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1. FRENCH REVOLUTION
Introduction
France: One of the most beautiful country of Europe. Its capital is Paris. Towards the
closing years of the 18th century Europe was shaken by the French Revolution – considered
by many historians as the most important landmarks in human history. The revolution
which occurred in 1789 swept away the existing political institutions and aimed at
establishing a more egalitarian society government than what existed before.
 The revolution began with the siege of Bastille on July 14, 1789 and continued until
the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power. Causes which led to the sudden overthrow of
French Monarchy in 1789 are
1.1 Causes:(I) Political causes
(i) France drifted towards chaos by involving herself in numerous wars
(ii) King Louis XV engaged himself in the pursuit of worldly pleasure.
(iii) France helped American colonies to gain freedom from Britain; this again
drained the financial resources of France
(iv) King Louis XVI was married to Austrian Princess in 1774 (Queen, Marie
Antoinette), who ill advised the King
(v) There was no uniform code of law
(vi) There was corruption in every Government department.
(II) Economic causes
(i) To meet its regular expenses, such as cost of maintaining an army, the
court, government offices, state was forced to increase taxes.
(ii) The French system of Taxation was both unjust and unfair
(iii) The privileged class did not pay taxes and the burden was shifted on the
shoulders of the poor peasants it comprises 1/10th of the agricultural
produce.
(iv) Peasants paid tax called TITHES to the church, Direct tax called TAILLE
and a number of indirect taxes, which were levied on articles of everyday
consumption like salt or tobacco, were paid to the state.
(v) Increase in population led to a rapid increase in demand for food grains,
which resulted in the increase in prices. But the wages of the labourers did
not keep pace with the rise in prices. Things became worse whenever
drought or hail reduced the harvest.
(III) Intellectual Awakening
(i)
VOLTAIRE- Through his plays and writings launched his bitter attacks
against the existing institutions like the church and the state
(ii) Montesquieu:– Preferred constitutional monarchy in France, he
popularized the theory of separation of powers within the government
between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary in his book “THE
SPIRIT OF THE LAWS”
(iii) Great French Philosopher JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU wrote a book
and explained that the king and his subjects are the parties to a contract,
and therefore if the king does not rule the people according to their general
will, he loses their loyalty. The people have every right to overthrow the
monarchy under such circumstances.
(iv) John Locke in his book “Two Treatises of Government” sought to refute the
doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch
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The writings cast such a spell on the people that they were ready to revolt
against the oppressive monarchy.
(IV) Social causes
(i)
(ii)
Unjust privileges marked the character of the French society
The society was divided in to three estates or classes
Ist Estate (The Church)
2nd Estate (The nobles)
3rd Estate
1
First
estate
was 1
There were 80,000 1
Included
middle
constituted by higher
families in France
class
members
clergy bishops who
who belonged
to
the
peasant,
governed the church of
nobility
artisans
France
2
They
supported 2
They enjoyed non- 2
Educated
middle
absolute monarchy
payment of taxes
class of merchants,
lawyers, teachers
doctors
3
They were exempted 3
Enjoyed
higher 3
Unfair
and
from paying most of
positions in French
oppressive
taxes
the taxes
administration
were resorted on
them
4
They collected TITHE, 4
They enjoyed feudal 4
Govt. hardly cared
a tax from people for
privileges,
these
for their welfare
providing community
included feudal dues
services
which they extracted
from the peasants
5
They also maintained
5
After paying the
institution of learning
taxes they could
hardly
meet
their both ends.
6
Nobles
destroyed
their
fields
while
hunting.
(V) The Role of the King
(i) French government help the American war of Independence, it caused a
serious strain on the finance of the country and cast a heavy burden on the
poor peasants
(ii) The King ought to have reduced the royal expenses but the queen never let
him do so
(iii) Turgot was dismissed by the Queen because he advised the king to tax the
privileged classes.
1.2 The Outbreak Of the Revolution (France became a constitutional
Monarch)
Course of Revolution
 On 5th May, 1789, Louis XVI called an assembly of the estates general to pass
proposals for new taxes in Versailles.
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There were 300 members each from the 1st and 2nd estate and 600 members of the
third estate. The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and
educated members.
Each estate had one vote.
Third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole,
where each member would have on vote. This was one of the democratic principles
put forward by Rousseau in his book “Social Contract”.
King rejected this proposal, member of the third estate walked out in protest.
On 20th June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in Versailles,
declared themselves as National Assembly and swore to draft a constitution for
France that would limit the power of the monarch.
They were led by MIRABEAU and ABBE-SIEYES. Mirabeau was born in a noble
family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege.
Abbe Sieye was a priest he wrote a pamphlet called “What is Third Estate”.
Severe winter resulted bad harvest, there was hunger and agony.
At the same time King Ordered troops to move into Paris.
On 14th July the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed dreaded fortress prison of
Bastille
The guards were killed and political prisoners were set free.
Estate general-was a political body to which the three estates sent their
representatives.
Jacques-Louis David sketch a large painting of Tennis court oath
The King summoned troops to frighten the Paris mob, it was rumoured that the
army would be ordered to open fire upon the citizens. Thousands of persons gathered and
decided to form a peoples militia, They broke into a number of government buildings in
search of arms.
 Peasants in several villages looted hoarded grains and burnt down documents
containing records of manorial dues
 A large number of nobles fled from their homes
 The furious mob ransacked the palace
 King Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly
 On 4th Aug, 1789, the assembly passed a decree
(i)
Abolished the feudal system of taxes
(ii)
Clergy were forced to give up their privileges
(iii) Tithes were abolished
(iv) Land owned by the Church were confiscated
 The National assembly completed drafting of the constitution in 1791, According to this
new constitution the Kings powers came to be reduced. Laws were to be made by the
Legislative assembly and the members of this assembly were to be elected by tax
paying citizens.
 The king was not happy, but he gave his consent, looking to the tense situation
prevailing in the countryside.
 The Power instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now assigned
to legislature, executive & judiciary.
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1.3 France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic
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Although Louis XVI signed the Constitution, he entered into secret negotiations
with the king of Prussia.
Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the development in
France and made plans to send troops to put down the events that had been
taking place there since the summer of 1789.
Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare
war against Prussia and Austria.
The king thought it fit to flee the country but was apprehended.
The extremists (Jacobins) gained ground in popularity and power.
On the 10th Aug, 1792 Jacobins massacred king’s guards and imprison the royal
family.
Elections were held, from now on all men of 21 yrs and above regardless of
wealth, got the right to vote.
The newly elected assembly was called CONVENTION.
On 21st September, 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a
republic.
Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of betrayal of
country. On 21 Jan 1793, he was executed publicly at the PLACE DE LA
CONCORDE.
1.4 The Reign of Terror
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The period from 1793-1794 is known as “Reign of Terror”.
During this period Robespierre, who was the head of the govt. of France followed
a policy of severe control and punishment.
Ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his
own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned and
then guillotined
France witnessed the guillotine of thousands of nobles and innocent men who
had supported monarchy.
He issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices.
Meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to transport their grain to
the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government. The use of more
expensive white flour was forbidden, all citizens were required to eat, a loaf
made of whole
Churches were shut down.
He pursued his polices so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand
moderation.
Finally Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794.
1.5 Directory Rule France
After the death of Robespierre, the moderate elements gained predominance in the
National Convention. The National Convention framed a new constitution for France
in 1795 according to which the executive powers were vested with the Directory of five
persons who were to be advised by a legislative body consisting of two chambers.
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1.6 The Revolution and Everyday life
The years following 1789 in France saw many changes in the lives of men, women and
children. The revolutionary government took it upon themselves to pass laws that
would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday life.
(i) Abolition of censorship:- Before the revolution all written material could be
published only after the approved of the king. But immediately after the
revolution, keeping in mind the liberty and equality principle, the censorship
was abolished.
(ii) Revolution in Literature and Press:- After the abolition of censorship, now
press was free. Freedom of the Press meant that opposing views of events could
be expressed. Political philosophers and writers were free to express their views.
1.7 Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss
them. This clash was responsible for political instability. Napoleon took advantage of
the situation and became a dictator with the help of the army.
1.8 Consequences of French Revolution
The French Revolution produced great effects not only in France but also an the whole
of Europe
(i) Effects of France – The French Revolution, the old Regime, put end to the
arbitrary rule in France and paved the way for the establishment of a republic
there. The special privileges of the high order were abolished and lead to the
regeneration if France on the basis of social equality. The declaration of the
rights of man granted freedom and individual liberty to all without any
distinction of class or creed. Many reforms were introduced in the
administration. The higher and important posts in the state were opened to
talented people. All were granted religious freedom. The Napoleonic code
introduced a uniform system of law for France and made it quite clear and
simple.
(ii) Effects on Europe (a) Equality:– The French Revolution had a great influence on Europe.
Equality was one of the main principles of French Revolution. It implied the
equality of all before law and abolition of privileges enjoyed by the upper
order in the society. It established social, economic and political equality in
the European countries.
(b) Liberty – Revolutionary idea of liberty was hailed all over Europe. It
implied social, political and religious freedom. The declaration of rights of
man, made people understands the importance of personal liberty and
rights.
(c) Sovereignty- The French Revolution emphasized the fact that sovereignty
recites in the general public and law should be based on the will of the
people. It infused the spirit of nationalism and patriotism in the people.
(iii) Global impact:(a) It had a global impact which was felt equally in India.
(b) The UN Charter of Human Rights also embodies the principles of the
Revolution as laid down in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
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Q.
How were the members of National Assembly elected as defined in the constitution of
1791?
A.- THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
 National Assembly was indirectly elected. Citizens voted for a group of electors,
who in turn chose the Assembly. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes
equal to at least 3 days of a laborers’ wage
 It gave political right only to the richer sections of society.
Q.
A.
What was the declaration of Man and citizen?
The new constitution declared the Rights of man and Citizens. In 1789, the French
National Assembly adopted a set of basic principles called the Declaration of the
“Rights of Man and Citizen”. This document stated that “men are born and remain
free and equal in rights”, and that the source of power resides in the people.” It
guaranteed all Frenchmen the basic rights of liberty, security, equal justice, fair
taxes, speech, religion and thought. According to the declaration, all these rights
belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty
of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.
Q. Write a note on the painting of LE-BARBIER?
A. Le-Barbier painted the declaration of the rights of man and citizen in 1790. Figure on
the right represented France and the figure on the left symbolized the law.
Majority of people at that time could not read and write, so he used many symbols to
convey the content of the declaration of Rights
(i)
The broken chain  stand for the act of becoming free
(ii) The bundle of rods  it implies that strength lies in unity.
(iii) The eye within a triangle radiating light Eye stand for knowledge, the rays of
sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance
(iv) Sceptre- royal power.
(v) Snake biting its tail to form a ring-eternity.
(vi) Red cap-cap worn by a slave upon becoming free.
(vii) Blue-white-red-National colours of France
(viii) winged woman- Personification of the law.
(ix) The law tablet-the law is same for all.
Q.
A.
What is liberty, according to journalist CAMILLE DESMOULINS?
Liberty is Happiness, Reason, equality and Justice. Punishing one man against the
republic means ten more against it.
Q. What is liberty, according to ROBESPIERRE?
A. Robespierre in his speech on 7th Feb., 1794 said that liberty means to finish the
enemies of the republic at home or abroad. To curb the enemies of liberty through
terror is the right of the founder of the Republic.
Q. Name the Newspaper in which revolutionary journalist JEAN-PAUL-MARAT
commented on the constitution drafted by the National Assembly.
A. THE FRIEND OF THE PEOPLE.
Q. Which is the national anthem of France?
A. Marseilles is the national anthem of France.
 It was composed by the poet Roget de L Isle.
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 It was first sung by the volunteers from Marseilles as they marched into Paris
against the King.
Q.
A.
Write a note on Jacobin club?
Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss
government policies the most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins.
 The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of
society small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoe markers, pastry cooks, servants
and dairy wage workers
 Their leader was Maximilian Robes Pierre
 To set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society, Jacobins decided
to wear long striped trousers
 These Jacobins came to be known as the SANS-CULOTTES, they also wore red
caps, which symbolized liberty.
Q.
A.
What were changes in the constitution after the fall of Jacobin’s government?
The National Convention predominated by the moderate elements framed a new
constitution for France in 1795.
 It denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society.
 The executive powers were vested with the Director of 5 persons who were to
advised by 2 elected legislative councils.
Q.
A.
How did Napoleon Bonaparte came to power?
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE IS COME TO POWER
 The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, this led to political
instability.
 There was royalist uprising in Paris.
 This paved the way for the rise of a military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte, who
took charge of the command and ordered the troops to crush the uprising.
 He ruled France from 1799-1815.
Q.
A.
Write a note on rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
 In 1804, napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself as the emperor of France.
 His ambition was to unite the countries of Europe and make France it leader.
 He introduced many laws such as protection of private property and uniform
system of weights
 Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for the
people.
 But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading
force.
 He carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern law to other parts of
Europe He was finally defeated at waterloo in 1815 jointly by Britain, Prussia,
Austria and Russia. He was captured and sent as a prisoner to the Island of St.
Helena where he died in 1821.
Q.
A.
What were the result of the Revolution?
