Download Fold Mountains

Exam tips
• Pen (spare)
• Pencil
• Sharpener / rubber
Spellings
Environment
Volcano / Volcanoes
Erosion
Desert
Deciduous
Don’t forget
Look out for questions without lines to write – you may have to draw on maps
/graphs!
Examiners cannot take marks off you – always answer the Q!!
GEOGRAPHY
UNIT 1
• Restless Earth
• Living World
• Water On the Land
UNIT 2
• Population Change
• Changing Urban
Environments
• Tourism
Three questions!
• Restless Earth
• Living World
• Water on the land
Destructive? Constructive? Conservative?
Describe the distribution of Volcanoes
Convection currents in the mantle
drive the plates to move!!
DESTRUCTIVE
CONSTRUCTIVE
CONSERVATIVE
Oceanic plate moves
towards continental plate
Two oceanic plates
separate
Oceanic plate subducts
beneath the continental
plate (as it is denser and
more flexible). An ocean
trench is formed.
The two plates separate
leaving a gap between
them.
Two plates move besides
each other (opposite
direction or one faster than
the other.
Friction builds up between
the two plates and causes
earthquakes.
The oceanic plate melts in
the mantle and pressure
increases. This is released
as a volcanic eruption
(composite volcano)
Magma rises from the
mantle and makes its way
between the plates.
This comes out as lava as is
runny so forms a wide
volcanic cone
(constructive)
Pressure builds up
between the two plates as
they attempt to move.
Eventually the plates jolt
forwards as they move and
the friction between the
plates is released as a
strong seismic wave
(earthquake).
Destructive
• Convection
currents
• Move together
• Subducted
• Friction =
earthquake
• Melted plate =
pressure = volcano
Constructive
•
•
•
•
Convection currents
Plates move apart
Magma rises
Lava spreads out at
surface
• Creates a shield
volcano
Conservative
• Convection currents
• Plates move
alongside each
other
• Friction causes
pressure to build up
• As plates jolt
pressure is released
as seismic waves =
earthquake
Volcanoes
Mt St Helens
Location /
causes
The oceanic Juan de Fuca plate subducts beneath the continental
North American plate. (DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGIN)
Size
8:32am 18 May 1980: an earthquake caused a landslide which released the pressure inside the
volcano.
Effects
57 people died (one of them a volcanologist)
Airports were closed.
Emergency treatment was given in nearby towns to the people
rescued.
185 miles of roads, 15 miles of railway and 27 bridges were
destroyed.
Tourism increased to the area (3 million per year)
Responses
Emergency treatment was given in nearby towns to the people
rescued.
Helicopters were used to search for and rescue people close to the
eruption.
Forest in the area began to be replanted.
The area became a National Park in 1982 and now attracts 3 million
visitors per year.
Monitoring and Predicting Volcanoes
•
•
•
•
•
Tiltmeters
Think about how
you know you
Gas Sensors
have a tummy
upset! 
GPS
Seismographs
Thermometers (ground and water
temperatures)
• Animal behaviour
Formation of a supervolcano
Think of a big
spot!
Supervolcano – Yellowstone, USA
Size / Shape
• 1000km3
Effects
• The magma chamber
beneath Yellowstone is
believed to be 80km long,
40km wide and 8km deep
•
• Caldera – large depression
surrounded by a raised rim
An eruption today would have a catastrophic effect.
It is potentially five times the minimum size for a
supervolcanic eruption by the size of the magma
chamber.
•
An eruption is likely to destroy 10,000 km2 of
land and kill 87000 people. 1 in 3 people will be
killed within 1000km of an eruption. 15cm of
ash would cover buildings within this area and
make them collapse. This ash would ground
planes and make road transport difficult.
Livestock would die as they would choke in the
hot ash.
UK would see the arrival of the ash about 5 days
later. This ash will circle the Earth, changing the
climate. Temperatures will fall by over 10
degrees which will make it difficult to grow food
in many areas. 40% of the population could face
starvation. Certain parts of northern Europe will
be snow covered for 3 years, so no food will be
able to be grown.
Fold Mountains
Fold Mountains
Challenges:
Steep Relief – Use of chairlifts to travel up slopes and get fresh
produce (milk) from farms down to market. Use of steep slopes
for tourism e.g. skiing.
