Download CARBOHYDRATES

LECTURE'1,2,3:'CARBOHYDRATES'
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Chapter(4(–(The(carbohydrates:(Sugars,(Starches(+(Fibres(
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The'chemist’s'view'of'carbohydrates!
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Carbohydrates!are!made!of!C,!H!+!O!atoms.!
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These!atoms!form!chemical!bonds!to!form!monosaccharide!sugar!molecules.!
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Monosaccharides!(basic!unit!of!sugar)!can!join!together!to!form!larger!polymeric!molecules!
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Disaccharides!(2!units),!trisaccharides!(3!units)!
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Oligosaccharides!(4D20!units)!
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Polysaccharides!(>20!units)!
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All!these!make!up!the!carbohydrates!
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The'simple'carbohydrates!
Simple!carbohydrates!refers!to!monosaccharides,!disaccharides!+!trisaccharides.!
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Monosaccharides!are!single!sugars.!
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Most!are!hexoses!(6DC!sugar!ring).!
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Glucose!(blood(sugar(or(dextrose)!–!serves!as!the!essential!energy!source.!
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Fructose!–!sweetest,!occurs!naturally!in!honey!and!fruits,!added!to!many!foods!in!the!form!of!highDfructose!
corn!syrup.!
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Galactose!–!rarely!occurs!naturally!as!a!single!sugar.!!
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D'+'L'Sugars'
D!+!L!nomenclature!are!based!on!the!stereo!specific!structure!of!glyceraldehyde.!
They!are!different!chemical!compounds!+!have!different!physical!properties.!
D=sugars!are!the!naturally!occurring,!more!common!type.!
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Haworth'Projections!
Glucose!!
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Glucose!=!hexose!+!DDaldosugar!
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CHO(=(aldehyde(group;(hence(the(“aldo”sugar(name(
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6!atom!ring!sugars!are!pyranose.!
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Fructose!
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Fructose!=!hexose!+!DDketosugar!
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5!atom!ring!sugars!are!furanose.!
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The'simple'carbohydrates!
Disaccharides!are!pairs!of!monoscacharides,!one!of!which!is!always!glucose.!
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Condensation!reactions!link!monosaccharides!together.!
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Hydrolysis!reactions!split!molecules!+!commonly!occur!during!digestion.!
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Maltose!consists!of!2!glucose!units.!It!is!produced!during!the!germination!of!seeds!+!fermentation.!
Sucrose!is!fructose!+!glucose!combined.!It!is!refined!from!sugarcane!+!sugar!beets,!tastes!sweet,!readily!available.!
Lactose!is!galactose!+!glucose!combined.!It!is!found!in!milk!+!milk!products.!
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Lactose!
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~5D8%!in!human!milk,!4D5%!in!cow’s!milk!
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1!unit!of!DDgalactose!+!1!unit!of!DDglucose!joined!by!a!βD1,4Dglycosidic!bond!
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βDDDgalactopyrannosylD(1D4)DDDglucopyranose!
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Lactose!intolerance:!lacking!βDgalactosidase!
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Sucrose!
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Table!sugar!–!from!juice!of!sugar!cane!+!sugar!beet!
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1!unit!of!αDDDglucose!+!1!unit!of!βDDDfructose!joined!by!an!αD1,2Dglycosidic!bond!
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αDDDglucopyrannosylD(1D2)DβDDDfructofuranose!
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How(sweet(the(sugar?(
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The'complex'carbohydrates'
Few!(oligosaccharides)!or!many!(polysaccharides)!glucose!units!linked!together!in!branched!or!unbranched!chains.!
The!polymer!chain!may!be!straight,!helical,!coil!or!random.!
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Glycogen!
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Storage!form!of!glucose!in!the!body!
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Provides!a!rapid!release!of!energy!when!needed!
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Starches!
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Storage!form!of!glucose!in!plants!
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Found!in!grains,!tuber!+!legumes!
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Dietary!Fibre!
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These!are!nonDstarch!polysaccharides!that!provide!structure!in!plants.!
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Very!diverse!structures!+!cannot!be!broken!down!by!human!enzymes.!
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Soluble(fibres!are!viscous!+!can!be!digested!by!intestinal!bacteria!(this!property!is!known!as!
fermentability)!–!these!fibres!are!found!in!fruits!+!veges.!