(i) It destroyed feudalism and liberated the serfs.
(ii) It established constitutional monarchy.
(iii) The declaration of the “Right of Man” was included in the new constitution.
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(iv) The nobles and the church lost their property and their property were
distributed to the peasants.
(v) The watch words of the French revolution such as liberty, Equality and
Fraternity reflected the coming of new democratic order in Europe
(vi) It aroused National feeling among the people.
Q.
A.
Discuss women participation in France to attain liberty or equal rights?
Women participation in France is
 Women actively participated in the events of French revolution in a hope that the
new government would introduce measures to improve their life.
 Most of the women of the third estate had to work for a living; their wages were
lower than those of men.
 Most women did not have access to education or job training.
 In order to discuss and voice their interest’s women started their own political club
and newspapers.
 The Society of Revolutionary and Republication woman was the most famous of
them.
 The demanded
(i) the right to vote, (ii) to be elected to the assembly (iii) to
hold
political
office
 They succeeded in gaining certain reforms(i)
Schooling was made compulsory for al girls
(ii)
Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men
(iii) Women could now get job or run small business
 Women’s movement for voting rights and equal wages continued
 It was finally in 1946 than women in France won the right to vote.
Q.
“Abolition” of slavery was another impact of French Revolution. What is slave trade
and how did it ended in France?
Slave Trade began in the 17th century. French merchants sailed from the ports of
Bordeause to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains; the
slaves were then tightly packed into ships and were sent to Caribbean. There they
were sold to plantation owners where they worked as labour
 National assembly did not pass any law, fearing opposition from businessmen
whose incomes depended on the slave trade
 It was finally the convention which in 1794 legislated to free slaves in French
overseas possessions
 Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
 Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1948.
A.
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2. SOCIALISM IN EUROPE - (PART – I)
Socialism:- A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that
the means of production, distribution and exchange should be owned or regulated by the
community as a whole.
After the French Revolution, in many parts of the world including Europe and Asia, new
Ideas about individual rights and who controlled social power began to be discussed.
Responses varied from those who accepted that some change was necessary but wished for
a gradual shift, to those who wanted to restructure society radically. Major groups of
philosophers and thinkers of Russia were
(i) Liberals
(ii) Radicals
(iii) Conservatives
(iv) Socialists
(i) Liberals:(a) They wanted to change the society
(b) They wanted a nation, which tolerated all religions.
(c) They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
(d) They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject to
laws interpreted by a well –trained Judiciary that was independent of rulers and
officials.
(e) They did not believed in universal Adult Franchise.
(f) They did not want the women to vote.
(ii) Radicals:(a) They supported universal Adult Franchise.
(b) They wanted women participation in election.
(c) They opposed the privileges of landowners and wealthy factory owners.
(d) They were not against the existence of private property but disliked the
concentration of property in the hands of a few.
(iii) Conservatives:- They were the people who accepted that some charge was inevitable
but believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about
through a slow process.
(iv) Socialists:- Socialists were against private property. They believed, though
individual who owned the property gave employment to other yet it is the roots of all
social ills of the time because the propertied were concerned only with personal gain
and not with the welfare of those who made the property production. So if a society as
a whole controlled property, more attention would be paid to collective social
interests.
Q.- What was the name of the international body formed by socialist of Europe?
A.- Second International
Q.- What were the different political parties led by the socialists?
A.- In Germany, socialists worked with (SPD) social democratic party and helped it win
parliamentary seats.
In Britain, They formed LABOUR PARTY
In France, SOCIALIST PARTY
Represented by strong figures in parliamentary politics, their ideas shaped the
legislation.
Q.- Who were Nationalists?
A.- Nationalists were the people who through revolution wanted to create nation where
all the citizens would have equal rights. Guiseppe Mazzini was an Italian nationalist.
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Q.- What were the different views on how the society without property should operate?
A.- (i) Co-operative Societies- This was the idea given by ROBERT OWEN. He was
an English manufacturer. These co-operatives were to be associations of people
who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done
by members. In France, Louis Blanc wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises because co-operatives could not be
built on wide scale without government help.
(ii) Communist Society- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engel’s gave the concept of
communist society. Marx argued that the industrial society was “Capitalist”. The
profit of the capitalist was produced by workers. The conditions of the workers
could not improve as long as the profit was accumulated by private capitalists.
Marx believed that to free those selves from capitalist exploitation workers had
to construct a radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled.
Q.-
What were the social and economic changes occurring in the society in the 18th
centaury?
A.- (i) Housing and sanitation were problems since towns were growing.
(ii) Almost all industries were the property of individuals.
(iii) New cities grew up.
(iv) Railway expanded and the Industrial revolution occurred.
(v) With Industrialization, men, women and children started working in factories.
(vi) Working hours were long and wages were poor.
(vii) Unemployment was common during times of low demand for industrial goods.
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THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION - (PART – II)
Introduction:One of the most important landmarks in the history of the world is the Russian
Revolution. Although Russia became bulky in size due to constant acquisition of
territories, she was not making progress to the extent her western counterparts did.
Russia remained as feudal as she was at the beginning of twentieth century. The
conditions of working class remained as hopeless as ever. Common people began to
hate the Tsar who continued to remain as oppressive as the earlier ones. Popular
discontentment rose to a new height which led to a Revolution.
2.1 The cause of Revolution in Russia:(i)
The Russian Czars enjoyed unlimited authority; the autocracy was supported by
the nobles on the one hand and the church on the other. The nobles enjoyed all
privileges and power. They occupied all key position in the administration and
owned large estates.
(ii) Peasants condition was miserable. They had miserably small holdings of land
with no capital to develop even these. For the small holdings they acquired, they
had to pay heavy redemption dues for decades. Land hunger was a major social
factor in the Russian society. Peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given
to them.
(iii) Industrialization began but more than half of the capital invested came from
foreign countries. Foreign investors were interested in quick profits and showed
no concern for the conditions of workers. Working hours were sometimes 15 hrs,
compared to 10 or 12 hrs in factories. Women made up 31% of the factory labour
but they were paid less than men. Workers had no political rights and their
conditions were horrible.
(iv) Russian Czars had built a vast empire by conquest of diverse nationalities in
Europe and Asia. In these conquered areas, they imposed the use of Russian
language and tried to belittle the cultures of the people of these areas.
(v) Reign of Czar Nicholas –II (1894 –1917)- The government continued to
remain as oppressive as the earlier ones. The common people began to hate him
and his notorious minister Rasputin.
(vi) Popular discontentment rose to a new height when Russia was defeated by a tiny
Asiatic country, Japan in the Russo-Japanese war (1904 –1905).
(vii) Rise in numerous taxes – to overcome the expenditure on railways and army,
taxes were increased and burden of taxes were imposed on poor and peasants
2.2 Socialism in Russia
(i) The Russian Social Democratic Worker Party was founded in 1898 by socialist
who respected Marx’s idea. However, because of government policing, it had to
operate as an illegal organized strikes. It members were mainly workers and
peasants. The party was divided over the strategy of organization in to
(a) Bolshevik group
(b) Menshevik group
(a) Bolshevik party was headed by Vladimir Lenin. It was a majority group
consisted of extreme socialists.
(b) Menshevik It was a minority group led by Alexander Krrensky. They
wanted to bring changes through peaceful and constitutional means,
favoured the parliamentary system of government.
(ii) Social Revolutionary party – formed in 1900. This party struggled for
peasant’s rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles be transferred to
peasants.
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(iii) There were parties of non-Russian nationalities of the Russian empire which
were working to free their lands from colonial oppression.
2.3 A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution
Both the socialist gps Bolsheviks and the Menshevik mobilized the discontented
workers. With the coming of revolutionary literature people demanded the right of
speech, association and religious independence. In 1904, rices of essential
commodities rose so quickly that the real wages declined
by 20%. 10,000 workers
in St. Petersburg went on a strike demanding a reduction in the working hours, an
increase in wages and improvement in working conditions. On 9th Jan., 1905, a
procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the winter palace to present a
petition to the Czar. The royal guards opened fire and hundreds were killed.
The
incident known as BLOODY SUNDAY started a series of events that became known
as the 1905 revolution.
The news of the death of the hundreds of Russians provoked the workers in the cities
to go on a strike. Strikes took place all over the country and universities closed down
student bodies walked out complaining about the lack of civil liberties. Layers,
doctors, engineers and other middle-class workers demanded a constituent assembly.
Even the sections of the army and the navy revolted
The Czar was frightened at the halting of the country’s wheels of progress. He bowed
to the demands of the common people and introduced many reforms such as freedom
of press, speech and assembly. He recognized the trade unions and cancelled arrears
of land payments by the peasants. The most important step that he took was the
promise to hold elections for the Duma (Russian parliament). First Duma – Elections
were held for first Duma in April 1906. Duma demanded the end of royal tyranny and
liberal reforms. The Czar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and re-elected
second Duma within three months. He did not wanted reduction in his powers. This
time there was a conflict between the Czar and the Duma. Duma demanded
confiscation of land of big landowners, end of military courts and ministry to be
responsible to Duma Czar dismissed the Duma. The Czar revised the election rules in
such a way that only the loyal upper class representatives were voted to power. Third
Duma was formed. This was a supporter of Czarist autocracy. It was a puppet Duma
of Czar and thus the Czarist unjustful reign continued 1905 Revolution proved to be a
dress rehearsal of the revolution that came in 1917.
2.4 The First World War and the Russian Empire
In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances-Germany, Austria, Turkey
and France,
Britain and Russia. These countries had global empires and so war was fought inside
and outside Europe. This was first word war.
(i) The entry of Russia into world war first was an act of crowning folly on the part
of the Czar. The country was hardly prepared for war of such magnitude.
Thousands of ill equipped and untrained peasants were sent to the war front
against highly trained German troops. Russian armies lost badly in Germany
and Austria between 1914 and 1917. There were seven million casualties by
1917. Soldiers did not wish to fight such a war.
(ii) When the Russian army retreated, they destroyed the crops and buildings to
prevent the enemy from being able to live off the land. This destruction led to 3
million refugees in Russia.
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(iii) Industries were affected, country was cut off from there suppliers of industrial
goods by German control over the Baltic sea.
(iv) Railway lines began to break down
(v) Able bodied men were called up to the war. As a result, there were labour
shortages and small workshops producing essentials were shit down.
(v) Large supplies of grain were sent to feed the army, for the people in the cities,
bread and flour became scarce. There were riots at bread shops.
2.5 The February Revolution in Petrograd
(a) Causes of the Revolution:- There were two revolutions in Russia March 1917
and Nov. 1917. They were two chapters of one revolution March 1917 revolution
ended the autocratic rule of the Czar and dethroned the Czar and Nov. 1917
revolution gave rise to workers democracy.
Causes
(i) Demand of Democracy
(ii) Discontent among the soldiers
(iii) Opposition of autocratic rule
(iv) Revolutionary literature
(v) Change in thoughts of the Middle Class.
Immediate Causes
(i) Defeat in the war – During the beginning of 1917, Russia faced defeat on
its eastern front. Army faced many difficulties, which prompted soldiers for
revolt.
(ii) Food scarcity – During 1916 – 17, there was a shortage of food due to
extreme cold and because the peasants were sent on the front to fight in the
1st world war. This adversely affected the agriculture.
(iii) Soldiers were sent on the front but they lacked war equipments. They were
incapable to face the well equipped ememy army and so thousands of
soldiers were killed on the other hand Czar and Czarinia were enjoying
their extravagant life.
(b) DOWNFALL OF CZAR NICHOLAS AND THE FORMATION OF PROVISIONAL
GOVERNMENT :- In the winter of 1917, conditions in the capital, Petrograd were
grim. In Feb 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the workers quarters.
(1) On 22nd Feb., the workers in Russia went on a strike. In many factories,
woman led the way to strikes. This came to be called the international
women’s day.
(2) On 25th Feb., the government suspended the Duma
(3) On 26th Feb., there were large scale uprising in all the big cities and towns.
(4) On the 27th, the police headquarters were ransacked.
(5) There was Hunger march in the capital and the people raised slogans about
bread, wages, better hours and democracy.
(6) Czar ordered his troops to open fire on them But the soldiers refused to obey
their officers and joined the revolutionaries in hoisting the Red Flag.
(7) The Czar was forced to abdicate on 2nd March.
(8) He, his wife and a number of nobles were killed
(9) The Duma formed a provisional government headed by a moderate
social revolutionary ALEXANDER KRENSKY.
(10) First Provincial government was thus formed of 15th March. Now Russia’s
future was to be decided by a constituent assembly, elected on the basis of
universal adult suffrage. This February revolution brought down the
monarchy.
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2.6 After February
Army officials, landowners and industrialists were influential in the Provisional
Government. But the liberals as well as socialists among them worked towards an
elected government. Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed
‘Soviets’ were set up everywhere, though no common system of election was followed.
 In April 1917, Bolshevik leader Lenin returned to Russia from his exile.
 He promised to people “Peace, land and Bread.”
 Lenin made careful preparation for a few months to bring about the downfall of
the Menshevik government.
 October Revolution 1917?
(1) Factory committees, Trade Unions and soldier’s committees were formed.
(2) In June about 500 soviets sent representatives to all Russian congress of
soviets.
(3) The Provisional govt. resisted attempt by workers and began arresting
leaders.
(4) Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets and factories were brought
together.
(5) On 16th Oct. 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd soviet and the Bolshevik
party to agree to a socialist seizure of power.
(6) MILITARY REVOLUTIONARY COMMITTEE was appointed under
Leon
Trotskii.
(7) Uprising began on 24th Oct.
(8) Military Revolutionary committee ordered its supporters to seize
government offices.
(9) The unpopularity of the Krensky government led to its collapse on 7 Nov.,
1917 when a group of sailors occupied the winter palace.
(10) An all Russian Congress of soviets met on the same day and assumed full
political power.
[This event which took place on 7th Nov. is known as October Revolution because
of the corresponding date of old Russian calendar, 25th Oct.]
2.7 What changed after October?







