
CLOVER -
MIXED CROP –
ROOT CROPS :
SUGAR BEET FODDER –CROPS :
GRASS FLAX –
POPPY –SEED –
WORK IN THE GARDEN AND IN THE FIELDS
DIG - SPADE- HOE – PLOUGH - RAKE / noun – verb / SOW – SOWED – SOWN - SOW THE SEEDS SOWING
MACHINE – GROW - PLANT SEEDLINGS – REAP CORN WITH A REAPER – SCYTHE - MOW GRASS WITH A
MOWER – SICKLE – MAKE HAY – WEED - / noun , verb / FLOWER BED - VEGETABLE PATCH – HARVEST
CORN COMBINE –HARVESTER – PICK FRUIT - GATHER GRAPES – DIG UP POTATOUE WITH A POTATO
DIGGER – COLLECT BALES OF STRAW .- MAKE A STACK OF STRAW SPREAD MANURE – WATER WATERING CAN – HOSE – FERTILIZER –
What's your favourite season and why? Are there any special traditions associated with different
seasons in your country? Have you ever been caught in bad weather? If so, what did you do? What
crops are produced in which seasons in your country? Do you think weather patterns are changing?
If so, why do you think this is? Do you have many disasters in you country which are caused by
weather? Do you know any interesting myths or stories about weather? Do you like snow? Which
do you like better hot weather or cold weather? Do you have snow, hail, typhoons in your country?
What month gets the most rain in your country? About how many inches of rain does your
hometown get per year? What's the average temperature in your country in the summer time? Do
you get tornadoes where you are from? Do you think that in recent years we are losing our four
distinct seasons? What kind of climate do you prefer when choosing a place to go on vacation?
What is the best season to get married? What are the seasons? What is the hottest season? What is
the coldest season? In your opinion, which season is the most beautiful/comfortable? Why do you
think spring (or another season) is the most beautiful season? Have you ever been stranded in a
snowstorm? What did you do? Do you think weather affects the way people feel? How can
extreme weather conditions affect the economy and social life in countries? What do you think is
causing changes in weather patterns? What are the different kinds of weather? What is the weather
like in your country for each season? What some of the different kinds of weather? What is the
weather like in your country for each season? How does weather affect your attitude? What is the
relationship between weather and natural disasters? How to you depend on the weather reports on
TV? How do television stations secure weather reports? Why is it important to know future weather
conditions in advanced? When would knowing tomorrow's weather change you plans? Have you
ever checked the weather for your city on the Internet? What time of year is the best weather where
you live? Have you ever seen snow? Have you ever been in a typhoon? Where do you get your
weather information? What is your favourite winter activity? What is the hottest natural temperature
(not in a sauna) you have experienced? Where and when was it and what did it feel like?
Do you
have a pet? How old is it? Where did you get it from? What does it look like (colour, breed, etc.)?
What do you feed it? Do you play with it? What is it's name? How did you choose this name? Does
it know any tricks or understand any words? If you don't have a pet, why not? Would you ever
consider getting a pet? Did you grow up with pets in your home? What are the pros and cons of
keeping a pet? What is the best pet to own? What are some animals that live in your country? Are
there animal rights groups where you live? Are you afraid of snakes? What is the biggest snake you
have seen? Are there any poisonous snakes in your country? Are you frightened of spiders? What do
you do if you see one? Can you name some endangered species? Have you ever ridden a horse?
Are there birds or squirrels in your neighbourhood? Do you know someone who owns an unusual
pet? Do you think it is acceptable to test cosmetics on animals? How do you feel about the use of
animals for medical research? Do you think it is okay to eat meat? Do you know any vegetarians? Is
there any kind of meat you would not eat? What kind of meats have you eaten? Have you ever
been to a zoo? Are there laws about hunting in your country? What do you think of hunting? Would
you eat an animal that you killed yourself? Do you think it's okay to free animals that have been in
captivity all their lives? Do you think people should buy and wear fur coats? Do you think that
animals dream? Have you ever been bitten by a dog? Have you been stung by a bee? Have you
ever been to a farm? What animals did you see there? Have you ever been to a horse race? Have
you ever seen a dog that helps people, such as one to assist a blind person or a policeman? If so,
what did you notice about the dog? How do you think that dog was trained? What animals do you
think are cute? What animals do you think are ugly? What can children learn by having a pet?