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Insoluble(fibres!are!nonDviscous!+!are!not!digested!by!intestinal!bacteria!–!these!fibres!are!found!in!
grains!+!veges.!!
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Fibre!sources!
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Dietary!fibre!is!found!in!plant!foods.!
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Functional!fibres!are!healthDbenefiting!fibres!that!are!added!to!foods!or!supplements.!
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Total!fibre!considers!both!dietary!+!functional!fibres.!
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Resistant!starches!escape!digestion!+!are!found!in!legumes,!raw!potatoes!+!unripe!bananas.!
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Phytic!acid!(phytate)!has!a!close!association!with!fibre!+!binds!some!minerals.!
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Digestion'and'absorption'of'carbohydrates'
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Carbohydrate'digestion'
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In!the!mouth,!the!salivary!enzyme!amylase!begins!to!hydrolyse!starch!into!short!polysaccharides!+!maltose.!
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In!the!stomach,!acid!continues!to!hydrolyse!starch!while!dietary!fibre!delays!gastric!emptying!+!provides!a!
feeling!of!fullness!(satiety).!
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In!the!small!intestine,!pancreatic(α=amylase!among!other!enzymes!(maltase,(sucrose,(lactase)!hydrolyses!
starches!to!disaccharides!+!monosaccharides.!**where(the(real(starch(digestion(occurs!
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In!the!large!intestine,!dietary!fibre!remains!and!attract!water,!soften!stools!+!ferment.!
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Carbohydrate'Absorption'
Primarily!takes!place!in!the!small!intestine:!
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Glucose!+!galactose!are!absorbed!by!active(transport.!
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Fructose!(and!water)!is!absorbed!by!facilitated(diffusion.!
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Monosaccharides,!the!end!products!of!carbohydrate!digestion,!enter!the!capillaries!of!the!intestinal!villi.!
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Monosaccharides!travel!to!the!liver!via!the!portal!vein.!
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In!the!liver,!galactose!+!fructose!are!converted!to!glucose.!
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Lactose'intolerance'
Symptoms:!!
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Bloating!
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Abdominal!discomfort!
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Diarrhoea!
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Causes:!lactase!deficiency!due!to!a!natural!decrease!that!occurs!with!aging!or!damaged!intestinal!villi.!
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Prevalence!
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Lowest!in!Scandinavians!+!northern!Europeans.!
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Highest!in!Southeast!Asians!+!native!North!Americans.!
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Dietary!changes!
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Increase!consumption!of!milk!products!gradually.!
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Mix!dairy!with!other!foods.!
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Spread!dairy!intake!throughout!the!day.!
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Use!of!acidophilus!milk,!yoghurt!+!other!fermented!products.!
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Use!of!enzymes.!
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Individualization!of!diets.!
Must!be!careful!that!vitamin!+!mineral!deficiencies!do!not!develop.!
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A'preview'of'carbohydrate'metabolism!
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The!body!stores!glucose!as!glycogen!in!liver!+!muscle!cells.!
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The!body!uses!glucose!for!energy!if!glycogen!stores!are!available.!
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If!glycogen!stores!are!depleted,!the!body!makes!glucose!from!protein.!
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Gluconeogenesis!is!the!conversion!of!protein!to!glucose.(
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ProteinDsparing!action!is!having!adequate!carbohydrate!in!the!diet!to!prevent!the!breakdown!of!
protein!for!energy.(
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Ketone!bodies!are!derived!from!fat!fragments.!
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The!accumulation!of!ketone!bodies!in!the!blood!is!called!ketosis.(
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Ketosis!upsets!the!acidDbase!balance!in!the!body.(
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The!body!can!use!glucose!to!make!body!fat!when!carbohydrates!are!consumed!excessively.!
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The'constancy'of'blood'glucose!–!maintaining'glucose'homeostasis!
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Low!blood!glucose!may!cause!dizziness!+!weakness!–!hypoglycemia!
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High!blood!glucose!may!cause!fatigue!–!hyperglycemia!(much!worse)!
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Extreme!fluctuations!can!be!fatal.!
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The!regulating!hormones!
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Insulin!–!moves!glucose!into!the!cells!+!helps!to!lower!blood!sugar!levels!
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Glucagon!–!brings!glucose!out!of!storage!+!raises!blood!sugar!levels!
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Epinephrine!–!acts!quickly!to!bring!glucose!out!of!storage!during!times!of!stress!