Private Property in the means of production was abolished. Land and other means
of production were declared the property of entire nation. Peasants were allowed
to seize the land of the nobility.
The control of industries was given to the workers. All the banks, insurance
companies, large industries, mines, railways were nationalized.
They banned the use of the old tile of aristocracy.
In cities, large houses were partitioned, according to the family requirements.
New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party.
Immediately after coming to power Lenin announced his decision to withdraw
from the First World War. He made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
2.8 The Civil War
All the forces who were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia (i.e.) French,
American, British and Japanese troops backed the green (socialist revolutionaries)
and whites (pro- Czarist) during 1918 – 1919. All these troops and Bolsheviks fought a
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civil war. Supporters of Private property took harsh steps with peasants who had
seized land. The red army (Bolsheviks) was badly equipped and composed manly of
workers and peasants. However, it won over better equipped and better trained forces
due to co-operation from non Russian nationalities and Muslim Jadidists.
Q.- How did Russian peasants differ from other European peasants?
A.- (i) About 85% of the Russian population earned their living from agriculture, the
proportion was higher than most of the European countries.
(ii) They had no respect for the nobility and wanted the land of the nobles to be
given to them.
(iii) They pooled their land together periodically and their commune divided it
according to the needs of individual families.
Q.- Why did Lenin disagreed with the socialist Revolutionaries about peasants?
A.- Lenin felt that peasants were not one united group. Some were poor and others rich,
some worked as laborers while others were capitalists who employed workers, because
of this “differentiation” within them, they could not all be part of a socialist
movement.
Q.- What was the result of 1905 Revolution?
A.- Through the 1905 revolution failed and the autocratic rule of the Czar continued yet it
aroused the people and prepared them for revolution. It draw soldiers and the people
of non Russian nationalities into close contact with the Russian Revolutionaries.
Q.- Why did govt. of Krensky became unpopular?
A.- The most important demands of the people were
(i) Peace
(ii) Land to the tiller
(iii) Control of industry by workers. Equal status for the non Russian nationalities.
(iv) The provincial government under the leadership of Krensky did not implement
any of these demands and lost the support of the people.
Q.- What do you know about “April Theses”?
A.- “Vladimir Lenin” leader of the Bolshevik party who was in exile in Switzerland at
the time of February revolution, returned to Russia in April Under his leadership, the
Bolshevik party put forward three demands called “April Theses” they were
(i) To end the war
(ii) Transfer land to the peasants
(iii) Nationalize the banks.
Q.- What were the changes that were brought after the October revolution?
A.- (i) Russia withdrew from the war.
(ii) Estates of the land lords, the church and the Czar was confiscated and
transferred to peasants.
(iii) Control of industries was transferred to committees of workers.
(iv) Banks, large industries, mines, water transport and railways were nationalized.
(v) A Declaration of the Right of peoples was issued conferring the right of self
determination upon all nationalities.
(vi) A new government headed by Lenin was formed.
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Q.- What were the measures introduced by Joseph Stalin for modernization of Russia?
Did he succeed?
A.- After Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin assumed charge as the leader of Russia.
(i) CENTRALISED PLANNING WAS INTRODUCED – Stalin planned to make
Russia an economic giant through the five year plans. The first one commenced
in 1927. They mainly aimed at the modernization of agriculture and rapid
industrialization.
Result(a) It led to economic growth, industrial production increased 100% in case of oil,
coal and steel.
(b) New factory cities came into being.
(c) Schooling system developed and arrangements were made for factory workers
and peasants to enter universities
(d) Cheap public health care was provided
(e) Living quarters were set up for workers. However rapid construction led to poor
working conditions. Workers lived hard life.
(ii) COLLECTIVISATION –By 1927 –28, the towns in Russia faced an acute
problem of grain supplies. It was argued that grain shortage was partly due to
small size of holdings. To develop modern farms, it was Necessary to take away
land from the peasants and established state controlled large farms known as
collectives, which would adopt scientific methods of agriculture. The govt would
supply the necessary assistance.
From 1929, the party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms
(kolkhoz).
Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared. Those
who resisted collectivization were severely punished.
ResultInspite of collectivization, production did not increase immediately. In fact, the
bad harvests of 1930 – 1933 led to one of most devastating famines in soviet
history when over 4 million died.
Q.- Explain the impact of Russian Revolution on Russia and the World.
A.- The Russian Revolution on Russia and the World is
(1) Industrial growth and Economic Development:- The new government
followed socialism. A new Economic Policy was adopted in 1921. Under this
policy it was decided to develop the economy through Five-Year Plans. All the
means of production were nationalized. With the growth of industrial and
agricultural production, poverty started disappearing and the country moved on
to the path of prosperity.
(2) Emergency of Russia as a World Power:- The new government adopted the
policy of economic development. The new policy promoted modern technology. It
gave a boost to industry and agriculture. Economic and social policies adopted by
the government made Russia not only a major power of Europe but of the whole
world.
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(3) Promotion of Socialism and Communism:- The Russian Revelation helped
in the spread of socialism and communism in the world. The communist parties
were formed in most countries of the world. Communist governments were
established in many countries like Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia,
Bulgaria and China.
(4) Redefining of Democracy: After the revolution it was felt that mere political
democracy has got no meaning without social and economic equlity.
Q.- How were Indians inspired by the Russian Revolution?
A.- Among those the Russian revolution inspired were many Indians. Important Indian
political and cultural figures took an interest in the Soviet experiment and visited
Russia, among them Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore, who wrote about
Soviet Socialism. In Hindi, R.S. Avasthi wrote in 1920-21 Russian revolution, Lenin,
His life and his thoughts and later The Red Revolution. S.D. Vidyalankar wrote The
Rebirth of Russia
Q.
Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution
and the other with the main events and effects of the October revolution. Write a
paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the
impact of each on Soviet history.
A.
February Revolution
Main Events
On 22nd February 1917 a lockout 1
took place at a factory and women
led the procession.
October Revolution
Main Events
April 1917-Bolshevik leader Lenin
returned to Russia.
2
25th
February
Government 2
suspended the Duma.
3
26th and 27th February: A general 3
strike of workers which was soon
joined by soliers.
2nd March-Tsar abdicated. Soviet 4
leader and Duma leader formed a
Provisional Government.
July-Demonstration
by
Bolsheviks
against
Provisional government.
July-September Peasants
land from rich land lords.
1
4
Q.
A.
the
the
seized
16th Oct 1917: Lenin persuaded the
Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik
Party to agree to a socialist seizure
of power.
5
24th October: Bolshevik uprising in
Petrograd.
Effects
Effect
1
The fall of autocratic Tsar.
1
Fall of Provisional government
2
Restriction on public meeting and 2
Russia adopted socialism.
association were removed.
Leader
Leader
Kerensky
Lenin.
Why did the international reputation of the U.S.S.R as a socialist country declined by
the end of the 20th C?
By 1950’s, it was realized that thought a backward country had become a great
power, its industries and agriculture had developed and the poor were fed, but it
had denied the essential freedom to its citizens and had carried out its development
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through repressive policies and the reputation of USSR as a socialist country declined
by the end of 20th century.
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3. NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER
Introduction
The World War – II was the direct outcome of the Nazi leader, Adolf Hitler’s ambition to
dominate the whole world. With surprising rapidity Germany rose from the ashes to defy
the world in 1939.
After signing the treaty of Versailles, the Allies permitted Germany to have a Republic. It
was called the Weimer Republic which lasted 14 years various events which led to the
birth of Weimer Republic are
 First world war (1914 – 1918)
 Germany and Austria fought against England. France and Russia (Allies)
 U.S. joined the war 1917.
 Germany lost the war in Nov, 1918
 Germany signed the Peace Treaty at Versailles with the Allies
According to which:(i) Germany lost – its overseas colonies
(ii) A 10th of its population
(iii) 13% of its territories
(iv) Germany was demilitarized
(v) 75% of its Iron and 26% of its coal to France, Poland, Denmark and Lithuania
(vi) Germany was forced to pay compensation of £ 6 billion
(vii) Allied armies occupied the resource-rich Rhineland.
 In Germany monarch ended and a democratic constitution with a federal structure was
established by National Assembly at WEIMAR
3.1 Weimer Republic
(1)
1918.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
King Kaiser William of Germany with his family fled to Holland on 9th Nov.
Germany was declared Republic under Elbert.
Elections were held on 19th Jan. 1919.
6th Feb. Elbert met the Assembly in the city named Weimer.
Elbert was elected as the President of this Weimer Republic.
Challenges before Weimer Republic
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Communist revolt:– Communist of Germany wanted to make Germany a
communist country on Russian style. They revolted in 1919. Government of Elbert at
last suppressed the revot.
Accepting the Treaty of Versailles:- Treaty was presented before the Assembly of
Germany and they accepted it.
New Constitution:- New constitution was prepared. According to which every
citizen above 20 years were given the right to vote. Right of religion was granted.
Education was made free and compulsory.
Establishment of Reichstag:- it was given the power of law making, economic
control, establishment and dismissal of ministry.
Problem of Reparation:- Germany was forced to pay huge amount as war
reparation to the allied countries. Germany had to accept it but the German people
did not want to pay it as they did not considered Germany responsible for the war.
Economic Problem:- After the war economic condition of Germany became worse.
Places of economic importance were taken from its control. All the ways of its
economic development were closed. Apart from this it had to pay huge amount to the
allied countries. Finding no other way government used huge paper currency, as a
result value of mark dropped very fast.
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(7)
(8)
Dawes Plan:- It was decided by the allied countries that as Germany was not in a
condition to pay money, it would be given 65 Crore as debt, and Germany would be
granted complete economic independence so that it could be able to pay the money.
Dawes Plan helped Germany to improve its economic condition and in next 5 years it
received loan from United States of America & England. With this money it
developed its Trade and Industry.
World wide Economic Depression:- Weimer Republic tried to develop Germany
before the rise of Hitler but the World Economic depression of 1929-31 worsened its
economic condition. Foreign help was stopped and all its industries were destroyed.
In the international sphere also Germany could not get the respect. People of
Germany now started looking for a powerful leader who could establish a strong and
prosperous empire.
3.2 The Effect of the War
In Europe – War had a devastating impact on the continent
(i) Form a continent of creditors, Europe turned into one of debtors.
(ii) Soldiers came to be placed above civilians.
(iii) Media glorified trench life.
(iv) Soldiers lived miserable lives in trenches.
(v) Aggressive war propaganda and national honour occupied central stage in Public
spheres.
In Germany – (Weimar Republic)
(i) The new Weimar republic was being made to pay for the sins of the old empire.
(ii) They suffered from was guilt and national humiliation and were financially
crippled.
(iii) They were called as November Criminals by the conservative nationalists
3.3 Political Radicalism and Economic Crises
Political radicalization meant public support for conservative dictatorship and
revolutionary activities. The birth of Weimer Republic coincided with the
revolutionary uprising of the Spartacist League on the pattern of the Bolshevik
revolution in Russia. Both revolutionaries and militant nationalist carved fro radical
solutions Political radicalization was heightened by the economic crises.
Polity
 Sparta cist League was formed, soviets of workers and Revolutionary sailors were
formed and they demanded for soviet-style governance.
 Weimar Republic crushed the uprising with the help of organization of war
veterans called free corps.
 The Sparta cist later founded communist Party.
 Communist and Socialist became enemy.
Economy
 There were economic crises in 1923.
 Germany had to pay war reparations in gold, this depleted gold reserves.
 In 1923, Germany refused to pay and France occupied Germanys leading
industrial area, Ruhr, to claim their coal.
 Germany printed paper currency recklessly, with too much paper currency in
circulation, value of Germany mark fell and prices of good rose. In Dec 1923 U.S.
dollar was equal to 98,860,000 marks.
 So Germany fell into the vicious circle of inflation and economic depression
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3.4 The year of Depression
Great economic depression occurred after the First World War. It occurred due to the
surplus production in U.S.A. It started in 1929 and continued upto 1932. During this
period the national income of U.S.A. fell by half.
 The wall street exchange (World’s biggest stock exchange) crashed and on one
single day, 24 Oct, 13 million shares were sold
 Factories shut down
 Export fell
 Speculators withdrew their money from the market.
Effect of Great Economic Depression
On Germany
(i) German investments and industrial recovery were totally dependent on short
term loans from U.S.A., This help was taken back.
(ii) By 1932, industrial production was reduced to 40%.
(iii) Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages
(iv) There were 6 million unemployed, youth took to criminal activities
(v) Currency lost its value, so the salaried employees and pensioners suffered.
(vi) Big business was in crisis
(vii) Farmers were affected by a sharp fall in agricultural prices.
3.5 Hitler Rise to power
1
2
Cause of the downfall of Weimer Republic
(i) It could not satisfy the revolutionary desires of its people
(ii) It tried to maintain co-ordinal relations with allies and was not able to
fulfill the people’s demand of
(a) Change in the amount of war reparation.
(b) Equality with other nations in terms of soldiers and weapons
(c) To gain respect.
Because of all these reasons there was discontent among the people and
nationalist and thus helped the Nazi to become strong. Economic depression of
1929 gave Hitler an opportunity to prove the policy of Weimer Republic as
unsuccessful.
Rise of Hitler
(A) The polity, crisis in the economy and society formed the background to
Hitler’s rise to power
(i) In 1923, Hitler planned to capture power; he failed and was tried for
treason.
(ii) After his release, he tried to mobilize popular support but was not
successful till the early 1930. In 1928, Nazi party got 2.6% votes in the
Reichstag.
(iii) In 1929, banks collapsed and business shut down, workers lost their jobs. In
such situation Nazi propaganda stirred hopes of a better future. By 1932, it
became the largest party with 37% votes in Reichstag.
(iv) Hitler was a powerful speaker. He promised to build a strong nation, undo
the injustice of the Versailles Treaty and restore the dignity of the German
people. He promised employment and to weed out all foreign influences.
Nazis performed massive rallies and public meetings and instill a
sense of unity among he people.
(v)
His words moved the people. He was projected as a saviour who had arrived
to deliver people from their distress.
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(B)
(i) In 1932 Elections were held and Hitler got 37% votes.
(ii) Nazi party was the biggest party but still lacked majority.
(iii) Various Industrialists were taken to side and President Hindenburg was
persuaded that only Hitler can save Germany from the fear of Bolsheivism.
As a result President appointed Hitler as the Chancellor of Germany. In
this way Hitler controlled the power in a legal way.
(iv) On 2 Aug. 1934 Hindenburg died and on 14th Aug. 1934 the post of
President and Chancellor was combined by a referendum. And in this way
Hitler became the head and maker of law of Germany.
(C) Programmes of Nazi Party
(i) To cancel the treaty of Versailles
(ii) To make a bigger Germany by adding German speaking states.
(iii) Germany should get its lost colonies.
(iv) Germany should militarize as much as possible
(v) To deprive jew of civil rights and throw them out of Germany.
(vi) Foreigners should not be allowed to settle in Germany.
(vii) Spread the feeling of nationalism.
Q.- People were not happy by the Weimar Republic. Why?
A.- Germans held the view that the new Weimar republic was not only responsible for the
France, German defeat in the war but also for the disgrace at Versailles where they
were forced to except harsh and humiliating terms after Germany’s defeat in the
world war.
Q.- “Politically the Weimar republic was fragile.” Who do you mean by this statement?
What were its consequences?
A.- (i) The Weimar constitution had some inherent defects, which made it unstable and
vulnerable to dictatorship.
(ii) Its one defect was proportional representation. This made achieving a majority
by any party a near impossible task, leading to a rule by coalition.
(iii) Another defect was Article 48, which gave the President the power to impose
emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree.
(iv) Within its short life, the Weimer republic saw twenty different cabinets lasting
on an average 239 days, and a liberal use of Article 48. Yet the crisis could not be
managed. As a result, Germany could not get a lasting stable government.
People lost
confidence in the democratic party system.
Q.- Write a note on Early life of Adolph Hitler?
As.- He was born in 1889 in Austria. He spent his youth in poverty. During the
World War-I he joined the army and won medals for bravery. In 1919, he joined a
small group called the German workers Party, he took over the organizations and
renamed it National socialist German workers Party. Later came to be known as
NAZI PARTY.
Q.- How did Hitler dismantle the democracy after coming to Power?
A.- Hitler dismantle the democracy after coming to power
(i)
On 30th Jan 1933, Hitler became the chancellor of Germany.
(ii)
He held the communist responsible for the fire in the German Parliament
building in February. He ordered a decree on 28, Feb 1933 and indefinitely
suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly that had been
guaranteed by the Weimar constitution
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(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Q.
A.
Communists were sent to concentration camps. There were 52 types of victims
persecuted by the Nazis across the country.
On 3 March 1933, the famous ENABLING ACT was passed. This act gave Hitler
power to rule by decree and establish dictatorship. He established complete
control over the economy, media, army and judiciary.
Special surveillance and security forces were created to control the society in the
way Nazi wanted. These were GESTAPO (Secret state Police), SS (The
protection squads), Criminal police and security service (SD).
Who was Hjalmer Schacht? What was his theory regarding economic recovery?
He was a great economist who was given responsibility by Hitler for economic
recovery. He used full production and full employment theory through state funded
work – creation programme.
Q.- What was the work of German reconstruction carried by Hitler?
A.- The work of German reconstruction was carried by Hitler
(i) Hitler assigned HJALMAR SCHACHT the responsibility of economic recovery,
who armed at full production and full employment through a state-funded work
creation programme.
(ii) In Foreign Policy
(a) He left League of Nations in 1933
(b) He reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936.
(c) He integrated Austria and Germany in 1938
(d) He occupied German speaking Sudenten land from Czechoslovakia and
then the entire country. He chose war as the way of approaching economic
crisis and
accumulates resources through expansion of territory.
Q.- Discuss the events of II world war? (At East)
A.- (1) Sep 1939, Germany invaded Poland.
(2) Sep. 1940, Pact was signed between Germany, Italy and Japan.
(3) June 1941, Germany attacked Soviet Union.
(4) Hitler exposed the German western front to British aerial bombing and the
eastern front to powerful soviet armies.
(5) Soviet armies defeated Germany at Stalingrad.
(6) Japan extended its support to Hitler