What can people learn from animals? Can people be too attached to their pets? Do you think
animals have souls?
Climate means the average weather conditions in a particular location. The climate in a particular
part of the world will influence its vegetation and wildlife. Global climate zones with similar flora,
fauna and climate are called biomes.
Weather and climate
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Sunny weather in Hyde Park, London
Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere. It might be sunny, hot, windy or cloudy, raining
or snowing.
The weather takes into account the temperature, precipitation, humidity and atmospheric pressure
of the part of atmosphere (air) closest to the surface of the earth.
The weather is constantly changing as temperature and humidity change in the atmosphere.
Landmasses, such as the British Isles, experience constantly changing weather conditions.
Climate is the average weather conditions - temperature, pressure, precipitation and humidity expected for a certain place. Climate is based on the average weather experienced over 30 years
or more.
Climate refers to what is expected to happen in the atmosphere rather than the actual conditions. It
is possible for the weather to be different from that suggested by the climate.
Climatic conditions in an area can be affected by the landscape, relief and activities taking
place (both human and natural). Climate can alter over time and space.
Within a climatic region, the climate may vary from place to place - eg the top of a hill, the
sunny side of a hill, the shaded side of a hill and the bottom of a hill. These areas with their small
variations are called microclimates.
The science of monitoring and studying the atmosphere and predicting its weather and climate is
called meteorology. People who study the weather and climate are known as meteorologists.
Global distribution of climates
Climates are influenced by many factors, such as proximity to the equator or the poles and proximity
to the sea, as well as things like ocean currents, atmospheric pressure belts and prevailing winds.
A place's climate influences the types of vegetation and animals that live there. It is possible to
divide the world into a number of climatic zones or biomes, each with its own characteristic climate,
vegetation and wildlife.
Click here to learn more about the world's nine major biomes and to view an animation of their
distribution throughout the world.
Factors affecting climate
Latitude or distance from the equator
Temperatures drop the further an area is from the equator. Due to the curvature of the earth. In
areas closer to the poles, sunlight has a larger area of atmosphere to pass through and the sun is at a
lower angle in the sky. As a result, more energy is lost and temperatures are cooler.
In addition, the presence of ice and snow nearer the poles causes a higher albedo. This means that
more solar energy is reflected, also contributing to the cold.
Altitude or height above sea level
Locations at a higher altitude have colder temperatures. Temperature usually decreases by 1° C for
every 100m in altitude.
Distance from the sea
Oceans heat up and cool down much more slowly than land. This means that coastal locations tend
to be cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places inland at the same latitude and altitude.
Glasgow, for example, is at a similar latitude to Moscow, but is much milder.
Ocean currents
Britain has a maritime climate. A warm ocean current called the North Atlantic Drift keeps Britain
warmer and wetter than places in continental Europe.
The North Atlantic Drift
Prevailing wind
The prevailing wind is the most frequent wind direction a location experiences. In Britain the
prevailing wind is from the southwest, which brings warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean. This
contributes to the frequent rainfall. When prevailing winds blow over land areas, it can contribute to
creating desert climates.
Climate graphs
Climate graphs show average rainfall and temperatures typically experienced in a particular
location. The temperature is shown on a line graph, and rainfall on a bar graph. They are usually
represented on the same set of axes with the months of the year along the base.
To get a complete picture of the weather around the world, weather observations are taken at
agreed times at weather stations worldwide. They are then plotted onto a synoptic chart.
Synoptic charts
A synoptic chart is any map that summarises atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitation,
wind speed and direction, atmospheric pressure and cloud coverage) over a wide area at a given
time. They display an overview of the weather conditions observed from many different weather
stations, aeroplanes, balloons and satellites.
By collating the information over a wide area, meteorologists can observe the behaviour and
movement of weather formations that might affect their local area in the future. This allows
meteorologists to make more accurate weather forecasts. Charts are updated at least every six
hours.
There are many different types of weather map, all drawn using internationally agreed standards
and using accepted symbols.
Isobars and fronts
Isobars are lines on a weather map joining together places of equal atmospheric pressure. On the
map the isobar marked 1004 represents an area of high pressure, while the isobar marked 976
represents an area of low pressure.