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Balance!glucose!within!the!normal!range!by!eating!balanced!meals!regularly!with!adequate!complex!carbohydrates.!
Blood!glucose!can!fall!outside!the!normal!range!with!hypoglycemia!or!diabetes.!
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When!a!person!eats,!blood!glucose!rises.!
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High!blood!glucose!stimulates!the!pancreas!to!release!insulin.!
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Insulin!stimulates!the!uptake!of!glucose!into!cells!and!storage!as!glycogen!in!the!liver!+!muscles.!!
Insulin!also!stimulates!the!conversion!of!excess!glucose!into!fat!for!storage.!
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As!the!body’s!cells!use!glucose,!blood!levels!decline.!
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Low!blood!glucose!stimulates!the!pancreas!to!release!glucagon!into!the!bloodstream.!
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Glucagon!stimulates!liver!cells!to!break!down!glycogen!+!release!glucose!into!the!blood.!
The(stress(hormone(epinephrine(+(other(hormones(also(bring(glucose(out(of(storage.(
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Blood!glucose!begins!to!rise.!
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Diabetes'
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Type(1(diabetes!–!less!common!type!with!no!insulin!produced!by!the!body!
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Type(2(diabetes!–!more!common!type!where!fat!cells!resist!insulin!(decrease!in!insulin!sensitivity)!
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Prediabetes!–!blood!glucose!that!is!higher!than!normal!but!below!the!diagnosis!of!diabetes!
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Hypoglycemia!is!low!blood!glucose!+!can!often!be!controlled!by!dietary!changes.!
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Glycaemic'response!!
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Glycaemic(response!is!how!quickly!the!blood!glucose!rises!+!elicits!an!insulin!response.!
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Glycaemic(index!classifies!foods!according!to!their!potential!for!raising!blood!glucose.!
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Glycaemic(load!refers!to!a!food’s!glycaemic!index!+!the!amount!of!carbohydrate!the!food!contains.!
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How!GI!is!determined!for!a!food?!
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Feeds!10!or!more!healthy!people!a!food!containing!50g!carbohydrate.!
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Measures!blood!glucose!levels!over!the!next!2!hours!(area!under!curve!of!graph!of!blood!glucose!vs!time)!
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Normal!graph!shows!blood!glucose!rising!rapidly!and!then!dropping!due!to!body!secreting!insulin.!
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Repeat!feeding!with!50g!glucose!
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GI!=!glucose!(AUC)!/!food!(AUC)!
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Health'effects'+'recommended'intakes'of'sugars!
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Sugar!poses!no!major!health!problems!except!dental!caries.!
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Excessive!intakes!may!displace!nutrients!+!contribute!to!obesity.!
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Consuming!foods!with!added!sugars!should!be!limited.!
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Naturally!occurring!sugars!from!fruits,!veges!+!milk!are!acceptable!sources.!
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Health!effects!of!sugars!
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Foods!with!added!sugars!have!sugars!listed!as!a!first!ingredient.!
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Nutrient!deficiencies!may!develop!from!the!intake!of!empty!energy.!
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Just!because!a!substance!is!natural!doesn’t!mean!it!is!nutritious!(eg.!honey)!
Dental!caries!may!be!caused!by!bacteria!residing!in!dental!plaque!+!the!length!of!time!sugars!have!contact!with!
the!teeth.!
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Controversies!surrounding!sugars!
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Excessive!sugar!intake!can!contribute!to!the!development!of!body!fat.!
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Sugar!may!be!able!to!alter!blood!lipid!levels!+!contribute!to!heart!disease!in!some.!
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There!is!no!scientific!evidence!that!sugar!causes!misbehavior!in!children!+!criminal!behavior!in!adults.!
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There!is!a!theory!that!sugar!increases!serotonin(levels,!which!can!lead!to!cravings!+!addictions.!
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Recommended!intakes!of!sugars!
Because!added!sugars!deliver!energy!but!few!or!no!nutrients,!the!Dietary(Guidelines(for(Australian(Adults!urges!
consumers!to!consume!only!a!moderate!amounts!of!sugars!and!food!containing!added!sugars.!
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Health'effects'of'starch'+'dietary'fibre!
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May!be!some!protection!from!heart!disease!+!stroke.!
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Soluble!dietary!fibre!binds!with!bile!+!thereby!lowers!blood!cholesterol!levels.!