(7) Japan occupied French Indo China and bombed the U.S. base at Pearl Harbour.
(8) U.S. entered the II world war.
(9) May 1945, war ended with Hitler defeat.
(10) Hitler committed suicide.
(11) U.S. dropped atom bomb on Hiroshima in Japan.
3.6 NAZI WORLD VIEW
Q.- What was Hitlers Ideology?
A.- Hitler believed that there was no equality between people. Nordic German Aryans
were at the top and Jews were lowest and archenemies of the Aryans Nazi argued
that the strongest race would survive and weak ones would perish. The Aryan had to
retain their purity, become stronger and dominate the world. He believed that new
territories had to be acquired for settlement. This would enhance the area of Germany
and also material resources and power. It started its ambitions with Poland.
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Q.- What were the Ideas of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer on which Hitler based
his ideology?
A.- Darwin was a natural scientist who tried to explain the creation of plants and animals
through the concept of evolution and Natural Selection. Spencer added the idea of
survival of the fittest. According to this idea, only those species survived on earth that
could adapt themselves to the changing climatic conditions. Darwin never advocated
human intervention, his ideas were used by the racist thinkers to justify imperial rule
over conquered people. The Nazi argument was simple, the strongest Aryan race
would survive and the weak ones would perish.
Q.- How did Hitler convert Germany into a racial state?
A.- He started converting Germany into a racial community of pure Germany by
physically eliminating all those who were seen as “ Undesirables” in the empire,
which included Jews, Gypsies and blacks, Russians, poles and also Germans who were
considered mentally or physically unfit. Only Nordic Germans were considered
desirables. All the undesirables were widely persecuted Many of Pole and Russian
captives were forced to work as slave labour and they simply died through hard work
and starvation.
(1) Members of the Polish intelligentsia were murdered in large numbers in order to
keep the entire people intellectually and spiritually servile.
(2) Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snatched from their
mothers and examined by “race experts’. It they passed the race test they were
raised in German families and if not, they were deposited in orphanages where
most perished.
(3) With some of the large ghettos and gas chambers, the General Government also
served as the killing fields for the Jews.
Q.- Explain Hitler or Nazi’s policy towards Jews.
A.- Hitler or Nazi’s policy is
 Jews in Nazi’s Germany were considered undesirable and were given lowest rank
in the racial hierarchy.
 They remained the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. Nazi hatred of Jews had a
precursor in the traditional Christian hostility towards Jews. They had been
stereotyped as killers of Christ and usurers. Until medieval times, Jews were
banned from owning land. They survived mainly through trade and moneyleading.
 Jews lived in separately marked areas called ghettos. They were often persecuted
through periodic organized violence, and expulsion from the land.
 Hitler’s hatred of Jews was based on pseudoscientific theories of race, which held
that conversion was no solution to the Jewish problem. It could be solved only
through their total elimination.
 From 1933 to 1938 the Nazis terrorized, pauperized and segregated the Jews,
compelling them to leave the country. The next phase, 1939-1945, aimed at
concentrating them in certain areas and eventually killing them in gas chambers
in Poland.
Q.- What were the polices adopted at different times to punish Jews?
A.- 1933-39 Exclusion (JEWS HAVE NORIGHT TO LIVE AMONG GERMANS)
(i) Marriages and extramarital relations between Jews and Germans were
forbidden.
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(ii) Jews were expelled from govt. services
(iii) There properties were confiscated
(iv) “NIGHT OF BROKEN GLASS”- Nov 1938. There was an organized massacre of
Jews, their properties were looted, synagogues burnt and many Jews were
arrested.
1940-44 GHETTOISATION (JEWS HAVE NO RIGHT TO LIVE AMONG
GERMANS)
(i) An identity mark (yellow star) was stamped on their breast, passport, al legal
documents and house.
(ii) Jews had to surrender all their wealth and were kept in ghettos, where was
hunger, starvation and disease due to poor hygiene.
1941 onwards ANNIHILATION (JEWS HAVE NO RIGHT TO LIVE)
(i) Jews from Jewish houses, concentration camps and ghettos from different parts
of Europe were brought to death factories by goods train.
(ii) Mass killing took place within minutes with scientific precision.
3.7 YOUTH IN NAZI GERMANY
Q.
A.
What steps were taken by Hitler to popularize Nazi ideology?
(1) Total control over schools: Hitler was fanatically interested in the youth of
the country. He felt that a strong Nazi society could be established only by teaching
children Nazi ideology. This required a control over the child both inside and
outside school.
(2) Purification of schools: All schools were cleansed and purified. This meant
that teachers who were Jews or seen as ‘politically unreliable’ were dismissed.
Children were first segregated: Germans and Jaws could not sit together or play
together. Subsequently,
undersirable
children’–Jews,
the
Physically
handicapped, gypsies-were thrown out of schools. And finally in the 1940s, they
were taken to the gas chambers.
(3) New Education policy: To popularize his ideology Hitler announced a New
Education Policy. Under this school textbooks were rewritten. Racial science was
introduced to justify Nazi ideas of race: Stereotypes about Jews were popularized
even through maths classes. Children were taught to be loyal and submissive,
hate Jews and worship Hitler.
(4) Division of the life: Life of the youths was divided into different stages. At each
stage he had to pass through various training and teaching programmes.
(5) Formation of Hitler Youth: The Youth League of the Nazis was founded in
1922. Four years later it was renamed Hitler Youth. To unify the youth
movement under Nazi control, all other youth organizations were systematically
dissolved and finally banned.
Q.
A.
Explain Hitler’s policy towards women.
(1) Superiority of men: Children in Nazi Germany were repeatedly told women
were radically different from men. Nazis were against the democratic rights of
women. While boys were taught to be aggressive, masculine and steel hearted,
girls were told that they had to become good mothers and rear pureblooded
Aryan children. Girls had to maintain the purity of the race, distance themselves
from Jews, look after the home, and teach their children Nazi values. They had
to be the bearers of the Aryan culture and race.
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(2)
(3)
Awards and punishment: Women who bore racially undesirable children were
punished and those who produced racially desirable children were awarded.
They were given favoured treatment in hospitals and were also entitled to
concessions in shops and on theatre tickets and railway fares. To encourage
women to produce many children, Honour Crosses were awarded. A bronze cross
was given for four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more.
Code of conduct for women: There was a code of conduct for all Aryan
women. All ‘Aryan’ women who deviated from the prescribed code of conduct
were publicly condemned, and severely punished. Those who maintained contact
with Jews, Poles and Russians were paraded through the town with shaved
heads, blackened faces and placards hanging around their necks announcing ‘I
have sullied the honour of the nation’. Many received jail sentences and lost civic
honour as well as their husbands and families for this criminal offence.
Q.- Write a short note on ‘Eternal Law’?
A.- Propaganda films were made to create hatred for Jews. The most infamous film was
‘The Eternal Law’. Orthodox Jews were stereotyped. They were shown with flowing
beards wearing long tunics. They were referred to as vermin, rats and pets. They were
abused and described as evil.
Q.
A.
Explain the Racial Utopia of the Nazis.
Holocaust were Nazi killing operations which were carried out to kill Jews
 Under the shadow of the war, the Nazis proceeded to realize their murderous,
racial ideal. Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin.
 Germany divided the occupied Poland. Much of north-western Poland was
annexed to Germany. Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind
to be occupied by ethnic Germans brought in from occupied Europe.
 Poles were then herded like cattle in the other parts called the General
Government, the destination of all undesirables of the empire.
Q.- How did Nazi won the favour of the people? Or what was the art of Propaganda of the
Nazi?
A.- The Nazi regime used language and media with care they never used the words ‘kill’
or ‘murder’ in their official communications. Mass killings were termed special
treatment, final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled), selection
and
disinfection (gas chamber ), Evacuation meant deporting people to gas chamber.
Media was carefully used to win support for the regime and popularise its world view
Nazi ideas were spread through visual images, films, radio, posters, catchy slogans
and leaflets. Socialists and liberals were represented as weak and degenerate.
Propaganda films were made to create hatred for Jews.
Nazism worked on the minds of the people, tapped their emotions and turned their
hatred and anger for those marked as ‘undesirables’. They sought to win their support
by suggesting that Nazi alone could solve all their problems.
Q.
A.
What punishment was inflicted on Nazis by the Nuremberg Tribunal?
The Nuremberg Tribunal was
 The Nuremberg Tribunal sentenced the eleven leading Nazis to death.
 Many others were imprisoned for life.
 The punishment did come, but it was far short of the brutality and extent of Nazi’s
crimes. The Allies didn’t want to be as harsh on defeated Germany as they had
been after the First World War.
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4. FOREST SOCIETY AND COLONIALISM
4 (A)
WHY DEFORESTRATION
4 (A)-1 Deforestation: Cutting and clearing of forests is called deforestation. This is
done for various purposes like industrial uses, cultivation, pastures, fuel wood
etc. In India it began in a more extensive way under the colonial rule.
1
To fulfill the growing demand of food with the increase in population, peasants
extended the boundaries of cultivation by clearing forests.
2
British encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, cotton etc to
feed their industries and to fulfill the demands forests were cleared.
3
British in India brought forest land under cultivation so that land could yield
agricultural products and revenue and enhance the income of state.
4
Timber was exported from India to England so that English ships be built with a
regular supply of strong and durable timber.
5
The spread of Railways created new demand. To run locomotives, wood was
needed as fuel, and to lay railway lines, sleepers were essential to hold the tracks
together.
6
Forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantation to meet
Europe’s growing need for these commodities.
Things to Remember:1 Between 1700 and 1995 13.9 million sq. km or 9.3% of world’s total area was cleared for
industrial uses cultivation, pastures and fuel wood.
2 Between 1880 and 1920 cultivated area rose by 6.7 million hectares in India.
3 Each mile of railway track required between 1,760 and 2000 sleepers.
Q. ‘The ship industry of England was also responsible for deforestation in India.’ Gice
one reason.
A. Due to high demand oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a
problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy which required to build ships. To get the
supply of oak for the ship industry Britishers started exploring Indian forests on a
massive scale.
4(B)
THE RISE OF COMMERCIAL FORESTRY
4(B)1
Large tracts of natural forests were cleared by the British Government. German
forest expert Dietrich Brandis was invited in India by the Britishers to advise
them how to save and protect the Indian forests. He advised the government to
formulate rules to use the forests. The forest Act was passed in 1865 which
divided the forests into three categories.
Reserved forests- Forests were permanently marked for production of timber
and the forest products. Grazing of animals and any form of cultivation were
generally not allowed in these forests.
Protected forest:- In these forests, grazing of animals and cultivation was
allowed but these were subjected to some restrictions.
Village forests:- These forests were unclassed forests, villagers had open access
to these forests.
In 1905, British government proposed to reserve two- third of the forests, it
banned shifting cultivation, It banned hunting and collection of forest produce.
(a)
(b)
(c)
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All the above steps forced the local forest community to revolt against the
British.
4 (B). 2
How were the lives of People Affected
Villagers wanted forests with a mixture of species to satisfy the need of fuel,
fodder and leaves. Forest department wanted trees that were suitable for
building ships or railways. So species like teak and sal were promoted and others
were cut down.
Effects on the lives of people
(i) Various Restrictions:- The forest act meant severe hardship for villagers
across the country. After the Act, all their forest activities like cutting wood for
their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing
became illegal.
(ii) Impact on cultivators:- Shifting cultivation was the most common cultivation
practiced by the people. But this was banned because European foresters
regarded this harmful for the forests. Thy felt
(a) That land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow
trees for railway timber.
(b) When the forest was burnt there was the danger of the flames spreading
and burning valuable timber.
(iii) Impact on hunters:- The customary practice of hunting deer and a variety of
small animals by the forest dewellers was prohibited by the forest laws and those
who were caught hunting were punished. Hunting of big animal became a sport
of the British, it increased to such an extent that various species became almost
extinct. They gave rewards for the killing of tigers, wolves and other large
animals on the ground that they posed a threat to cultivators.
(iv) Lost of livelihood:- The British government gave many European trading firms
the sole right to trade in the forest products. Grazing and hunting by local people
were restricted. In this process, man pastoralists and nomadic communities lost
their livelihood. They were forced to work in factories, mines and plantations.
Their wages were low and conditions of work were very bad.
(a) Various such communities were
(b) Santhals from Assam
(c) Oraons from Jharkhand
(d) Gonds form Chattisgarh
(e) Korava, karacha and yerukula of Madras.
(v) Impact on firms trading in timber / forest produce:(a) The new forest policy of the British ruined the prospects of several firms
trading in timer and forest produce.
(b) Through various laws, many restrictions were imposed on the local firms.
(c) With the coming of the British, trade was completely regulated by the
government. The trading rights were given to many large European firms.
(d) The local people or the firms which were the real owner of the forests were
forced to work for large European traders and firms.
Q.- What were recommendations of Dietrich Brandis?
A.- He recommended that rules about the use of forest resources must be framed, felling
of trees and grazing must be restricted so that forests could be preserved and anybody
who cut trees without following the system must be punished.
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Q.- Mention any four steps which were taken by the British government or Dietrich
Brandis to conserve forests in India?
A.- (i) Dietrich Brnadis was appointed the Inspector General of Forests in India.
(ii) He suggested the government to formulate rules to use the forests and to train
the people.
(iii) He set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped to formulate the Indian
Forest Act of 1865.
(iv) The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun in 1906.
Q.- What was ‘Scientific forestry’?
A.- In scientific forestry, natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cut
down. In their place, one type of tree was planted in straight rows. This is called
PLANTATION. And plans for forest management were made which determined how
much plantation area was to be cut every year. The area cut was then to be replanted
so that it was ready to be cut again in some years.
Q.- How were the lives of people affected after the forest act was enacted?
A.- In forest areas, people used forest products roots, leaves, fruits and tubers for many
things. Fruits and tubers were used to eat, Herbs for medicines, leaves to make
plates, oil for cooking and to light lamps.
After the enactment of act cutting wood for houses, grazing cattle, collecting fruits
and roots, hunting and fishing became illegal. People were forced to steal wood from
the forests, and if they were caught, they were punished or had to give bribes to the
forest guards.
Q.- What were the difference in Ideas of villagers and Britishers about a good forest?
A.- Villagers wanted forests with a mixture of species to satisfy different needs-fuel,
fodder, leaves forest department on the other hand britishers wanted trees which
were suitable for ships or railways. They needed trees that could provide hard wood
and were tall and straight.
Q.- What is Shifting cultivation?
A.- In shifting cultivation, parts of the forest are cut and burnt in rotation. Seeds are
sown in the ashes after the first monsoon rains and the crop is harvested by OctoberNovember. Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years
and then left fallow for
12th to 18 years for the forests to grow back?
Q.- Why did British govt ban shifting cultivation and what was the result?
A.- British govt felt
(i) That land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for
railway timber.
(ii) When the forest was burnt there was the danger of the flames spreading and
burning valuable timber.
(iii) It made it harder for the govt to calculate taxes.
As a result, many communities were forcibly displaced from their homes in the
forests. Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through rebellions.
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Q.- How was hunting affected by the act?
A.- The customary practice of hunting deer and a variety of small animals by the forest
dewellers was prohibited by the forest laws and those who were caught hunting were
punished.
Hunting of big animal became a sport of the british, it increased to such an extent
that various species became almost extinct. They gave rewards for the killing of
tigers, wolves and other large animals on the ground that they posed a threat to
cultivators.
Q.- After the control of forest department on the forest what was the work in which forest
dewellers of India were Engaged?
A.- The British govt gave many European trading firms the sole right to trade in the
forest products. Grazing and Hunting by local people were restricted. They were
forced to work in factories, mines and plantations. Their wages were low and
conditions of work were very bad.
Various such communities were
Santhals from Assam
Oraons from Jharkhand
Gonds form Chattisgarh
Korava, Karacha and yerukula of Madras.
4(C)
REBELLION IN THE FOREST
If people from one village want to take some wood from the forests of another village,
they paid a small fee called devsaru, dand or man in exchange. Every year there was
a big meeting where the headmen of villages meet and discussed issues of concern,
including forests.
4(C).1
The People of Bastar
(i)
Bastar is located in the southern most part of Chhatisgarh. The central part of
Bastar is on a plateau, to the north of this plateau is the Chhatisgarh plain and
to its south is the Godavari plain. River Indrawati flows east to west.
(ii) Different communities like Maria and Muria ,Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and
Halbas lived in Bastar. They spoke different languages but share common
customs and beliefs.
(iii) The people of Bastar believed that each village is given its land by the earth, and
in return, they looked after the earth by making some offerings at each
agricultural festival, they showed respect to rivers, forest and mountains
Q.- Why were the people of Bastar worried?
A.- The people were worried because the colonial govt. proposed to reserve 2/3rd of the
forest in 1905 and to stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest
produce.
Q.- What do you know about “ forest villages”?
A.- British govt. displaced villagers dewelling in forests to reserve forests but some
villages were allowed to stay on
in the reserved forests on the condition that they
worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees and protecting
the forests from fire. These village came to be known as forest villages.
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Q.- Why did the people of Bastar revolted (1910)?
A.- (i) Villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demand for
free labour and goods by colonial officials.
(ii) Situation became worse, when there was a terrible famine in (1899-1900) and
again in (1907 – 1908)
(iii) People of the villagers were atlast displaced without any notice or compensation.
Q.- From where did the Rebellion started?
A.- The rebellion was started by the DHURWAS of the Kanger forest, where reservation
first took place.
Q.- Who was the important leader of the rebellion?
A.- Gunda Dhur, from the village Nethanar.
Q.- How did the Rebellion took place?
A.- In 1910, people began to discuss these issues in their village councils, they began
circulating mango boughs, a lump of earth, chillies and arrows to invite other
villagers to rebel against the British. Under the leadership of Gunda Dhur Bazaars
were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt
and robbed and grain redistributed.