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Isobars on a weather map
Note that:
The numbers measure the atmospheric pressure in millibars.
Usually isobars are drawn at intervals of two or four millibars (one thousandth of a bar).
The closer the isobars are together the windier it is.
If the lowest number is in the middle circle this is a low pressure or depression. Often low
pressures mean wet and windy weather.
If the highest number is in the middle circle, this is a high pressure or anticyclone. Often high
pressures mean dry, sunny weather.
Air pressure tends to range from 890mb (a hurricane) to 1060mb (an anticyclone).
The weather map below shows a low pressure, centred to the north of Scotland. As we move away
from the centre the isobars increase in atmospheric pressure and become wider apart. There is a
zone of high pressure over Italy in the southeast corner of the map.
Weather map of the UK
Note the three different kinds of front shown on the map - a cold front, a warm front and an
occluded front.
Fronts occur where two different air masses meet.
1.
Warm fronts are formed when warm air rises over a mass of cold air. As the air lifts into regions
of lower pressure, it expands, cools and condenses the water vapour as wide, flat sheets of
cloud.
Warm fronts are shown on synoptic charts by a solid line with semicircles pointing towards the
colder air and in the direction of movement. On coloured weather maps, a warm front is drawn
with a solid red line with red semicircles.
2.
Cold fronts are usually associated with depressions. A cold front is the transition zone where a
cold air mass is replacing the warmer air mass. The cold air is following the warm air and gradually
moves underneath the warmer air. When the warm air is pushed upwards it will rain heavily. Often
more rain will fall in the few minutes the cold front passes than it will during the whole passage of
a warm front. As the cold front passes, the clouds roll by and the air temperature is cooler.
Cold fronts are shown on synoptic charts by a solid line with triangles along the front pointing
towards the warmer air and in the direction of movement. On coloured weather maps, a cold
front is drawn with a solid blue line with blue triangles.
3.
Occluded fronts occur at the point where a cold front takes over a warm front or vice versa. If
a cold front undercuts a warm front it is known as a cold occlusion and if the cold front rises over
the warm front it is called a warm occlusion. Occluded fronts bring changeable weather
conditions.
On a synoptic chart occluded fronts are represented by semi-circles and triangles positioned
next to each other. The triangles are in blue and the semicircles are in red, or both are purple
(mixing both red and blue colours together).
Depressions
Depressions are areas of low atmospheric pressure which produce cloudy, rainy and windy weather.
These low-pressure systems often begin in the Atlantic, moving eastwards towards the UK. They are
responsible for the UK's changeable weather.
The diagram shows a depression with a leading warm front and a trailing cold front moving from
west to east across Britain.
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Diagram of a depression
At the warm front, lighter, warmer air from the south (tropical maritime air) meets cooler air
from the north (polar maritime air) and rises gradually over it.
As the warm air slowly rises it cools, its water content condenses and clouds form (nimbostratus
then altostratus). The result is steady rain, later giving way to drizzle and finally clearer skies with high
cirrus clouds.
Behind the warm front is an area of warm, rising air and low pressure - the centre of the lowpressure system. As this part of the depression passes over, there may be a short period of clear, dry
weather. However, at the trailing cold front, heavier, cooler air meets the warm air at the centre of
the depression, undercutting it and forcing it steeply upwards. Quickly moving air masses produce
high winds and cooler temperatures...
As the rapidly rising warm air cools, its water condenses and clouds form (cumulonimbus, then
cumulus). The result is heavy rain or thunderstorms, giving way to showers and finally to clear skies as
the
Anticyclones
Anticyclones are the opposite of depressions – they are an area of high atmospheric pressure where
the air is sinking.
As the air is sinking, not rising, no clouds or rain are formed. This is because as the air sinks it
warms - meaning it can hold more water.
The absence of fronts means winds may be very light.
Consequently, high-pressure areas are often associated with settled, dry and bright
conditions.
In summer, anticyclones bring dry, hot weather. In winter, clear skies may bring cold nights
and frost.
In cold conditions, anticyclones may also bring fog and mist. This
When weather conditions are severe the effects on communities can be devastating. It is impossible
to prevent weather from affecting a region but there are measures which can be taken in order to
minimise the impact.