Poor Soils – Use of fertilisers and farming on flat valley floor
Limited Communications – New roads, railway lines (on flat valley
floors) and tunnels e.g. Mont Blanc and St. Bernard tunnels.
Uses
HEP – generates energy for local villages (ideal snow melt in
summer provides water, easy to build dam across valley)
Farming - Transhumance farming
Tourism – Winter (skiing) Summer (mountain biking / hiking)
Industries – saw mills (wood), electrochemical, mining
Geosyncline
Sedimentary
rock – sandstone
Compressed to
form fold
mountains e.g.
Alps
Describing the distribution of ocean
trenches and fold mountains
Edge of oceans – Pacific
Ocean
Where continental and
oceanic plates meet
Fold mountains – west coast
of North and South America
** use names
Earthquakes
Keywords:
Focus
Epicentre
Seismic wave
How we measure earthquakes
What are the
differences?
Monitoring and Predicting
Earthquakes
• Three Ps
Prediction – attempts to
forecast when it will happen
Protection – construction of
buildings so they are safe and
will not collapse
Preparation – organising
activities and drills so people
know what to do in the event
of and earthquake
MEDC
LEDC
Location
Kobe Earthquake 1995
Sichuan Earthquake, China 2008
Effects
Immediate
Deaths = 6500
Injuries = 40,000
Roads were at gridlock, delaying emergency services.
Houses completely destroyed = 180,000. Homeless = 300,000
Industries like Mitsubishi and Panasonic were forced to close.
Long-term
Fires raged for days destroying 7500 houses (many of them wooden
Hanshin expressway and bridges collapsed.
High speed bullet trains were derailed as the rails buckled
Immediate
Death toll was 69 000 two months after the earthquake.
* 900 students trapped in collapsed school. Parents angry
about the cheap building materials used.
* At least 374 000 were injured.
Chemical plants collapsed, killing hundreds and spilling toxic
ammonia.
Long-term
* 80% of buildings collapsed in rural Beichuan which was
near the epicentre.
* Communications were cut – no land or mobile phones
worked in Wenchuan.
• Rivers were blocked by landslides and there was fear they
may flood.
• At least 5 million (some say 11 million) were made
homeless
Responses
Immediate
Immediate
Motorola maintained telephone connections for free.
Major retailers like 7-Eleven helped provide essentials.
Friends and neighbours searched through the rubble, joined by
emergency services when access was possible.
Evacuate people into temporary shelters because they were still at risk
from many fires and unstable buildings.
20 helicopters used for relief and rescue operations. One
million temporary small homes to be built to house those
made homeless.
Long-term
• Rescue services are specially trained and the whole country practices
responding to an earthquake on 12th January, the anniversary of the
Kobe earthquake, in an Earthquake Preparation Day.
• High rise buildings had to have flexible steel frames.
• Increase in the number of seismic instruments use to record earth
movements.
• New buildings were built further apart to prevent the domino effect.
Long-term
Troops were parachuted in to assess the situation while
others hiked in on foot.
The Chinese government pledged $10 million for rebuilding.
Areas of land flattened to make room for the 3.3 million
tents used for emergency shelter.
Tsunami
Tsunami
• The Indo Australian plate subducts beneath
the Eurasian plate causing an earthquake.
• The earthquake displaces the column of
water above it upwards.
• The water that has gone up comes down and
splits into two waves. One wave travels out
to sea and the other wave travels towards
the coastal areas of south-east Asia.
• The wave reaches the shoreline and gains
height before it crashes onto the land.
Primary cause = the earthquake
Secondary cause = the Tsunami wave
Tsunami – Indian Ocean, Boxing Day,
2004
Tsunami
Immediate Effects
Deaths: 220 000
Serious injuries: 650 000
4500 fishing boats destroyed in India
Fresh water reservoirs unusable for drinking water.
Bodies littered the streets
Injured people wounds became infected
Long-term Effects
2 million homeless
1500 homes in Banda Aceh (city in Indonesia) completely destroyed. Only one mosque left standing.
Loss of tourism and fishing economies in Indonesia, Thailand and India.
Immediate Responses
Food, sheeting and tents sent by MEDCs.
Fresh water and water purification tablets sent from the international community.
Medical teams sent from MEDCs.