Q.- How did the British suppress the rebellion?
A.- Most of those who were attacked were in some way associated with the colonial state
and its oppressive laws. British surrounded the camps of the rebellion and fired upon
them. They marched through the village and punished those who had taken part in
the rebellion. They couldnot capture Gunda Dhur but regained control after 3 months
Q.- What was the result of the rebellion?
A.- Though the colonial govt. succeeded in gaining control over Bastar .There was a
victory for the rebels because the work on reservation was temporarily suspended and
was reduced to roughly half of that planned before 1910.
4(D)
Introduction
Forest Transformations in Java
The Colonial power in Java (Indonesia) were the Dutch. It was covered mostly with
forests. There were many communities living in the mountains and proctising shifting
cultivation.
4(D).1
Dutch in Java
During the 19th Century it became important to control forests for shipbuilding and
laying railway tracks and agains in the 20th C to fulfil war needs of timber. Therefore,
the Dutch enacted forest laws in Java restricting villagers access to forests. Villagers
were punished for grazing cattel in young stands, transporting wood without a permit
or travelling on forest road. Accound 1890, Samin of Randublatung village began
questioning state ownership of the forests. Soon a widespread movement developed.
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4(D).2
Dutch Scientific Forestry
Dutch imposed various restrictions on the people through various laws.
(i) Wood could only be cut for specified purposes.
(ii) Wood could be cut only from specific forests under close supervision.
(iii) Villagers were not allowed to graze cattle in young stands and transporting wood
without a permit.
4(D).3
Samin’s Challenge
Surontiko Samin was a rebellion of RANDUBLATUNG village who in 1890
questioned the state’s ownership of the forests. He argued that the state had not
created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own it.
Saminist protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it and
refused to pay taxes or fines perform labour.
Q.- Who were Kalangs?
A.- Kalangs were a community of skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators of Java.
They had expertise in harvesting Teak.
Q.- Why did the Kalangs rebelled against the British?
A.- When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests, they tried to make the Kalangs
work under them. In 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at JOANA,
but the uprising was suppressed.
Q.- What do you mean by blandong diensten system?
A.- Dutch required wood for shipbuilding and railways and for this timber sleepers were
exported from Java. All this required labour to cut the trees, transport the logs and
prepare the sleepers. The Dutch exempted some villages from the rents on land being
cultivated if they provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting and transporting
timber. This was known as the blandong diensten system. Later instead of rest
exemption, forest villagers were given small wages, but their right to cultivate forest
land was restricted.
Q.- What was the impact of world wars on forests of the colonies?
A.- In India, working plans were abandoned and the forest department cut freely trees to
meet British war needs. In Java, the Dutch destroyed the saw mills and burnt huge
piles of giant teak logs so that they would not fall into Japanese hands and when
Japan got control over the land they exploited the forests for their own war industries.
Q.
in
A.
What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and
Java.
Colonial Management in Bastar
Raw material: The main aim of 1
the British to exploit Bastar
forest was to get a regular supply
of strong and durable timer for
its ship industry.
2
Introduction
of
scientific 2
forestry: The British introduced
scientific forestry under which
natural forests were cut down
and new species were planted
keeping in mind the needs of
the British industry.
1
Colonial Management in Jave
Raw material: The main aim of the
Dutch was also the same. Like th
British, they wanted timer from Java
to build ships.
Scientific Forestry: The Dutch also
introduced scientific forestry to grow
the trees according to their needs.
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3
4
Q.
A.
Various forest laws: The 3
British imposed
lot
of
restrictions
on
the
locals
through various forest laws.
There were restrictions on
their
movements,
grazing
collection of wood etc.
Forest village policy: To get 4
the support
of
local,
the
Britishers had introduced ‘Forest
villages’ Under this some villages
were allowed to stay on in the
reserved forests on the condition
that they worked free for the
forest department in cutting
and transporting trees and
protecting the forests from fire.
Various forest laws: The Dutch
also introduced various laws to
restrict villager’s access to forests.
Now wood could only be cut for
specified purposes.
Blandongdiensten system: Under
this villages were exempted from the
rent if they worked collectively to
provide free labour and animals for
cutting and transporting timber.
Why are forests affected by wars?
Forests are affected by wars due to various reasons. The chief among them are the
following
(1) The defending armies hid themselves and their war material under the cover of
the thick forests to avoid detection. As such the enemy forces targets forest areas
to capture the opposing soldiers and their war materials.
(2) To meet war needs, sometimes forests are cut indiscriminately and as a result
forests vanished within no times one after the other.
(3) Fearing the capture of forest areas by the enemy, sometimes the existing
governments themselves cut down the trees recklessly, destroy the saw mills and
burn huge piles of great teak logs.
(4) Sometimes, the occupying forces recklessly cut down tress for their own war
industries.
(5) Finding the forest staff in difficulty during war times, some people expand their
agricultural land at the cost of the forest land.
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5.PASTORALISTS IN THE MODERN WORLD
5(A)
5(A).1
Pastoral Nomads and Their Movements
Pastoralist:- Those groups of people who earn their living by rearing of
animals such as goats, sheep, buffaloes, cows, camels, etc. The Pastoral nomads
had to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pasture in
different places when the pasture was unusable in one place they moved their
herds and flock to new areas. This continues movement also allowed the pastures
to recover; it prevented their overuse.
some pastoralist communities of India are
Name of the Tribe
State / Region
 Gujjar Bakarwals
 Jammu & Kashmir
 Gaddi Shephereds
 Himachal Pradesh
 Bhotuyas,
Sherpas
and  Himalayas
Kinnauris
 Gujjar cattle herders
 Garhwal & Kumaun (Uttarakhand)
 Dhangars
 Maharashtra
 Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas
 Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
 Banjaras
 U.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, M.P., and
Maharashtra
 Raikas
 Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and
Bikaner (Rajasthan)
5(A).2
(i)
(a)
(b)
(ii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
In the mountains
Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu & Kashmir are great herders of goat and sheep.
They migrated to Jammu and Kashmir in th e19th century in search of pastures
for their animals and moved annually between their summer and winter grazing
grounds
Winter:- When the high mountains were covered with snow and there was lack
of pastures at the high altitude they moved to low hills of the Shiwalik. The dry
scrub forests have provided pastures for their herds. By the end of April they
began their northern march for there summer grazing grounds.
Summer:- With the onset of summer, the snow melted and the mountainsides
became lush green. By the end of September the Bakarwals started their
backward journey.
Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Pradesh:- They had a cycle of seasonal
movement
They spend their winter in the low hills of Siwalik range, grazing their flock in
scrub forests.
By April they moved north and spend the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the
snow melted and the high passes were clear, many of them moved on to higher
mountain meadows.
By September they began their return movement. On the way they stopped once
again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and
sowing their winter crop.
Then they descended with their flock to their winter grazing ground on the
Siwalik hills.
Next April, once again, they began their march with their goats and sheep to the
summer meadows.
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(iii) Gujjar cattle herders of Garhwal and Kumaon
(a) Many of them were originally from Jammu and came to the U.P. hills in the
nineteenth century in search of good pastures.
(b) They came down to the dry forest of bhabar in the winter and went up to the
high meadows – the bugyals in summer.
5(A).3
1
2
3
Q.
A.
On the Plateaus, Plain and Desert
The Dhangars of Maharashtra
Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. In the early
20th century their population was around 4,67,000.
 The Dhangar community used to stay in the semi-arid central plateau of
Maharashtra during the monsoon.
 Due to low rainfall only dry crops could be grown there. In the monsoon this
region became a cast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks.
 By October the Dhangars harvested their bajra and started on their
movement. They reached Konkan which was a flourishing agricultural tract
with high rainfall and rich soil. Then they were welcomed by Konkani
peasants. After the kharif harvest was cut, the fields had to be fertilized and
made ready for the rabi harvest.
 With the onset of monsoon the Dhangars left the Konkan and the coastal
area with their flocks and returned to their settlements on the dry plateau.
The sheep could not tolerate the wet monsoon conditions.
The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
 The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats
and sold woven blankets.
 They lived near the woods, cultivated small patches of land, engaged in a
variety of patty trades and took care of their herds.
 Their seasonal rhythms were decided by the alteration of the monsoon and
dry season.
 In the dry season they moved to the coastal tracts as the climate suits their
animals.
 During the rainy season they moved to the dry central plateays.
The Raikas of Rajasthan:- Raikas were the nomads of Rajasthan. They were
divided into two groups. One group of Raikas – known as the Maru Raikasherded camels and another group reared sheep and goats.
(i) Cultivation and pastoralism were their primary activities.
(ii) During the monsoon they stayed in their home villages where pasture was
available.
(iii) By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they
moved out in search of other pastures and water.
“The Pastoral groups had sustained by a careful consideration of a host of
factors”. Explain these factors.
(i) Climatic Factor: They had to judge the climatic conditions of the regions
where they wanted to move. They had to judge how long the herds could
stay in one area and where they could find water and pasture.
(ii) Timing: They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and
ensure that they could move through different territories.
(iii) Relationships:- They had to set up a relationship with farmers so that
herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil.
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5(B)
Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
5(B)1
Under Colonial rule, the life of Pastoralists Changed
(i)
After colonialisation, movements of Pastoralists were restricted, now the people
had limited area to move the colonial government wanted to rule over a settled
population.
(ii) Their grazing grounds shrank. Grazing grounds were transformed into
cultivated farms. By expanding cultivation it could increase its revenue
collection, at the same time it could produce more agricultural produce that were
required in English.
(iii) Various forest Acts were enacted which declared some forests which produced
commercially valuable timer as ‘Reserved’. Pastoralists were prevented from
entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle.
(iv) Tax was imposed on land, on canal water, on salt on trade goods, and even on
animals. To enter a grazing tract a cattle herder had to pay the tax.
Q.
A.
Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each
case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralist.
 Wasteland rules
 Forest Acts
 Criminal Tribes Act
 Grazing Tax
Wasteland rules: Under these rules all grazing lands were considered wastelands by
the colonial rulers.
 Uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals.
 Individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to cultivate these
lands.
 Some of these individuals were made headmen of villages in the newly cleared
areas.
Reasons
 These lands did not bring revenue to the government.
 These lands did not produce cotton, jute, indigo for the British industries.
Impact on the lives of the pastoralists
 These rules restricted the mobility of nomads.
 The grazing land was given to big landlords. As a result, nomad’s grounds shrank.
 The agricultural stock of the nomads declined and their trade as well as crafts
were adversely affected.
 These rules brought about starvation and financial problems to nomadic
pastoralists and death for their herds.
Forest Acts: Under these Acts forest were classified into two major types:
 Reserved forests: No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests, though they
produced valuable timber.
 Protected forests: Under these some customary grazing rights of pastoralists
were granted but their movements were severely restricted. The colonial officials
believed that grazing destroyed the saplings and young shoots of trees that
germinated on the forest floor.
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Impact on the lives of the pastoralists
 Pastoralists were now prevented from entering many forests. As such there was a
reduction in their grazing grounds.
 After enacting laws their movements were regulated even in those areas where
they were allowed entry.
 The permit system was introduced under which the timings of their entry and
departure were specified.
 Pastoralists could no longer remain beyond the stipulated time in a forest area
even if forage was available, the grass was succulent and the undergrowth in the
forest was ample. If they overstayed they were liable to fines.
Criminal Tribes Act
 The British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They even disturbed
mobile craftsmen and traders as well as pastoralists who changed their places of
residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds. They
wanted to rule over a settled population which was easy to identify and control
and was seen as peaceable and law –abiding. In 1871, the Criminal Tribes Act was
passed.
Impact of Criminal Tribes Act
 By this Act many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were
classified as Criminal Tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth.
 These communities were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village
police kept a continuous watch on them.
Grazing Tax
 To expand its revenue income the colonial government imposed tax on land, on
canal water, on salt,, on trade goods and on animals.
 Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. The tax
per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made
increasingly efficient.
 From 1850s the right to collect the tax was auctioned out to contractors who tried
to extract as high a tax as they could and to earn a huge profit for themselves.
 Then they were issued passes, to show the pass and pay the tax and then enter
with a specific number of cattle. The number of cattle herds he had and the
amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass.
Impact on the lives of pastoralists
 All the above measures lowered the quality of the pastures, led to the shortage of
forage for animals, made the life of the pastoralists difficult.
 These measures invited frequent famines, weakened the livestock that fell an easy
prey to malnutrition.
 The number of cattle reduced to a great extent.
 The tax had to be paid in cost. As such pastoralists started selling their animals.
 The heavy burden of taxes lowered the economic status of the pastoralists. As such
most of the pastoralists started taking loans from the money –lenders.
Q.
A.
How did the pastoralists cope with the changes brought by colonial rule? Explain.
(i) Reduction in number of cattle: When grazing lands were taken over and
converted into fields this forced many nomads to reduce the member of cattle in
their herds.
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(ii)
New pastures: Defining of boundaries forced many nomads to search for new
pastures. For e.g. after the partition of India in 1947, the camel and sheep
herding Raikas, for instance, could no longer move into Sindh and graze their
camels on the banks of the Indus, as they had done earlier. The new political
boundaries between Indian and Pakistan stopped their movement. SO they had
to find new places to go. In recent years they have been migrating to Haryana
where sheep can graze on agricultural fields after the harvests are cut. This is
the time that the fields need manure that the animals provide.
(iii) New occupations: Over the years, some richer pastoralists began buying land
and settling down, giving up their nomadic life. Some became settled peasants
cultivating land, other took to more extensive trading. Many poor pastoralists, on
the other hand, borrowed money form moneylenders to survive. At times they
lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers, working on fields or in small
towns.
5(C)
Pastoralism in Africa
Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists changed dramatically over
the colonial and post colonial periods.
5(C).1
Where have the grazing lands gone?
Colonization: In the late 19th century, European imperial powers scrambled for
territorial possessions in Africa, slicing up the region into different colonies. In 1885,
Maasailand was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya
and German Tanganyika. Subsequently, the best grazing lands were gradually taken
over for white settlement and the Maassai were pushed into a small area in south
Kenya and nor the Tanzania. The Maasai lost about 60 per cent of their pro-colonial
lands. They were confined to a arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.
Expansion of Cultivation: From the late 19th century, the British colonial
government in east Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand
cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields.
In Pre-colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists had dominated their agricultural
neighbours both economically and politically. By end of colonial rule the situation had
reversed.
Setting up of game reserves: Large areas of grazing land were also turned into
game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and
Serengeti Park in Tanzania. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves;
they could neither hunt animals nor graze herds in these areas. Very often these
reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai
herds. The Serengeti National Park, for instance, was created over 14,760 km of
Maasai grazing land.
Deterioration of the quality of pastures: The loss of the finest grazing herds and
water resources created pressure on the small area of land that the Maasai were
confined within. Continuous grazing within a small area inevitably meant a
deterioration of the quality of pastures. Fodder was always in short supply. Feeding
the cattle became a persistent problem.
5(C).2
The Borders are closed.
In the nineteenth century, African pastoralists could move over vast area in search of
pastures. When the pastures were exhausted in one place they moved to a different
area to graze their cattle. After colonization, the best land was taken over by white
settlers and the locals were pushed into a small area with restricted pastures. The
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boundaries of these reserves became the limits within which they could now move.
This adversely affected both their pastoral and trading activities.
5(C).3
(i)
(ii)
When Pastures Dry
Limited grazing area: Because of the restriction on the movement of nomads
they were bound down to a fixed area. They were cut off from the best grazing
lands and forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts.
Death of animals: Since lot of restrictions were imposed on their movements so
they could not move to places where pastures were available. Due to this there
was shortage of fodder. A large number of Maasai cattle died of starvation and
disease.
Q.
A.
How are pastoralists important in the present day world?
(i) They are not such people who have no place in the modern world.
(ii) Environmentalists and economists have increasingly come to recognize that
pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and dry
regions of the world.
Q.
A.
“In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories.” Explain.
(i) In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories –
elders
and warriors.
(ii) The elder formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the
affairs of the community and settle disputes.
(iii) The warriors consisted the younger people, mainly responsible for the protection
of the tribe. They defended the community and organized cattle raids.
(iv) Raiding was important in a society where cattle was wealth. It is through raids
that the power of different pastoral groups was asserted.
(v) Young men came to be recognized as members of the warrior class when they
proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and
participating in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders.
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6. PEASANTS AND FARMERS
6(A)
6(A).1
The Coming of Modern Agriculture in England
The Time of Open fields and Commons