Hurricanes
The strongest tropical storms are called hurricanes, typhoons or tropical cyclones. The different
names all mean the same thing, but are used in different parts of the world. If these huge storms start
in the Atlantic off the west coast of Africa, they are called hurricanes.
In an average year over a dozen hurricanes form over the Atlantic Ocean and head westwards
towards the Caribbean, the east coast of Central America and the southern USA (Florida in
particular). Hurricanes may last as long as a month and although they travel very slowly - usually at
about 24 km/h (15 mph) - wind speeds can reach over 120 mk/h (75 mph).
How hurricanes form
Hurricanes need a lot of heat to form and a sea surface temperature of at least 26 degrees, which is
why they usually occur over tropical seas. They also need to be between 5 and 20 degrees north or
south of the equator. It works like this:
Warm air rises quickly, causing towering clouds, heavy rainfall and intense low pressure.
The low pressure sucks in air, causing very strong winds which spiral - anti-clockwise in the
northern hemisphere - around the centre of the low, at speeds of around 120 km/h (75 mph).
Seen from above, hurricanes are huge circular bodies of thick cloud around 450 km (300miles)
wide. The cloud brings heavy rain, thunder and lightning.
In the centre is the eye of the hurricane, about 45 km across (30miles) across. Often there will
be no cloud in the eye. Seen from below it will seem calmer, with a circle of blue sky above. The eye
is formed because this is the only part of the hurricane where air is sinking.
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In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing easterly tropical winds tend to steer hurricanes
toward land - although their course is unpredictable. As hurricanes move inshore, their power
gradually reduces because their energy comes from sucking up moist sea air.
Drought
Droughts occur when a long period of abnormally dry weather leads to a severe water shortage.
Droughts are also often caused by the activity of humans as well. Human activities that can help
trigger droughts include:
Widespread cutting down of trees for fuel reduces the soil’s ability to hold water - drying out
the ground, triggering desertification and leading to drought.
Constructing a dam on a large river may help provide electricity and water to irrigate
farmland near the reservoir. However, it may also cause drought downstream by severely reducing
the flow of water.
Effects of drought
Parched ground during drought in Namibia
Droughts endanger lives and livelihoods through thirst, hunger (due to crops dying from lack of
water) and the spread of disease.
Millions of people died in the 20th century due to severe drought and famines. One of the
worst hit areas was the Sahel region of Africa, which covers parts of Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Sudan.
Droughts and famines can have other geographical impacts. If drought forces people to
migrate to a new home it could put pressure on resources in neighbouring countries.
Droughts can have a severe impact on MEDCs as well as LEDCs. Droughts have caused
deaths in Europe in recent years - especially amongst the elderly. In the UK in summer 2006, there
were hose pipe bans and campaigns to make people save water.
Ecosystems can be small-scale, covering a small area (such as a pond) or large-scale
covering a large area (such as a tropical rainforest).
The world is divided up into ten major ecosystems. These large-scale ecosystems are called
biomes.
What are the world’s major biomes?
Biomes are large scale ecosystems defined by abiotic factors. These are:
climate
relief
geology
soils
vegetation
Biome characteristics
Tropical forests are found near the equator in Central and South America, parts of
Africa and Asia. They are hot and humid and contain a huge variety of plants and animals around half of all the world's species. The trees are mostly hardwood. The climate is called
equatorial.
Savannah or tropical grasslands are hot and dry, dominated by grass, scrub and
occasional trees. They have two distinct seasons - a dry season when much of the
vegetation dies back, and a rainy season when it grows rapidly. They are found in central
Africa (Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania), northern Australia and central South America (Venezuela
and Brazil).
Desert is the driest and hottest of areas. The world's largest desert is the Sahara in North
Africa. Areas of scrub land that border the desert are called desert scrub.
Mediterranean climates are not too hot or cold. They are found around the
Mediterranean Sea, near Cape Town in South Africa and Melbourne in Australia.
Temperate grasslands are dominated by grass and trees and large bushes are scarce.
They have a temperate continental climate - the weather is mild with moderate rainfall.
Grasslands include the Puszta in Hungary, the Veldt in South Africa, the Pampas in Argentina
and the Prairies in the USA.
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Temperate deciduous forests contain trees that lose their leaves and are found across
Europe and USA. The weather is mild and wet. The climate is called temperate maritime.