Mass graves had to be set up
Long-term Responses
Rebuilding of homes and businesses, especially in tourist resorts like Phuket in Thailand.
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System set up in 2006 so people have warning and know how to
respond if it happens again.
Living World
Ecosystem
• A community of living (animals and
vegetation) and non living components (soil
and climate) and the relationships that exist
between them
Climate
Animals
Soil
Vegetation
Producer – organisms that
obtain their energy from a
primary source such as the
sun
Consumer – organisms that
obtain their energy by eating
other organisms
Food Chain – a line of links
between producers and
consumers
Food Web – a diagram
showing the complex links
between producers and
consumers
Do you know the difference?
Decomposer
• Organisms such as bacteria that break down
plant and animal material.
Scavenger
Organisms that consume dead animals or plants
Biome
•
•
•
•
Micro
Meso
Macro
Biome – global scale ecosystem dominated by
climate e.g. Tropical Rainforest.
Location /Distribution
• Tropical Rainforests – along the equator (Between the tropic of Cancer
and Capricorn)
• Deserts – 15-30 degrees North and South
• Temperate Deciduous Forests 40-60 degrees North and south
Biome Case studies
Name
Tropical
Rainforest
Rich Desert
Poor Desert
Deciduous
Woodland
Borneo,
Malaysia
Sonoran
Desert, USA
That Desert,
India
Epping Forest,
Essex, UK
Climates and Soils
Biome
Tropical Rainforest
Desert
Deciduous Forest
Temperature
Average daily temp
of 28 degrees C
(never goes below
20)
Daytime
temperatures can
be above 40
degrees C
Can be very cold at
night
Summers warm –
winters cool
Precipitation (rain)
2000mm of rain per
year
Humid
No real seasons
Very dry (arid) Less Throughout the
than 250mm of rain year
per year
Continental Interior
(torrential
downpour)
Soils
Latosol
Fertile Humus layer
Leaching
Red/Iron Rich
Rocky and Sandy
Thin – can have a
crust
Salts deposited
near the surface
Brown Earth
Fertility comes from
leaves which fall in
the winter rotting
Climate graphs
If you have to describe them include numbers!
• Highest
• Lowest
• Seasons
Stratified
• Vegetation growing in layers
Tropical Rainforest
Deciduous Woodland
Vegetation Adaptations
Adaptation feature
RAINFORESTS:
Buttress roots
Drip tips
Thin, smooth bark
Lianas
Epiphytes
Leaves with flexible bases
DESERTS:
Thick waxy skin
Spikes
Fleshy stem
Long shallow roots
Slow growing plants
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS:
Losing leaves in Autumn
Bluebells flowering in early Spring
Explanation of how it helps the vegetation to cope with the climate
Tropical Rainforest
Causes and impacts of deforestion
Cause of
deforestation in
Malaysia
Detail about the cause
An impact of this cause of Economic, social or
deforestation
environmental impact?
Commercial
Logging
Clear felling was common in the 1980s.
Deforestation threatens the
survival of many species,
including the orang-utan
A local Penan community protested
against a logging company and were
imprisoned.
Malaysia was the biggest exporter of
tropical woods and so made a lot of
money.
Energy
$2bn Bakun Dam project flooded thousands
of hectares of forest to provide hydroelectric
power for new industries.
Mining
For tin and drilling for oil and gas. Forest has
been cleared for operations and construction of
roads.
Commercial
plantations
Forest was cleared for rubber plantations
and, in the 1970s, for oil palm. 10 year tax
breaks for owners has led to more forest
being converted to plantations.
9000 Kenyah people have been forced
to move from the flooded area. They
are traditional subsistence farmers
(farm enough to eat but not sell) but
are being asked to pay to be rehoused.
Many suffer from depression and
alcoholism.
Land and rivers have been
polluted by mining chemicals and
affected local food chains.
Malaysia was the largest exporter of
palm oil in the world and so made a lot
of money.
Sustainable management in the Tropical Rainforest
Name of strategy
International or national?
Selective Management
System (SMS)
Tree is removed from forest by water buffalo rather than a lorry.
Fully grown trees are selected.
Arrows painted on trees to show which direction it should be felled (cut down)
Replacement tree is planted.
Permanent Forest Estates
Areas of forest are protected – no development or conversion to plantations is allowed.