Before the 18th century in large parts of England the countryside was open.
Peasants cultivated on strips of land around the village they lived in.
 At the beginning of each year strips of varying quality were allocated to each
villager. Everyone was given a maximum of good and bad land.
 Beyond these strips of cultivation lay the common land. All villagers had access to
the commons.
The use of common land
 For the poor
(i) It supported them to survive.
(ii) It supplemented their meager income.
(iii) It sustained their cattle
(iv) It helped them tide over bad times when crops failed.
6(A).2


6(A).3
Age of Enclosures
Economy of open fields and commons changed from about sixteenth century
when the price of wool went up in the world market. To allow improved breeding
of sheep, rich farmers began building of sheep, rich-farmers began building
hedges around their holdings to separate their property from that of others.
With the increase in population, demand of food grains increased and land began
to be enclosed for production.
What happened to the Poor
When enclosed land became the exclusive property of one landowner, poor could no
longer graze their cattle on commons, collect fire wood, apples and barrier or hunt
small animals for meat. Everything belonged to the landlords and had of price impact
of enclosures on the poor?
1
Poor were displaced from the land.
2
They found their customary rights gradually disappearing.
3
They turned to the southern parts of England from the Midlands, which was
most intensively cultivated. However, they couldn’t find secure jobs.
4
Labourers were employed during harvest time. Landowners tried to increase
their profit, they cut the amount they had to spend on the workmen.
6(A).4
The introduction of Threshing Machines
Threshing machines came into the market. Rich farmers bought the machines to
expand their production and reduce their dependence on labourers.
Q.
A.
What was the use of common land to villagers?
1
All the villagers had an access to commons.
2
They pastured their cows and graze their sheep on these lands.
3
They collected fuel wood, berries and fruit for food these lands.
4
They fished in the rivers and ponds, and hunted rabbits in common forests.
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Q.
A.
Q.
A.
What do you know about the enclosure system?
1
Under this system the common land which was the property of the whole village
was begin enclosed by rich landlords.
2
The common land was enclosed by erecting hedges around the land to separate it
from that of others.
What were the advantages of enclosures to landlords and rich farmers?
1
They could make long term investment on land.
2
They helped in promoting sheep farming and expanding wool and increasing food
production.
3
They could expand the land under their control.
4
Enclosures enhanced their social status and say in the government which passed
enclosure Acts.
Q.
A.
What was the importance of turnip and cloves for the English farmers?
1
As these had the capacity to increase the nitrogen content of the soil, so these
helped in increasing the fertility of the soil.
2
Turnip was a good fodder crop.
3
These became the additional source of income for the farmers.
Q.
A.
Explain briefly the factors which led to the enclosures in England.
Various factors led to the enclosures in England. Some of them were:
1 Rising demand for wool: In the 16th century the demand for wool went up in
the world market. This increased the profit as well as the prices of wool. Rich
farmers wanted to expand wool production to amass more wealth. So they became
eager to improve their sheep breeds. As a result, they started enclosing open fields
to provide proper pastures to the sheep.
2 Enclosure Acts: In the beginning the enclosures were mostly created by
individual landlords. Both the state and the church did not support them. But
after 1850 the state passed many Acts to legalize the enclosures.
3 Rapid growth in population: The population in England increased between
1750 and 1900 it multiplied over four times. It led to more demand for foodgrains
and other essential commodities. With the rapid growth of population the
pressure on land also increased.
4 War and disruption in trade: England was at war with France in the 18th
century. Many European countries had come under the dominance of Napoleon.
As per the provisions of the Continental System, no European country could
directly trade with England. This disrupted trade and the imports of foodgrains
from Europe. Prices of food-grains in England sky-rocketed. This encouraged
landowners to enclose lands and enlarge the area under grain cultivation. Profits
flowed in an landowners pressurized the Parliament to pass the Enclosure Acts.
5 Use of machinery: As the demand for food-grains was increasing at very fast
rate the big farmers started using machines. These machines could be operated
well in large farms. So the rich landowners started enclosing more and more open
spaces.
6 Long term investment: Enclosures were also seen as to make term investments
on land and plan crop rotation to improve the soil and get more than one crop in a
year.
7 Greed for wealth and social status: greed for wealth, high prices, and the
favourable circumstances led the rich landowners to expand enclosures. Bringing
more and more lands within the enclosures mean rise in their social status.
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Q.
A.
How was increase in food-grain production made possible in 19th century England?
1
By bringing new lands under cultivation.
2
Landlords sliced up pasture lands.
3
They carved up open fields.
4
They cut off forest commons.
5
They took over marshes.
6
They turned larger and larger areas into agricultural fields.
Q.
A.
What factors prompted the farmers to introduce the threshing machines?
1
Due to Napoleonic wars prices of food-grains went high. This encouraged farmers
to produce vigorously.
2
Fearing the shortage of labour, they introduced threshing machines.
3
Insolence of labour, their drinking habits and difficulty to manage them work.
4
Machines helped them to reduce their dependence on labour.
Q.
A.
Why were threshing machines opposed by the poor in England?
Open fields and common lands in the country side in England provided a life support
to the poor. They could meet most of their requirements from such fields and lands.
More enclosures: When the rich land-owners started the process of enclosures and
introduced the threshing machines, the poor were not only deprived of all those
facilities which they enjoyed earlier but most of them were rendered jobless. Finding
survival difficult, they were forced to work as labourers on low wages under the landowners who were capitalizing on the bad times of the poor.
Loss of Job: When threshing machines were introduced, they got stung because it
mean the loss of their livelihood and unemployment. The threshing machines were a
potent danger because a single machine could do the work of more than twenty
labourers.
In short, the loss of bread forced the poor to oppose threshing machines. Their
miserable plight also led them to break the threshing machines.
Q.
A.
Who was Captain Swing? What did the name symbolize or represent?
Captain Swing was no real person in flesh and blood. It was a ‘mythic name’ used by
the poor labourers who were denied access to common lands and open fields,
deprived of their livelihood and rendered jobless.
1 As they could not openly face the rich and powerful landlords, they adopted new
tactic to fight against them.
2 They began setting their barns and haystacks on fire at night and sometimes their
entire their lives and deprived them of their livelihood.
3 Because the landlords had fenced the common lands which supported the poor
labourers, the latter began to send threatening letters to the landlords urging
them to stop suing machines that had deprived them of their livelihood.
4 These letters were signed in the name of Captain Swing. They used this symbolic
name to save them from the operation of the law.
5 This name became so common in about 1830 that the riots started by the poor
labourers began to be called “Swing Riots”.
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6(B)
Bread Basket and Dust Bowl
6(B).1
Settlements of White Americans in U.S.A.
Till the 1780’s white American settlements were confined to a small narrow strip of
coastal land in the east. By early 20th century white Americans moved westward and
established control up to the west coast. They carved the entire landscape into
different agricultural belts.
6(B).2
The Westward Move and Wheat Cultivation
The white settlers moved into the Mississippi valley, they burnt the forests and
cleared the land for cultivation. They erected fences around the fields, ploughed the
land and sowed corn and wheat. When the soil became impoverished in one place,
they moved further west to explore new land and raise a new crop and in few decades
this region became major wheat producing area of America.
6(B).3
The Coming of New Technology
As the settlers moved into new lands, they modified their implements to meet their
requirements. To break the sod of prairie new ploughs were devised locally. The early
20th C tractors and disk ploughs were used by the farmers in Great Plains.
Before the 1830, the grain was used to be harvested with a sickle. In 1831, Cyrus Mc
Cormick invented the first MECHANICAL REAPER.
The new machines allowed these big farmers to rapidly clear large tracts, break up
the soil, remove the grass and prepare the ground for cultivation. With power-driven
machinery, 4 men could plough, seed and harvest 2,000 to 4,000 acres of wheat in a
season.
6(B).4
What happened to the Poor
For the poor farmers, machines brought misery. Many of them bought with the hope
of high profits. They took loans from Banks. But after 1920’s production had expanded
so rapidly, that there was a large surplus. Unsold stocks piled up, storehouses
overflowed with grain, and vast amounts of corn and wheat were turned into animal
feed. Wheat prices fell and export markets collapsed. This created the grounds for the
great Agrarian depression of the 1930s that ruined wheat farmers everywhere. Poor
farmers who borrowed money to buy machines, found it difficult to pay back their
debts. Many of them deserted their farms.
6(B).5
Dust Bowl
In the 1930s terrifying dust storm began to blow. The dust swept in and people were
blinded. Cattle’s were suffocated to death. Sand covered fields and coated the surfaces
of rivers till the fish died. Tractors and machines were damaged beyond repair.
This happened because, when the rains failed and temperature soared, the wind blow
with speed and became black blizzards because the entire landscape has been
ploughed over, stripped of all the grass that held it together, and broken the sod into
dust.
 President of U.S.A. in 1800 – Thomas Jefferson.
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Q.- Why were American Indians pushed westwards?
A.- After the American war of Independence from 1775 – 1783, white Americans who
were confined to a small narrow strip of coastal land in the east moved westward and
displaced local Native American tribes who lived either by hunting, gathering and
fishing or cultivated corm, beans, tobacco, and pumpkin.
They did so to convert entire landscape into cultivated fields. Now they could export
forest timber, hunt animal for skin, mine mountains for gold and minerals.
Q.- How did they drove the Indian Americans
A.- In 1800, U.S. government made policy of driving the nature Americans westward.
Numerous wars were waged in which Indians & Americans were massacred and
many of their villages burnt. They were forced to give up their land and move
westward.
Q.- Why was there an increase in production of wheat in U.S.A. after the late 19th C?
A.- Export market became big, the spread of railways made it easy to transport the grain
from the wheat producing regions to the eastern coast for export. During the 1 st world
war demand rose higher when Russian supplies of wheat were cut off and the U.S.A.
had to feed Europe. As the demand increased, wheat price rose, encouraging farmers
to produce wheat.
Q.
A.
What was the impact of the Westward expansion of the settlers in the USA?
Impact on the natives: In the post-American War of Independence period the white
Americans began to move westward. By 1800, over 700,000 white settlers had moved
on the Appalachian plateau through the passes. But their westward march meant
that the American Indians had to be cleared from the land. In the decade after 1800
the US government committed itself to the policy of driving the American Indians,
first beyond the river Mississippi, and then further west. They massacred many
Indians, burnt their villages. The native Indians resisted, but ultimately forced to
sign treaties, giving up their land and moved westwards.
Exploitation of natural resources: The white settlers slashed and burnt forests,
pulled out the stumps cleared the land for cultivation, and built log cabins in the
forest clearings. then they cleared large areas, and erected fences around the fields.
Production of wheat: From the late 19th century, there was a dramatic expansion of
wheat production in the USA. In 1910, about 45 million acres of land in thr USA was
under wheat production which increased to 74 million acres in 1929.
Use of new technology: During the first World War came the new technology which
transformed America into the ‘bread bowl of the world. The farmers began to use
modern machines to turn the soil. The use of machines allowed the farmers to finish
their agricultural operation within short span of time.
Impact on the poor: The introduction of farm machinery had adverse impact on the
poor. It brought misery for the poor farmers. Mechanization had reduced the need for
labour. Most of them were rendered unemployed and deprived of their livelihood.
Dust bowl: The extensive use of machinery in the prairies led to the Dust bowl
tragedy. It removed the thick mat of grass with tough roots in the prairie. Thus
tinkering with the nature and over-ploughing led to the blowing of black blizzards.
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Q.
A.
Q.
A.
What were the advantages and disadvantages of the use of mechanical harvesting
machines in the USA?
Advantages
1
Machines were very useful to big farmers. Now, they could clear vast tracts of
land, remove the thick mat of grass with tough roots in prairie, break the sod,
turn the soil easily and prepare the land for cultivation and harvest the crop in
short time and trash it quickly.
2
Machines began to replace men and animals and could save much of physical
labour.
3
It became easy to produce grains at larger scale and capture the world market.
4
Huge production meant flourishing trade and commerce and great profit.
5
Machines saved the time of farmers and reduced dependency.
6
They not only made America rich and prosperous nation but a world power.
Disadvantages
1
Mechanical harvesting by machines brought misery and hard time for poor
labourers. Their demand fell, their wages were cut down and at times they had to
face unemployment since a single machine could do the work of above 20
labourers or so.
2
The small farmers borrowed money from the banks to buy new machines but
when they could not repay the money, they had to desert and say good bye to
their farms and wandered from pillar to post to seek jobs.
3
Big and rich farmers also had to face hardship, distress and bad times when the
boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries evaporated by the mid 1920s.
4
Production had expanded so abruptly and quickly during the first World War
that in the post-war years there was large surplus everywhere, but no buyers due
to slump in currency. Unsold stocks piled up like anything which brought doom
and misery for the farmers.
5
The machines were also responsible for Dust Bowl tragedy as prairies were being
extensively ploughed.
6
The over use of machines was also responsible for the Great Depression of 1930s.
What lessons can we draw from the conversion of the countryside in the USA from a
bread basket to a dust bowl?
The white settlers converted the USA into a bread basket but at a very high price.
(i) The locals were deprived off their resources and most of them became very poor.
(ii) For the poor farmer’s use of machines brought misery. They found it difficult to
pay back their debt and were forced to sell their land.
(iii) The overproduction of wheat lead to the Great Agrarian Depression of the 1930’s.
(iv) Over ploughing of prairies also lead to dust Bowl tragedy. Because of this the
land of plenty became a dust dowl.
(v) After 1930s the government and the settlers realized that they had to respect the
ecological condition of each region.
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6(C)
The Indian Farmer and Opium Production
6(C).1
Impact of British rule on rural landscape
The British saw land revenue as a major source of government income. Efforts were
made to impose a regular system of land revenue, increase revenue rates and expand
area under cultivation. All this created many problems for peasants and pastoralists.
And they struggled to meet the pressures of government revenue demand.
Q.- Major commercial crops exported from India?
A.- In the early 19th C, indigo and opium were two major commercial crops. By the end of
the century sugarcane, cotton, Jute and Wheat were exported to feed the Europeans
and to supply the mills of Lancashire and Manchester in England.
Q.- Why did British started opium trade with China?
A.- The English East India Company was buying tea and silk from China for sale in
England. England at this time produced nothing that could be easily sold in China.
This meant an outflow of treasure from England. It was believed that a loss of
treasure would impoverish the nation and deplete its wealth. They searched for a
commodity they could sell in China. OPIUM WAS SUCH A COMMODITY. Western
merchant began an illegal trade in opium. It was unloaded in a number of seaports of
southeastern China and carried by local agents to the interiors and Chinese became
addicted to opium.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
‘The Confucian rulers of China were not willing to allow the entry of foreign goods in
China’. Give reasons.
1
They were suspicious of all foreign merchants.
2
They feared that the foreign merchants would meddle in local politics and
disrupt their authority.
3
They were aware of the dangers of opium addiction, so they had forbidden its
production and sale except for medical purposes.
What was the impact of opium trade on China?
1
The traders started meddling in local politics.
2
The Chinese became addict to opium. People of all classes started taking drugs.
3
Lin Ze-Xu, Special Commissioner at Canton in 1839, estimated that there over 4
million opium smokers in China.
4
A British doctor in Canton put the figure at 12 million.
Q.- What was opium war?
A.- In 1839, the Chinese Emperor sent Lin-Ze-Xu to Canton as a special commissioner
with instructions to stop the opium trade. Lin arrested 1,600 men involved in the
trade and confiscated 11,000 pounds of opium. He forced foreign factories to handover
there stock of opium. He burnt 20,000 crates of opium.
Britain got angry and declared war, this war is popularly known as OPIUM WAR.
China was defeated in the war and was forced to legalize opium trade and open china
to foreign merchants
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Q.
A.
Why were Indian farmers reluctant to grow opium?
(i) The crop had to be grown on the best land, on fields that lay near villages and
were well manured. On this land peasants usually produced pulses. If they
planted opium on this land, then pulses could not be grown there, or they would
have to be grown on inferior land where harvests were poorer and uncertain.
(ii) Many cultivators owned no land. To cultivate, they had to pay rent and lease
land
from landlords. And the rent charged on good lands near villages was very
high.
(iii) The cultivation of opium was a difficult process. The plant was delicate, and
cultivators had to spend long hours nurturing it. This meant that they did not
have enough time to care for other crops.
Q.- Why Indian Peasants were not interested in cultivation of opium?
A.- As the market for opium expanded in China, British tried to produce opium in the
lands under their control. The Indians were unwilling to turn their fields over to
poppy for the following reasons(i)
The crop required best manure land and on this land peasants usually
produced pulses.
(ii)
Many cultivators owned no land and rent charged on good lands near villages
were very high.
(iii)
Cultivation of opium was difficult and cultivator had to spend long time on it.
(iv)
Government paid very low price to the farmer’s cultivation was hence
unprofitable for cultivator to grow opium.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Explain the developments that led to the differences between the government and the
opium growers of India and ultimately the latter’s refusal to take advances.
1
The problem became all the more complicated when the government refused to
increase the price of opium.
2
Government wanted to buy opium at a cheap rate and sell it at high price to
opium agents in Kolkata who then shipped it to China. This difference between
the buying and selling price was the government’s opium revenue.
3
The prices given to the peasants were so low that by early 18th century angry
peasants began agitating for higher prices and refused to take advances.
4
In regions around Benaras, cultivators began giving up opium cultivation. They
produced sugarcane and potatoes instead.
5
Many cultivators sold off their crop to travelling traders (pykars) who offered
higher prices.
In spite of government monopoly over opium trade, it began to be produced in Central
India and Rajasthan. What steps did the government take to stop this practice?
By 1773, the British government in Bengal had established a monopoly over opium
trade. But by 1820s, it found that opium production in their territories was fast
declining, but its production outside the British territories was increasing. It was
being produced in Central India and Rajasthan within princely states that were not
under the British control.
1 In these two regions local traders were offering much higher prices to peasants
and exporting opium to China. In the 1820s, armed bands of traders were found
carrying in this trade.
2 To the British this trade was illegal; it was smuggling and it had to be stopped.
Government monopoly had to be retained.
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3
Q.
A.
The government therefore instructed its agents posted in the princely state to
confiscate all opium and destroy the crops.
How were unwilling cultivators made to produce opium?
Unwilling cultivators were made to produce opium through a system of advances.
From 1780, Government with the help of village headmen (Mahato) gave advances to
the peasants to produce opium. Peasants accepted the loans in a hope to meet their
immediate needs and pay back the loan later. But the loan tied the peasants to the
government. The cultivator was forced to grow opium on a specified area of land and
hand over the produce to the agents once the crop had been harvested. Cultivator had
to accept the low price offered for the produce.
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7. HISTORY OF CRICKET
500 years ago: Start of the game of Cricket
1744
1769s
1774
1780
:
:
:
:
The first written ‘Law of Cricket’ were drawn up.
World’s first Cricket Club was formed in Hambledon.
The first leg-before law was published.
The length of the match became three days. Six seam cricket ball
introduced.
1787
:
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was funded.
1788
:
MCC published its first revision of the laws and became the guardian of
cricket’s regulations.
1792
:
The first Indian club – the Calcutta Cricket Club was established.
1848
:
Foundation of the Oriental Cricket Club, Bombay.
1877
:
Origin of the Test Cricket.
1885
:
All India congress was founded.
1889’s
:
A Parsi team beat the Bombay Gymkhana at cricket.
1930
:
The English test team was led by a professional the Yorkshire batsman,
Len
Hutton.
1932
:
India entered the world of Test Cricket.
1950
:
The West Indies won its first Test series against England.
1960
:
West Indies was led by a black player, Frank Worell, for the first time.
1965
:
Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) was renamed the International Cricket
Conference.
1970
:
South Africa was expelled from World Cricket.
1970
:
The newly decolonized nations of Asia and Africa combined forced the
English Cricket authorities to cancel a tour by South Africa in 1970.
1971
:
The first one-day international was played between England and Australia
in Melbourne.
1975
:
The first World Cup was successfully.
1977
:
Cricket celebrated 100 years of Test matches.
1989
:
The right of England and Australia in cricket of veto over its proceedings
was scrapped in favour of equal membership.
A.F.S. Telyarkhan
:
Radio commentator.
C.K. Nayudu
:
An outstanding Indian batsman.
Dadabhai Naoroji
:
Parsi statesman and intellectual
Dennis Lillee
:
An Australian cricketer.
Dorothea beale
:
Principal of Cheltenham Ladies College from 1858 to 1906.
Frank Waren
:
The first black to become the captain of West Indies cricket
team.
Kerry Packer
:
Founded World Series Cricket in 1977.
Pulwanker Baloo
:
A dalit, had enormous cricketing talent.
A. Brelvi
:
Editor of Bombay Chronicle.
Thomas Arnold
:
Headmaster of famous Rugby School and founder of the
modern public school system.
7(A).1
The Historical Development of Cricket as a Game in England
The social and economic history of England in the Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
shaped the game and gave cricket its unique nature.
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Uniqueness of Test Cricket and its difference from other team games
 A mach may go on for five days and still end in a draw. No other modern team sport
(football or hockey) takes such a long time. Their timings are short and the result is
prompt and decisive.
 The length of the pitch is specified -22 yards, but the size and shape of the ground is
not. Hockey and football lay down the dimensions of the playing area, cricket does not;
cricket ground can be oval or nearly circular.
 Cricket was the first team sport to be codified. It gave itself rules and regulation before
other team games like soccer and hockey.
 The first written ‘Law of cricket’ were drawn up in 1744. The world’s first cricket club
was formed in Hambledon in 1760s and the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was
founded in 1787.
Historical beginning of test cricket as a village game