Coniferous forests, containing evergreen trees, are found in Scandinavia, Russia and
Canada. They have a cool climate with moderate rainfall called cool temperate.
Mountain areas can be very cold at night and during winter. The growing season is
short and at higher levels trees will not grow.
Tundra surrounds the North and South poles. They have an extremely cold climate,
with limited numbers of plants and animals able to survive
The tropical rainforest is a biome with a constant temperature and a high rainfall. The level of
humidity and density of the vegetation give the ecosystem a unique water and nutrient
cycle. Rainforests around the world are threatened by human expansion.
Characteristics and climate
To see a map of where tropical rainforests are found, click here
A tropical rainforest biome is found in hot, humid environments in equatorial climates. They
contain the most diverse range and highest volume of plant and animal life found anywhere
on earth.
In general, tropical rainforests have hot and humid climates where it rains virtually everyday.
The level of rainfall depends on the time of year. Temperatures vary through the year - but
much less than the rainfall.
The graph shows average rainfall and temperature in Manaus, Brazil, in the Amazon
rainforest. The rainy season is from December to May. Notice how much the rainfall varies
over the year - the highest monthly rainfall is in March with over 300mm, while the lowest is in
August with less than 50mm. Over the year, the temperature only varies by 2°C.
Rainforest water and nutrient cycles
Rainforest ecosystems are characterised by heavy convectional rainfall, high humidity,
lushness of vegetation and nutrient-rich but shallow soil. These factors give rise to a unique
water and nutrient cycle.
Rainforest nutrient and water cycle
Rainforest water cycle
The roots of plants take up water from the ground and the rain is intercepted as it falls much of it at the canopy level. As the rainforest heats up, the water evaporates into the
atmosphere and forms clouds to make the next day's rain. This is convectional rainfall.
Rainforest nutrient cycle
The rainforest nutrient cycling is rapid. The hot, damp conditions on the forest floor allow for
the rapid decomposition of dead plant material. This provides plentiful nutrients that are
easily absorbed by plant roots. However, as these nutrients are in high demand from the
rainforest's many fast-growing plants, they do not remain in the soil for long and stay close to
the surface of the soil. If vegetation is removed, the soils quickly become infertile and
vulnerable to erosion.
If the rainforest is cleared for agriculture it will not make very good farmland, as the soil will
not be rich in nutrients.
Rainforest vegetation levels
Tropical rainforests have dense vegetation. From ground level up these levels of vegetation
are:
The shrub layer. It is dark and gloomy with very little vegetation between the trees.
During heavy rainfalls this area can flood.
The under canopy is the second level up. There is limited sunlight. Saplings wait here
for larger plants and trees to die, leaving a gap in the canopy which they can grow into.
Woody climbers called lianas avoid having to wait for gaps by rooting in the ground and
climbing up trees to get to the sunlight.
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The canopy is where the upper parts of most of the trees are found. The canopy is
typically about 65 to 130 feet (20 to 40 metres) tall. This leafy environment is home to insects,
arachnids, birds and some mammals.
emergents are the tops of the tallest trees in the rainforest. These are much higher,
and so are able to get more light than the average trees in the forest canopy.
Each has adapted to rainforest conditions in a different way.
Fan palms have large, fan-shaped leaves that are good for catching sunshine and
water. The leaves are segmented, so excess water can drain away.
Rainforests have a shallow layer of fertile soil, so trees only need shallow roots to reach
the nutrients. However, shallow roots can't support huge rainforest trees, so many tropical
trees have developed huge buttress roots. These stretch from the ground to two metres or
more up the trunk and help to anchor the tree to the ground.
Lianas are woody vines that start at ground level, and use trees to climb up to the
canopy where they spread from tree to tree to get as much light as possible.
Coniferous or boreal forests occur in cold northern regions characterised by long cold
winters and short summers. Although there is a lot of precipitation, most of it falls as snow.
This biome is found between 50 and 60 degrees north of the equator and is characterised by
evergreen coniferous trees with needles instead of leaves. It is also known as Taiga.
Typical trees include spruce, pine and fir. Animals commonly found in the region are
reindeer, voles and hares.
At the most northern extent, summer temperatures rarely rise above 10°C. As you move
further north, trees are shorter and less dense because of the shorter growing season. Winter
temperatures can fall as low as minus 30°C. At its southern margins, the trees become taller
and denser and merge with deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves). Temperatures
here can rise as high as 20 degrees in the summer can fall to minus 15 degrees in winter.