10% has special conservation status
Forest Stewardship Council
Educates people to buy soft, fast growing wood like pine rather than hard, slow growing
wood like mahogany.
Educates manufacturers and consumers (buyers) to buy wood only from sustainable sources
(all their products have the FSC label on)
Ecotourism
Borneo – swiftlet nest caves (one used by swiftlets, one harvested for their nests to sell, one
shown off to tourists)
Borneo – turtles (used to eat them, now have a hatchery to show tourists
who then set them free into the oceans)
Tourism that focuses on
protecting the environment
and the local way of life.
Debt relief
LEDCs are paid money by MEDCs to make sure their rainforests are not cut down
Deciduous Woodland
Recreation –
interpreting a map
• Use the key to suggest
recreational activities
that may take place in
this ecosystem
Sustainable management in Deciduous Woodland (Epping Forest – Essex)
Management strategy:
What makes this management option sustainable? (How
does it allow us to use the forest today whilst ensuring that
future generations will also be able to benefit from the
forest? )
Pollarding of over 1000 ancient
trees.
Cutting trees at shoulder height (above the level of grazing
animals). Trees reshoot new branches.
1600 ha of forest is a Site of Special This offers protection under law to the forests large number
Scientific Interest.
of ancient trees which support a large number of animals and
other vegetation.
Old trees.
Are allowed to die and collapse naturally unless they are
dangerous.
Recreation.
Riding and mountain biking are restricted in places and
footpaths are maintained to a good standard.
Deserts
Economic opportunities, challenges and management MEDC/RICH DESERT
SONORAN DESERT, USA
Sonoran Desert, USA
Economic opportunity (employment)
Families migrated to the Phoenix Farms grow wheat, barley, pecan nuts
and Tucson to work on the huge
and durum wheat which is exported
farms, mainly growing cotton which
to Italy to make pasta.
uses a lot of water.
In 2007, Marana began hosting golf’s
PGA Matchplay Championship
Retirement migration has meant lots
of new housing complexes have had
to be built for older migrants.
The open space and clean
atmosphere are very attractive to
holidaymakers.
In the mid-19th century ranching and
mining were the big industries.
Challenge (problems)
Management (response)
Habitats that rely on rivers are
disappearing as the rivers dry up.
Spare water from the CAP is being
sent to refill aquifers (underground
lakes).
The water table has dropped by
nearly 3 metres in some places.
Water is being pumped out of
aquifers (underground lakes) faster
than they can be refilled.
Conservation – farms are being shut
down so water can be used in the
cities.
Lakes with water from Salt River are
Central Arizona Project (CAP) is a
the main supply of water but can only
network of canals that transports
provide enough for half of the city’s water from the Colorado River to the
demand.
cities of Phoenix and Tucson.
The water table dropping has led to
land the size of North Yorkshire
subsiding (sinking) which causes
problems for buildings and roads.
The water table has dropped which
means getting water from the ground
has become more expensive and the
water quality has dropped
Waste water is being used for jobs
that don’t need a high level of purity.
Endangered Species Act – used to
prevent developers from building
more buildings which will need more
water for its residents
A heritage park that celebrates the
town’s agricultural past attracts
tourists throughout the year.
.
Economic opportunities, challenges and management LEDC/POOR DESERT
THAR DESERT, INDIA
Thar Desert, India
Economic opportunity (employment)
Challenge (problems)
Thar Desert is the most densely
Most farmers keep a few animals on
Too much irrigation (watering) has
populated desert in the world (83
the grassy areas and cultivate
led to waterlogging in some areas.
people per km2). This is leading to
vegetables and fruit trees so they
Salts get deposited on the ground
overgrazing and over cultivation
have some crops to sell at local
surface and poison the plants.
(farming) which leads to soil erosion.
markets
Too much demand for water in some
Once eroded away the soil takes
The
Kohlis
tribe
survive
by
hunting
places has caused an unsustainable
thousands of years to re-form.
animals and gathering fruit and
fall in the water tables (it cannot
natural products such as honey.
continue forever).
Limestone is quarried in Jaisalmer
and used in the steel industry.
Sand dunes are unstable and can
move across farmland, roads and
waterways.
Management (response)
Prosopis cineraria tree has multiple
uses: a) planted in blocks to stabilise
sand dunes and stop them moving, b)
its pods provide food for animals, c)
wood can be used as a strong building
material and good quality firewood.