Cricket’s link with the rural past can be traced in the length of a test match. Originally,
cricket matches had no time limit. The game went on till it took to bowl out a side
twice. The cricket rules were made before the Industrial Revolution when the pace and
rhythms of village life were slower, but after the Industrial Revolution they became
faster.
Cricket was originally played on country commons whose size varied from one village to
another, so there were no boundary limits. Even after boundaries were written into the
laws of cricket, their distance from the wicket was not specified.
Cricket’s most important tools are all made of natural, pre-industrial materials. The
ball, the stumps and the bails are made of wood. The ball is made with leather, twins
and cork. Thus, even today both bat and ball are hand-made, not industrially
manufactured.
Q.- Till the middle of the 18th c bats were like hockey sticks. Why?
A.- The ball was bowled underarm, along the ground and the curve at the end of the bat
gave the batsman the best chance of making contact.
Q.- Where was this game invented?
A.- South eastern Europe
Q.- The social and economic history of England shaped the game and gave cricket its
unique nature? Discuss?
A.- (i) One of the peculiarities of test cricket is that a match can go on for 5 days and
still end in a draw while no other modern team sport takes even half as much
time to complete. It is because of its rural past, cricket rules were made before
the industrial revolution. The other modern games were codified after industrial
revolution and were strictly time limited to fit the routines of the people who
were paid for hours in factories.
(ii) Another characteristic of cricket is that the length of pitch is specified 22 yards
but the size or shape of the ground is not. It is the result of its village origin;
originally it was played on country commons and the size varied from on village
to another.
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Q.- When was cricket codified?
A.- Cricket was the earliest modern team sport to be codified.
The first written ‘Laws of cricket’ were drawn up in 1774. They stated –
(i) Two Umpires shall be chosen from amongst the gentleman present who shall
decide all disputes.
(ii) The stumps must be 22 inches high and the bail across them six inches.
(iii) The ball must be between 5 and 6 ounces.
(iv) There must be 2 sets of stumps 22 yards apart.
(v) There were no limit on the shape and size of bat.
Q.- How are the tools of cricket made?
A.- Crickets most important tools are all made of natural, pre-industrial material.
The BAT, STUMPS and BALL are made of wood. Previously bat was cut out of a
single price of wood. Now It consists of two pieces, the blade which is made out of the
wood of the willow tree and the handle which is made out of cane.
The BALL is made with leather, twine and cork. The invention of vulcanized rubber
led to the introduction of pads in 1848, gloves and later helmets made out of metal.
Q.- Who were Amateurs and Professionals?
A.- The rich who played cricket for pleasure were called Amateurs and the poor who
played it for a living were called Professionals. The wages of professionals were paid
by patronage, subscription or gate money. Amateurs were called gentlemen while
professionals were described as Players.
(i) They entered the ground from different entrances
(ii) Amateurs tended to be batsman and energetic, hardworking aspects of the game
like fast bowling were given to the professionals.
(iii) Captain of the team was traditionally a gentleman.
Q.
A.
What was the difference between the Amateurs and the Professionals?
The amateurs were called Gentlemen and the game of cricket had an aristocratic
value for them. On the other hand, the professionals were called players.
 The amateurs usually tended to be the batsmen while the professionals to be the
bowlers since bowling required a lot of energy, stamina and hard work which the
only professionals possessed and not the amateurs.
 The amateurs and the professionals entered the ground from different entrance
because of their social status.
 The rich played the game for pleasure, the poor or the professional for the living.
Q.- Who was the first Professional English Test team captain?
A.- Len Hutton in 1930.
Q.- “It’s often said that the battle of waterloo” was won on the playing fields of
Eton”. Why? Do you agree with this statement.
A.- (i) This simple means that Britain’s victory over Napoleon Bonaparte, the greatest
general of his time, was mainly due to the values taught to school boys in its
public schools.
(ii) Eton was the most famous of those schools. This English boarding school was the
institution that trained English boys for careers in the military, the civil service
and the church, the three great institutions of imperial England.
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(iii) By the beginning of the 19th century, men like Thomas Arnold, headmaster, of
the famous Rugby School and founder of the modern public school system, some
team sport like cricket and rugby not just as outdoor play, but as an organized
way of teaching English boys the discipline, the importance of hierarchy, the
skills, the code of honour and the leadership qualities that helped them build and
run the British empire.
Q.
A.
What factors led to the British victory in the Napoleonic wars?
(i) These wars were won because of the economic contribution of the ironworks
Scotland and Wales, the mills of Lancashire and the financials houses of the city
of London.
(ii) British lead in trade and industry made it the world’s greatest power.
(iii) It was the superior character of the British young men, built in boarding schools,
playing gentlemanly games like cricket that tipped the balance.
7(B)
THE SPREAD OF CRICKET
(i)
While some English team games such as hockey and football became
international games, cricket remained a colonial game limited to countries that
had once been part of the British empire.
(ii) The pre-industrial address of cricket made it a hard game to export.
(iii) Cricket took roots only in countries that the British conquered and ruled. In
these colonies cricket was established as popular sport either by white settlers
(as in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies, and
Kenya) or by local elites who wanted to copy the habits of their colonial masters,
as in India.
(iv) British imperial officials made little efforts to spread the game, especially in
colonial territories, such as India and the West Indies.
(v) Playing cricket became a sign of superior social and racial status.
Q.- When was the first non-white club established in West Indies?
A.- First non-white club in the West Indies was established towards that end of the 19th C
by mulattos ( light skinned People of mixed European and African descent)
Q.
A.
Highlight the developments that made cricket popular in the Caribbean countries.
(i) Despite the exclusiveness of the white cricket elite in the West Indies, the game
became hugely popular in the Caribbean.
(ii) Success at cricket became a measure of racial equality and political progress. At
the time of their independence many of the political leaders of Caribbean
countries like Forbes Burnham and Eric Williams saw in the game a chance for
self-respect and international standing.
(iii) When the West Indies won its first Test series against England in 1950, it was
celebrated as a national achievement, as a way of demonstrating what West
Indies were the equals of white Englishmen.
(iv) There were two ironies in this great victory.
(a) One, the West Indian team that won was captained by a white player. The first
time a black player led the West Indies Test team was in 1960 when Frank
Worrell was named captain.
(b) And two, the West Indies cricket team represented not one nation but several
dominions that later became independent countries.
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(v)
The pan-West Indian team that represents the Caribbean region in international
Test cricket is the only exception to a series of unsuccessful efforts to bring about
West Indian unification.
Q.- Who was the first black captain of West Indies Test Team?
A.- Frank Worrell in 1960.
Q.- How was the cricket team in India organized?
A.- Cricket in India was organized on the principle of race and religion.
Q.- When was first Indian club, the Calcutta Cricket Club established?
A.- 1792, formed by British military men and civil servants.
Q.- Which was the first Indian community to start playing the game?
A.- Were the Parsis in Bombay. The Parsis founded the first Indian cricket club, the
Oriental cricket club in Bombay in 1848 sponsored by Parsi businessmen like the
Tatas and the Wadias.
Q.- Why was there as quarell between the whites club (Bombay Gymkhana) and the Parsi
cricketers only?
A.- There was quarrel over the use of public park . The Parsi complained that the park
was left unfit for cricket because the polo ponies of the Bombay Gymkhana dug up the
surface.
Q.- When was a national team formed to represent India in a test match?
A.- 1932.
Q.- When did Parsi team beat the Bombay Gymkhana?
A.- In 1889.
Q.- Which were the teams in India that played tournaments?
A.- The tournament was initially called the QUADRANGULAR, because it was played by
four team: The Europeans, The Parsis, The Hindus and the Muslims. It later became
the PENTANGULAR when a fifth team was added, the Rest, which comprised all the
communities left over.
Q.- Why did Journalists, cricketers and political leader criticized racial and communal
foundations of the Pentangular tournament?
A.- S.A. Brelvi, editor of Bombay Chronicle, Mahatma Gandhi, respectable political figure
and others condemmed the Pentangular as a communally divisive competition, when
the nationalists were trying to unite India’s diverse population.
Q.- Who was Palwankar Baloo?
A.- He was the greatest slow bowler of his time. Despite being a greatest player he was
never made captain of Hindus because he was a Dalit but his brother, VITHAL, a
batsman became captain of Hindus in 1923 and lead the team to a famous victory
against the Europeans.
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7(C)
THE MODERN TRANSFORMATION OF THE GAME
Modern cricket is dominated by tests and one-day internationals, played between
national trams. Players who played for their country become famous. C.K. Nayudu
was an outstanding Indian batsman of his time.
Q.- What do you know about Imperial cricket conference?
A.- The regulation of International cricket was controlled by Imperial cricket conference.
After decolonization, there was decline of British influence in trade, international
politics and sporting matters etc. The I.C.C. was renamed as International cricket
conference in 1965 and was dominated by its foundation members, England and
Australia, which retained the right of veto over its proceedings till 1989. Now there is
equal membership of all member countries. India’s first match against England
started in 1932 and he was the country’s first Test captain.
India entered the world of Test cricket in 1932, because Test cricket from its origin in
1877 was organized as a contest between different parts of the British empire.
*
The first Test was played between England and Australia?
Q.- Why did countries like India, Pakistan and West Indies wanted to boycott south
Africa in Test matches?
A.- South Africa practiced a policy of discrimination on the basis of colour and barred non
whites from representing the country in Test Matches therefore countries like India,
Pakistan and West India wanted to boycott South Africa but they did not have the
necessary power in the ICC to debar that country from Test cricket.
Q.- When was the tour to South Africa cancelled?
A.- 1970.
Q.
A.
What had Gandhiji said about colonial sports like cricket, football and hockey?
Mahatma Gandhi believed that sport was essential for creating a balance between the
body and the mind. He often emphasized that games like cricket and hockey were
imported into India by the British and were replacing traditional games. Such games
as cricket, hockey, football and tennis were for the privileged. They showed a colonial
mindset and were a less effective education than the simple exercise of those who
worked on the land.
7(D)
COMMERCE, MEDIA and CRICKET TODAY
The 1970’s were the decade in which cricket was transformed. The game was changed
forever, not by a player or cricket administrator, but by a businessman
 1970 - South Africa was excluded from International Cricket.
 1971 - First one day international was played between England and Australia in
Melbourne.
 1975 - First World Cup
 1977 - Cricket celebrated 100yrs of Test matches.
Q.
A.
Who was Kerry Packer? What were his innovations in cricket?
Kerry Packer was an Australian television tycoon. He saw the money making
potential of cricket as a televised sport. He signed up fifty-one of the world’s leading
cricketers against the wishes of the national cricket boards and for about two years
staged unofficial Tests and One-day Internationals under the name of World Series
Cricket.
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Q.
A.
Which two great advances has Pakistan pioneered in bowling?
The two great advances pioneered by Pakistan are:
(a) Doosra
(b) The Reverse Swing
 Both these skills were developed in response to sub-continental conditions.
 The doosra was introduced to counter aggressive batsman with heavy modern bats
who were threatening to make finger spin obsolete.
 The reverse swing was introduced to move the ball in on dusty, unresponsive
wickets under clear skies. Initially, both these innovations were greeted with great
suspicion and vehement criticism by countries like Britain, Australia which saw
them as an under-handed, illegal bending of the laws of cricket.
Q.- When and How was one day international started?
A.- Kerry Packer and Australian television tycoon saw the money making potential of
cricket as a televised sport and singed up 51 of world’s leading crickets. He staged
unofficial Tests and One day internationals for two years under the name world series
cricket. He thus made cricket more attractive to television audiences and changed the
nature of the game.
Q.- What was the changed nature of the game?
A.- Colured dress, protective helmets, field restrictions, cricket under light became the
part of the game. Cricket became a game which could generate huge money
(i) Cricket board became rich by selling television rights to television companies.
(ii) Television channels made money by selling television spots to companies to air
commercial for their products
(iii) Cricketers became celebrities, who besides being paid better made money by
making commercials for wide range of products
Q.- How did television coverage affected the audience?
A.- It expanded the audience for the game by beaming cricket into small town and
villages. Children who live outside the big cities and had never previously had the
chance to watch international cricket, could now watch and learn by copying their
heroes.
Q.- “The Centre of gravity of Cricket game has shifted to south Asia.” Give reason
in support of your answer?
A.- (i) This shift is symbolized by the shifting of the ICC headquarters from London to
Dubai.
(ii) Two great advances in bowling-doosra and reverse swing were developed by
Pakistan in response to sub continental conditions and became part of technique
of all the bowlers, every where in the world.
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8. CLOTHING
Some Leading Lights
Amelia Bloomer: An American lady, the first dress reformer to launch loose tunics.
Babasaheb Ambedkar: Unlike Gandhiji, he never gave up the Western Style suit.
C. Kasavan: Wrote his autobiography named Jeevita Samran.
Jnanadanandini: Wife of Satyendranath Tagore, the first Indian member of the Indian
Civil Service (ICS).
John Keats: Renowned English poet (1795 – 1821).
King George V: King of Great Britain at the time of 1937 Round Table Conference.
Lady Bachoobai: A famous Parsi social activist.
Lucy Stone: Headed the American Women Suffrage Assoication.
Manockjee Cowasjee Entee: An assessor in the Surat Fouzdaree Adawlut, refused to
take off his shoes in the court of the sessions judge.
Sir M. Visveswaraya: A great engineer technocrat and the Dewan of the Mysore state
from 1912 to 1918.
Mrs. Stantion: Headed the National Woman Suffrage Association.
Thackeray: Author of the novel vanity Fair (1848).
Verrier Elwin: Earlier 20th Century anthropologist.
William Hogarth: An English Painter (1697 – 1794).
8(A)
8(A).1