Precipitation is 300 – 900mm, and most falls as snow in winter.
Adaptations of vegetation
Coniferous trees have thick bark to protect against the cold. They are cone shaped,
with flexible branches which help them to cope with heavy snow fall.
Pine cones protect the seeds during the harsh winter.
The thin waxy needles reduce water loss.
Their evergreen nature means that the needles can photosynthesize whenever there is
sufficient sunlight.
The dense forest creates warmth during the harsh winter.
The savannah biome is located further away from the equator than the tropical rainforest
biome in the central part of Africa and in South America. It is dry, but not as dry as desert
areas.
Characteristics
To see a map of where savannah grasslands are located in the world, click here
Savannahs - also known as tropical grasslands - are found to the north and south of tropical
rainforest biomes. The largest expanses of savannah are in Africa, where much of the central
part of the continent, for example Kenya and Tanzania, consists of tropical grassland.
Savannah grasslands can also be found in Brazil in South America.
Savannah regions have two distinct seasons - a wet season and a dry season. There is very
little rain in the dry season. In the wet season vegetation grows, including lush green grasses
and wooded areas. As you move further away from the equator and its heavy rainfall, the
grassland becomes drier and drier - particularly in the dry season. Savannah vegetation
includes scrub, grasses and occasional trees, which grow near water holes, seasonal rivers or
aquifers.
Elephants at a water-hole in Namibia
Plants and animals have to adapt to the long dry periods. Many plants are xerophytic - for
example, the acacia tree with its small, waxy leaves and thorns. Plants may also store water,
for example the baobab tree) or have long roots that reach down to the water table.
Animals may migrate great distances in search of food and water.
The graph below shows average monthly temperatures and rainfall levels in the savannah
region of Mali. Notice how the temperature and rainfall patterns relate to each other - the
hottest temperatures come just before heavy rainfall, and the coolest time of the year
comes just after the rains. This pattern is typical of savannah climates.
rírodné katastrofy
 Svetová klíma
 Ekosystémy
Earthquakes are caused by the release of built-up pressure inside the Earth's crust. An earthquake's
power is measured on the Richter scale using an instrument called a seismometer.
The effects of an earthquake can be devastating - they can destroy settlements, change
landscapes, and cause many deaths.
Causes
An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the Earth's crust due to movement of the Earth's plates
(plate tectonics). Earthquakes can happen along any type of plate boundary.
Earthquakes occur when tension is released from inside the crust. Plates do not always move
smoothly alongside each other and sometimes get stuck. When this happens pressure builds up.
When this pressure is eventually released, an earthquake tends to occur.
The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus. The point on the Earth's
surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
Earthquake energy is released in seismic waves. These waves spread out from the focus. The waves
are felt most strongly at the epicentre, becoming less strong as they travel further away. The most
severe damage caused by an earthquake will happen close to the epicentre.
Measurement of earthquakes
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The aftermath of an earthquake, Golcuk, Western Turkey
The power of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer. A seismometer detects the vibrations
caused by an earthquake. It plots these vibrations on a seismograph.
The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is
numbered 0-10:
Earthquakes measuring just one or two on the scale are very common and can happen
everyday in places like San Francisco. These earthquakes are so small that people cannot feel them,
they can only be picked up by a seismometer.
Earthquakes measuring around seven or eight on the Richter scale can be devastating. The
earthquake in China's south-western Sichuan province in May 2008 measured 7.8 on the Richter
scale.
Effects of an earthquake
Clearing rubble after an earthquake, Bhuj, India
Earthquakes can destroy settlements and kill many people. Aftershocks can cause even more
damage to an area. It is possible to classify the impacts of an earthquake, by taking the following
factors into account:
short-term (immediate) impacts
long-term impacts
social impacts (the impact on people)
economic impacts (the impact on the wealth of an area)
environmental impacts (the impact on the landscape)
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Social impacts
Economic impacts
Environmental impacts
Short-term
(immediate)
impacts
People may be killed or
injured. Homes may be
destroyed. Transport and
communication links may
be disrupted. Water pipes
may burst and water
supplies may be
contaminated.