Reserves of firewood, their main
source of fuel, is reducing so people
are using manure as fuel rather than
using manure to fertilise the soil.
The 650km long Indira Gandhi Canal
Rajasthan is rich in minerals and the
was built in 1958. It provides drinking
following are mined: gypsum (makes Rainfall is very low (120-240mm per water for many people in the desert
cement), phospherite (makes
year) and temperatures are very high and means that commercial farming
fertiliser), kaolin (whitens paper) and
(53˚c) which makes commercial
of wheat and cotton (selling these for
feldspar (makes ceramics)
farming (farming to make a profit)
a profit) occurs in the Jodhpur and
very difficult.
Jaisalmer.
People make a living selling hide and
wool from livestock (animals).
Trees and fences are built alongside
roads and canals to block the
Most people are involved with
movement of sand dunes across
subsistence farming (producing
them.
enough food for farmer and family to
live off)
Thar Desert National Park has been
created to protect 3000 km2 of
desert vegetation and wildlife.
Local people act as guides on camel
safaris or rear/look after the camels.
The Ber Tree produces large plums
and can survive in low rainfall
conditions. The plums can then be
sold for a decent profit.
Sustainable Management
• Protected for future generations
Describe the strategy but also link this to how
this leads to protecting the environment for
future generations to use
Water on the land
EROSION
TRANSPORTATION
DEPOSITION
Wearing away of the land
due to high energy
Movement of material
downstream after it ahs
been eroded
Low Energy – dropping of
material being transported.
Hydraulic Action
Abrasion
Attrition
Corrosion
Traction
Saltation
Suspension
Solution
River
Profile
Landforms ‘V-shaped Valley’
Vertical erosion
Weathering
V shaped Valley
Landforms ‘Waterfall’
•
•
•
•
•
Resistant and less resistant rock
Soft rock is eroded by (describe processes)
Undercuts hard rock
Hard rock collapses into plunge pool
Forms a steep sided gorge
Landforms ‘Meander and Oxbow Lake’
Lateral erosion on the outside of the bend because of
Hydraulic action… (describe erosion processes)
Deposition on the inside of the bend where there is less
energy.
Neck narrows over time
Flood event / high discharge breaks through neck
Forms an Oxbow lake
Cross Section
Make sure you label the inside and outside!
Landforms ‘Floodplain’
Meander erodes
a flat valley floor
either side of the
river channel.
Deposits alluvial
sediments –
larger near river
channel
Leaves layers of
flat fertile land
with raised levees
either side of
channel
Flooding
•
•
•
•
•
Discharge
Lag time
Interception
Infiltration
Percolation
• Permeable/impermeable
Discharge:
Frequency and location of flooding in
the UK
•
•
•
•
More frequent
March 1947 – Major floods
January 1953
1968 – Great Flood (South East England)
• Gap
• 1998 onwards – annual occurrence
Flooding – MEDC/RICH
• Boscastle 2004
Physical Causes (Natural)
Human Causes (People)
Confluence of 2 rivers (Valency and Jordan)
Small drainage basin.
Heavy rain saturated the moors.
Urbanisation of steep sided valley.
Bridges were built.
Clearing of vegetation in valley so tourists could
see the views.
River Jordan passes through 100m underground
culvert.
Immediate effects
Long-term Effect
60 cars swept out to sea
1 person with a broken finger.
Belongings lost
People/tourists could not return to their homes
Tourist information centre damaged
80 buildings damaged and 3 houses destroyed.
25 businesses damaged (e.g. Harbour restaurant)
so loss of tourist income
Tourism number fell in following year
£10million damage caused
Some areas of the town improved after repairs
Immediate Responses
Long-term responses
Search and rescue used boats to reach people.
150 people airlifted to safety by helicopter.
Homeless moved overnight to Camelford town
hall.
Yellow marks on vehicles and buildings checked.
Food and water donated
£800 000 flood defence scheme completed 2005.
New bigger culvert built on River Jordan that can
carry at least twice the floodwater of the old one.
Wide bridge installed and old Victorian bridge
Flooding – LEDC/POOR
• Bangladesh 2004
Physical Causes (Natural)
Human Causes (People)
70% of the land area is less than a metre above sea
level.