8(A).2
Sumptuary Laws and Social Hierarchy
France-Sumptuary Laws
Before 18th C, people in Europe dressed according to their regional codes and
were limited by the type of cloths and the cost of materials that were available in
their regions. Clothing styles were also strictly regulated by class, gender or
status in the social hierarchy.
Only royalty could wear expensive materials like ermine and fur, or silk, velvet
and brocade. People of France were expected to strictly follow these laws
French Revolution ended these distinctions


Q.
A.
Both men and women began wearing clothing that was loose and comfortable.
The colours of France-blue, white and red, became popular as they were a sign of
the patriotic citizen.

Red cap of liberty, long trousers and the revolutionary cockade pinned on to a hat
became a part of dress.

The simplicity of clothing was meant to express the idea of equality.
What were the sumptuary laws in France?
From about 1294 to the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the people of France
were expected to strictly follow what were known as ‘Sumptuary laws’.
 In medieval France, the items of clothing a person could purchase per year was
regulated, not only by income but also by social rank.
 The material to be used for clothing was also legally prescribed. Only royalty could
wear expensive materials like ermine, and fur, or silk, velvet and brocade.
 Other classes were debarred from clothing themselves with materials that were
associated with the aristocracy.
8(B) Clothing and Notions of Beauty
8(B).1 Clothes reflected their Idea of BeautyIn England, and ideal woman was seen as delicate, dutiful, submissive and obedient.
Norms of clothing reflected these ideals. From childhood girls were tightly laced up
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and dressed in stays. When slightly older, girls had to wear light fitting corsets.
Tightly laced, small wasted women were admired as attractive, elegant and graceful.
8(B).2
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Women’s reaction to these Norms-
Many women accepted this pain as normal; they grew up to believe that having a
small waist was a womanly duty. Some women in England began agitating for
democratic rights and began campaigning for dress reforms Women’s magazines
described how tight dresses and corsets caused deformalities and illness among young
girls.

In America, traditional feminine clothes were criticized, they argued that if
clothes were comfortable and convenient, and then women could work, earn their
living and become independent.

In 1870, National woman suffrage Association headed by Mrs. Stanton and the
American woman suffrage association dominated by Lucy stone both campaigned
for dress reforms.

Mrs. Amelia Bloomer, an American was the first dress reformer to launch loose
tunic worm over ankle length trousers

First world war brought about radical change in women clothing
“The end of Sumptuary laws did not mean that everyone in European Societies could
now dress in the same way.” Why was it so?
(i) Difference in earning, rather than sumptuary laws, now defined what the rich
and poor could afford to wear.
(ii) Styles of clothing also emphasized difference between men and women. Women
in Victorian England were groomed from childhood to be docile and dutiful,
submissive and obedient.
(iii) Norms of clothing reflected these ideas. From childhood, girls were tightly laced
up and dressed in stays.
Describe the dress reform movement as it developed in the USA.
(i) In America, a dress reform movement development among the white settlers on a
east coast. Traditional feminine clothes were critized on a variety of grounds.
(ii) Long skirts, it was said, swept the grounds and collected filth and dirt. This
caused illness.
(iii) The skirts were voluminous and difficult to handle. They hampered and
prevented women from working and earning.
(iv) Reform of dress, it was said, would change the position of women. If clothes were
comfortable and convenient, then women could work, earn their living and
become independent.
(v) In the 1870s the National Woman Suffrage Association headed by Mrs. Stanton,
and the American Women Suffrage Association dominated by Lucy Stone both
campaigned for dress reform.
8(C) New Times
Many changes were made possible in Britain due to the introduction of new materials
and technologies. Other changes came about because of the two world wars and the
new working conditions for women.
8(C).1


New Materials
Trade with India brought cheap, beautiful and easy to maintain Indian Chintzes
within the reach of many Europeans.
After Industrial revolution, Britain began manufacturing cotton textile, which
became more accessible to a winder section of people in Europe.
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Artificial fibres made clothes cheaper, easy to wash and maintain: Clothes got
lighter, shorter and simpler.
8(C).2 The War
Changes in women clothing came about as a result of 2 world wars
Q.
A.
During 1st world war 700,000 women in Britain were employed in ammunition
factories. They wore a working uniform of blouse and trousers and caps.

Soon trousers became a vital part of western women’s clothing, giving them
greater freedom of movement.

New schools emphasized the importance of plain dressing and discouraged
ornamentation.

As women took to sports, they had to wear cloths that did not hamper movement.

When women went out to work, she needed clothes that were comfortable and
convenient

By the 20th Century a plain and austere style came to reflect seriousness and
professionalism.

New schools for children emphasized the importance of plain dressing and
discouraged.
Explain the impact of World Wars on the clothing pattern of women.
(i) Women and work: Before the First World War most of the women in Europe
were not working in factories. But by 1917, more than 7,00,000 women in Britain
were employed in ammunition factories. As they were going to work they needed
clothes that were comfortable and convenient. They started wearing a working
uniform of blouse and trouser. Clothes became plainer and simpler. Shirts
became shorter.
(ii) No Jewellery: Most of the working women stopped wearing jewellery and
luxurious clothes.
(iii) Change in school dress: Even school started emphasizing the importance of
plain dressing and discouraged ornamentation. With the introduction of
gymnastics and games women started wearing clothes that did not hamper
movement.
(iv) Change in colour: Before the war people used to wear bright colored clothes
but during the war bright colour faded from sight and only sober colours were worn.
Thus clothes became plainer and simpler.
8(D) Transformations in Colonial India
8(D).1 Changes in Clothing
During the colonial period there were significant changes in male and female clothing
in India. On the one hand this was a consequence of the influence of Western dress
forms and missionary activity, on the other it was due to the effort by Indians to
fashion clothing styles that embodied an indigenous tradition and culture
8(D).2
Reaction of Indians
When Western Style clothing came into India in the 19th century, Indians reacted to it
in the following three different ways:
1
Incorporation of Western Style


Many, especially men, began incorporating some elements of Western Style
clothing in their dress. The wealthy Parsis were among the first to adopt
Western style clothing.
Baggy trousers and the phenta (hat) were added to long collarless coats, with
boots and a walking stick to complete the look of the gentleman.
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2
Reaction of Conservatives

3






There were others who were convinced that Western culture would lead to a
loss of traditional cultural identity. The use of Western style clothes was
taken as a sign of the world turning upside down.
Mid-path by some

8(D).3
To some, western clothes were a sign of modernity and progress.
Western style clothing was also especially attractive to groups of Dalits
converts to Christianity who now found it liberating. Here too, it were men
rather than women who affected the new dress styles.
Some men resolved this dilemma by wearing Western clothes without giving
up their Indian ones.
Many Bengali bureaucrats in the late 19th century began stocking Western
style clothes for work outside the home and changed into more comfortable
Indian clothes at home.
Still others tried a slightly different solution to the same dilemma. They
attempted to combine Western and Indian forms of clothing.
Class conflict and Dress Change
In India, caste system clearly defined what subordinate and dominant caste
Hindus should wear, eat, etc, and these codes had the force of law.
In May 1822, women of Shanar caste were attacked by upper caste Nairs in the
southern princely state of travancose.
The cause of tension was over issue of wearing clothes. Nairs were people of upper
caste whereas Shanar of lower caste.
In those days lower caste people were not allowed to cover their upper bodies.
Q.
Given two examples of the ways in which European dress codes were different from
Indian dress codes.
A. The European dress codes were quite different from the Indian dress codes mainly
due to differences in their Cultural values and climatic and geographical conditions. These
differences sometimes led to misunderstanding, disputes and discards.
 Turban and hat: According to western traditions hat had to be removed before
social superiors as a sign of respect. But in India, the turban was not just for
protection from the heat, but it was a sign of respectability and could not be
removed at will. The British felt offended if the Indians did not take off their
turbans when they met British officials.
 Use of shoes: When the British became the masters of India, they insisted that
the natives should take off their shoes as a mark of respect to their British
officials. Many respectable Indians, especially government servants, felt
uncomfortable with such rules and regulations. One Manockjee Cowasjee Entee (a
Parsi), an assessor in the Surat Fouzdaree Adawlut, refused to take off his shoes
in the court of the session’s judge. This judge insisted that he must take off his
shoes but Manockjee remained adamant. He was barred entering into the
courtroom and he sent a letter of protest to the governor of Bombay.
 The British insisted that since Indians took off their shoes when they entered a
sacred place or home, they should do so when they entered the courtroom.
 This controversy lingered on for sometime. However, after a long dillydallying,
ultimately shoes were permitted into the courtroom.
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Q.
A.
What was ‘shoe respect’ rule? Name two governor-Generals who insisted on this rule.
(i) According to shoe respect rule it was insisted that Indian should take their shoes
of as a sign of respect before appearing in courts or in front of British officials.
(ii) Lord Dalhousie and Governor-General Amherst insisted on this rule.
8(E) Designing the National Dress
As nationalist feeling swept across India by the late nineteenth century, there was a
search for a national dress to define the cultural identity of the national in symbolic
ways.
8(E).1


8(E).2
Designing the National DressRabindranath Tagore suggested that India’s national dress should combine
elements of Hindu and Muslim dress. Thus the Chapkan was considered the
most suitable dress for men.
In 1870’s Inanadanandini Devi, wife of Satyendranth Tagore, adopted the Parsi
style of wearing the sari pinned to the left shoulder with a brooch and worn with
a blouse and shoes
Swadeshi Movement affected Clothing-
In 1905, Lord Curzon decided to partition Bengal. Swadeshi movement developed in
reaction to this measure. People urged to boycott British goods. The use of Khadi was
made a patriotic duty. Women were urged to throw away their silks bangles. Khadi
was glorified in songs poems to popularize it.
8(E).3
1
2
3
4
5
6
8(E).4
1
2
3
4
Q.
A.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Experiments with Clothing
As a boy from a Gujrati family, he wore a shirt with Dhoti or Pyjama.
When we went to London to study law, he dressed in a western suit.
In South Africa in 1890, he still wore western clothes.
In Durban in 1913, Gandhi first appeared in a lungi and Kurta with his head
shaven as a sign of mourning to protest against shooting of Indian coal miners.
In 1921 he adopt the short dhoti, the dress of poorest Indian.
Khadi was to him a sign of purity, of simplicity and of poverty. He felt Khadi,
would be a means of erasing differences between religions, classes etc.
He wore the short dhoti without shirt when went to England for the Round Table
conference in 1931.
There were many who did not wore Khadi
Motilal Nehru – Wore Indian dhoti and Kurta but not made of Khadi
Babasaheb Ambedkar- never gave up the western style suit
As Khadi was comparatively expensive, many women from Maharashtra couldn’t
afford nine yards long saree
Sarojini Naidu and Kamala Nehru wore coloured saris with designs
Give a brief account of the development of Swadeshi movement.
(i) In 1905 Lord Curzon, the Vicerory of India, decided to partition Bengal. The
Swadeshi movement development in reaction to this measure.
(ii) People were urged to boycott British goods of all kinds and start their own
industries for the manufacture of goods such as match –boxes and cigarettes.
(iii) Mass protests followed with people vowing to cleanse themselves of colonial rule.
(iv) The use of khadi was made a patriodic duty. Women were urged to throw away
their silks and glass bangles and wear simple shell bangles. Rough home spun
was glorified in songs and poems to popularize it.
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Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of clothing the nation in khadi appeal only to some
section of Indians?
To Gandhi, white and course khadi, was a sign of purity, simplicity and poverty.
Wearing khadi became a symbol of nationalism, a rejection of western mill-made
cloth. Gandhiji wanted to clothe the whole nation in khadi. But his idea couldn’t find
universal acceptance even in India, because of the following reasons:
 Some poor people couldn’t afford to buy costly khadi.
 Some people found it practically difficult to wear a loin cloth in a family or in a
society.
 Many Dalits began to wear three –piece suits and shoes and socks on all public
occasions, as a political statement of self-respect.
 Nationalists like Motilal Nehru adopted the Indian dhoti and Kurta. But these
were not made of coarse cloth.
 Persons deprived by caste norms were attracted to Western dress style. Babasahib
Ambedkar never gave up the Western-style suit.
 Sarojini Naidu and Kamla Nehru wore coloured saris with designs instead of
coarse, white home-spun. In short Gandhiji had an exceptional spiritual power. He
could do the impossible, but not the common man. However, his resolve to wear
khadi, gave the British government a nightmare and hurt it at its tender spot.
Explain the reasons for the changes in clothing patterns and materials in the
eighteenth century.
Before the 18th century, most people in Europe dressed according to their regional
codes, the types of clothes available in their region and the cost of material. Clothing
styles were also strictly regulated by class, gender or status in the social hierarchy.
After the 18th century dramatic changes in clothing pattern and materials took due to
the following reasons.
 The first change took place due to the colonization of Afro-Asian continents by the
European imperialist powers. The Europeans contact with the native people of
these continents, their different cloth styles and the materials they had a deep
impact on the clothing patterns and materials used by the Europeans.
 Spread of democratic ideals and idea cut across the various sections of society in
lords and common people, the rich and the poor, the high and the low. As a result
of which many restrictions imposed on dress styles were gone.
 As a result of Industrial Revolution, technological advances and new innovations,
new materials flooded the markets and new styles in clothing were developed
which brought changes in clothing patterns and materials.
Winston Churchill described Mahatma Gandhi as a ‘seditious Middle Temple Lawyer’
now ‘posing as a half naked fakir’.
Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England, was a man of racial arrogance. No
wonder, he passed such sarcastic and derogatory remarks about Gandhiji, who was a
new political messiah of millions of Indians. It was unbecoming of Churchill to
descend so low to tell the people that Gandhi was a seditious man because Gandhiji
has changed his dress and began to wear a loin cloth and a cotton chaddar to cover his
body. In fact, Churchill couldn’t gauge the inner strength of Gandhiji’s mind and
soul.
 Gandhiji, in fact, had devised a strategy to conquer a mighty foe without hurting
him. He never hated the English people but won them over by his inner strength.
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


Q.
A.
Gandhiji was a great patriot, a nationalist. He couldn’t bear the sad plight of his
countrymen, their poverty and hunger. So, to show his concern for these destitutes
he resolved to wear only the loin cloth and a simple chaddar. It was a symbol of
nationalism, a rejection of western mill-made clothes which were symbol of
exploitation.
Even he attended the Round table Conference in London in 1931, wearing short
dhoti without a shirt.
One the other hand, Winston Churchill had no inner eyes to discern a Mahatma, a
divine soul, an angle of peace, truth, and non-violence in Gandhi.
Suggest reasons why women in nineteenth century India were obliged to continue
wearing traditional Indian dress even when men switched over to the more
convenient Western clothing. What does this show about the position of women in
society?
There is no doubt that women in the 19th century India were obliged to continue
wearing traditional Indian dress even when men switched over to more convenient
Western clothing. It was simply due to the following reasons:
 During the 19th century, most of the Indian women were still confined to the fourwalls of their houses. SO they continued their traditional dress styles.
 Their dress was suitable to the domestic chores and was comfortable. Hence there
was no necessity to change it.
 The caste constrains also restricted them to adopt any new style in their dress.
 Most of the Indian women were not going for any outdoor job, they were not
attending the office. Hence, there was no need of two sets of clothing-one for the
office and the other for the domestic chores.
 Indian women were epitome of kindness, docile and self-sacrifice. So they didn’t
ask for new styles of cloth which could have imbalanced the family budget.
 But the men switched over to the more convenient Western clothing. Moreover,
men switched over to the western dress to please and win the favour of their new
British masters.
 The Parsi businessmen were the first to adopt western clothes because they
considered them mark of modernity and progress.
 For the new converts to Christianity the Western clothes were more liberating.
 Some men resolved this dilemma by wearing western clothes for work outside the
home and changed into more comfortable Indian clothes at home.
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