Shops and business may
be destroyed. Looting
may take place. The
damage to transport and
communication links can
make trade difficult.
The built landscape may
be destroyed. Fires can
spread due to gas pipe
explosions. Fires can
damage areas of
woodland. Landslides may
occur. Tsunamis may
cause flooding in coastal
areas.
Long-term
impacts
Disease may spread.
People may have to be rehoused, sometimes in
refugee camps.
The cost of rebuilding a
Important natural and
settlement is high.
human landmarks may be
Investment in the area
lost.
may be focused only on
repairing the damage
caused by the
earthquake. Income
could be lost.
Effects are often classified as primary and secondary impacts. Primary effects occur as a direct result
of the ground shaking, eg buildings collapsing. Secondary effects occur as a result of the primary
effects, eg tsunamis or fires due to ruptured gas mains.
Factors affecting the impact of an earthquake
Distance from the epicentre – the effects of an earthquake are more severe at its centre.
The higher on the Richter scale, the more severe the earthquake is.
Level of development (MEDC or LEDC) – MEDCs are more likely to have the resources and
technology for monitoring, prediction and response.
Population density (rural or urban area). The more densely populated an area, the more likely
there are to be deaths and casualties.
Communication - accessibility for rescue teams.
Time of day influenceS whether people are in their homes, at work or travelling. A severe
earthquake at rush hour in a densely populated urban area could have devastating effects.
The time of year and climate will influence survival rates and the rate at which disease can
spread.
Earthquakes and volcanoes in LEDCs
LEDC often suffer more from the effects of volcanoes and earthquakes than MEDC
The effects of an earthquake or a volcano in LEDCs
Communication systems may be underdeveloped, so the population may not be well
educated about what to do in the event of a volcanic eruption or an earthquake.
Construction standards tend to be poor in LEDCs. Homes and other buildings may suffer
serious damage when a disaster occurs.
Buildings collapsing can cause high death tolls.
Evacuation and other emergency plans can be difficult to put into action due to limited funds
and resources.
Clearing up can be difficult. There may not be enough money to rebuild homes quickly and
safely. Many people could be forced to live in emergency housing or refugee camps.
Volcanoes form when magma reaches the Earth's surface, causing eruptions of lava and ash. They
occur at destructive (compressional) and constructive (tensional) plate boundaries.
The immediate effects of volcanic eruptions can be devastating, but they may be beneficial in the
long term.
Facts:
Key things you should know about volcanoes:
A volcano is formed by eruptions of lava and ash.
Volcanoes are usually cone shaped mountains or hills.
When magma reaches the Earth's surface it is called lava. When the lava cools, it forms rock.
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Volcanic eruptions can happen at destructive and constructive boundaries, but not at
conservative boundaries.
Some volcanoes happen underwater, along the seabed or ocean floor.
How volcanoes form
Krakatoa in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia
1.
Magma rises through cracks or weaknesses in the Earth's crust.
2.
Pressure builds up inside the Earth.
3.
When this pressure is released, eg as a result of plate movement, magma explodes to the
surface causing a volcanic eruption.
4.
The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust.
5.
Over time, after several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms
Different types of volcano
Volcanoes can be described in terms of activity and can be:
Still active and erupt frequently.
Dormant (temporarily inactive but not fully extinct).
Extinct (never likely to erupt again).
Volcanoes can also be described by their shape or type:
Effects of volcanic eruptions
Helgafjell Volcano, Iceland
Volcanic eruptions can have a devastating effect on people and the environment.
However, unlike earthquakes, volcanoes can also have a positive impact on an area. These positive
impacts can help to explain why people choose to live near volcanoes.
Positive and negative effects of an eruption
Positive
Negative
The dramatic scenery created by volcanic
eruptions attracts tourists. This brings income to an
area.
Many lives can be lost as a result of a volcanic
eruption.
The lava and ash deposited during an eruption
breaks down to provide valuable nutrients for the
soil. This creates very fertile soil which is good for
agriculture
If the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption
mix with rain water or melting snow, fast
moving mudflows are created. These flows are
called lahars.
The high level of heat and activity inside the Earth,
close to a volcano, can provide opportunities for
generating geothermal energy.
Lava flows and lahars can destroy settlements
and clear areas of woodland or agriculture.
Human and natural landscapes can be
destroyed and changed forever.