Heavy monsoon rains – 350mm in 24 hours.
Snow melt from the Himalayas.
Huge population growth leads to mass deforestation.
Deforestation leads to soil erosion which causes the bed
of the River Brahmaputra to rise by 5cm per year.
Immediate effects
Long-term Effect
30 million people homeless.
760 people killed.
60% of the country flooded
Mud and raw sewage spead
$7 Billion dollars damage to schools and hospitals
Rice growing and fish farming disrupted.
More than 1m children suffered malnutrition and
disease.
Immediate Responses
Long-term responses
Heavy reliance on emergency aid from UN, charities and
MEDC governments.
WaterAid (NGO) supplied water purification tablets and
posters highlighting the hygiene risk in flood water.
Flood shelters have been built – areas of raised land
where people can move with their cattle and have
access to dried food and clean water.
Super ducks (eggs)/fish farming / growing pumpkins
NGOs gave out food, blankets, medicines
Differences between rich and poor
• Effects
• Responses
Flood Prevention
Hard Engineering
Soft Engineering
Description
This strategy involves the
use of technology in order
to control rivers. It is
expensive and needs to be
maintained.
This option works with the
natural river and avoids
building in areas likely to
flood. It is usually cheaper
and has less of a negative
environmental impact
Examples
Dams
Reservoirs
Raised levees
Dredging rivers
Straighten channels
Building concrete walls
Warning systems
Planting more trees in the
drainage basin
Land use zoning
Preparation
Do nothing (let nature take
its toll)
Case studies – Hard Engineering. China, Three Gorges Dam
How it controls floods
Water fills the area behind the dam and is released during low rainfall times and held back during high rainfall times.
Benefits (positives)
Economic
The dam will protect over 15 million people
living in high risk flood areas from flooding
events.
Social
Environmental
The dam will protect the flooding of over China will use less coal because of using
25 000 hectares of farmland.
HEP so reduce its greenhouse gas
emissions.
China gets 10% of its electricity from the Hydro
Electric Power stations on the dam.
Thousands of jobs created because of the
building and maintenance of the dam and HEP
scheme.
Costs (negatives)
Economic
Cost $25.5 billion.
Areas downstream will not get the fertile
sediment from the river which will affect
farming.
The Yangtse used to carry over 500m tonnes of
silt every year, 50% of which now silts up
behind the dam, reducing the storage capacity
of the reservoir and making it less effective. It
is costly to fix this problem
Social
1.4 million people were forcibly removed
from their homes to make way for the
dam, reservoir and power stations.
Over 150 towns and 4500 villages were
flooded.
Environmental
The natural flow of water in the River
Yangtse is prevented by the dam (a
concrete barrier across a valley) built at
Yichang.
Water in the reservoir is becoming
heavily polluted from ships and toxic
waste from factories, mines and waste
tips.
Soft engineering
Environment agency Flood Warning systems
Send texts direct to registered users
Flood watch and then flood warning
Website
Information about how to prepare for a flood.
Flood Transfer Scheme
• Water Surplus
• Water Stress
• Water deficit
Details
Storage
Transfer
Positives
Negatives
Kielder water
Northumberland
Scottish border
Reservoir/Da
m
River Tyne and
Wear
No droughts
Used for
recreation
Job
opportunities
Cost £80 million
Flooded
farmland
Could spread
diseases
between rivers
13km pipeline
to link lower
Tees and River
Ouse
Case study = Kielder Water in
Northumberland
Social effects of Kielder Water
Economic effects of Kielder Water
Environmental effects of Kielder Water
Farming communities were displaced
(forced to move)
Water and land based activities attract ¼
million visitors each year.
Flooded an area of Outstanding Natural
Beauty.
Created jobs in the water industry, tourism
and forestry as previously there were only
farming jobs available.
1.5 million trees were deforested to make
way for the lake.
It is a multipurpose scheme – used for
water supply, flood control, tourism and
forestry
The dam water generates HEP to supply
homes and industry in the region.
No problem of water shortage in NE
England so industries do not suffer.
MAP SKILLS
Maps
• Choropleth
• Topological
• Physical
Compass rose
How can we remember the points of the compass?
‘Never eat shredded wheat!’
Now think of your own slogan.
4-figure grid references
6-figure grid references
6-figure grid references
Scale