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Dietary!fibre!may!also!displace!fat!in!the!diet.!
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Reduces!the!risk!of!type!2!diabetes!by!decreasing!glucose!absorption.!
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Enhance!the!health!of!the!GI!tract!which!can!then!block!the!absorption!of!unwanted!particles.!
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May!protect!against!colon!cancer!by!removing!potential!cancerDcausing!agents!from!the!body.!
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They!promote!weight!control!because!complex!carbs!provide!less!fat!+!added!sugar.!
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Harmful(effects(of(excessive(dietary(fibre(intake:(
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Displaces!energy!+!nutrientDdense!foods!
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Abdominal!discomfort!+!distention!
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May!interfere!with!nutrient!absorption!
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Recommended!intakes!of!starch!+!dietary!fibre!
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The!RDI!for!carbohydrate!is!set!at!130g!p/day,!based!on!the!average!minimum!amount!of!glucose!used!by!the!
brain.!
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The!Dietitians!Association!of!Australia!recommends!eating!30g!of!dietary!fibre!daily.!
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Recommended!intakes!of!fibre!
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FDA!recommends!25g!for!a!2000Dkcalorie!diet.!
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DRI!at!14g!p/1000kDcalorie!intake!(28g!for!2000Dkcalorie!diet).!
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American!Dietetic!Association!recommends!20D35g!p/day.!
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World!Health!Organisation!suggests!no!more!than!40g!p/day.!
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From!guidelines!to!groceries!
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Bread,(cereals,(rice,(pasta,(noodles!–!when!selecting!from!this!group!of!foods,!be!sure!to!make!at!least!half!
wholegrain!products.!
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Vegetables!–!the!amount!of!carbohydrate!depends!primarily!on!its!starch!content.!
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Fruit!–!vary!in!water,!dietary!fibre!+!sugar!content.!
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Milks,(yoghurt,(cheese!–!contain!carbohydrate!(cheese!is!low).!
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Meat,(fish,(poultry,(eggs,(nuts,(legumes!–!meats!are!low,!nuts!+!legumes!have!some!carbohydrate.!
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Food!labels!list!grams!of!TOTAL!carbohydrate,!dietary!fibre!+!sugar.!
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Alternatives'to'sugar'
Artificial!sweeteners!
Artificial!sweeteners!are!also!called!sugar(replaces!+!non=nutritive(sweeteners.!
Acceptable!daily!intake!(ADI)!is!the!level!of!consumption,!maintained!every!day!+!still!safe!by!a!wide!margin!–!moderation!
+!variety!are!still!recommended.!
Artificial!sweeteners!+!weight!control:!
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Much!research!still!being!done.!
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Using!artificial!sweeteners!will!not!automatically!reduce!energy!intake.!
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Saccharin!
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Used!primarily!in!soft!drinks!+!tabletop!sweetener.!
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Rapidly!excreted!in!the!urine.!
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Does!not!accumulate!in!the!body.!
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Has!been!removed!from!list!of!cancerDcausing!substances.!
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Aspartame!
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Acesulfame=K!
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Research(confirms(safety!
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Sucralose!
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Made(from(sugar!
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Passes(through(digestive(tract!
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Alitame(+(cyclamate!
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Stevia!
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Very!few!use!in!foods!
An!herbal!alternative!
Lacks!research!
Classified!as!a!dietary!supplement!
Not!required!to!have!testing!+!FDA!approval!
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Sugar!replacers!
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Also!called!nutritive(sweeteners!–!these!are!sugar(alcohols!+!polyols.!
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Maltitol,!mannitol,!sorbitol,!xylitol,!isomalt!+!lactitol!
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Absorbed!more!slowly!+!metabolized!differently!in!the!body.!
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Low!glycaemic!response.!
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Side!effects!include!GI!discomfort.!
Chapter(7(–(Metabolism:(Transformations(+(Interactions!
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Chemical'reactions'in'the'body!
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Plants!use!the!sun’s!energy!to!make!carbohydrate!from!CO2!+!water.!This!is!called!photosynthesis.!
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Humans!+!animals!eat!the!plants!+!use!the!carbohydrate!as!fuel!for!their!bodies.!
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During!digestion,!the!energyDyielding!nutrients!are!broken!down!to!monosaccharides,!fatty!acids,!glycerol!+!
amino!acids.!
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Carbohydrates!D>!monosaccharides!
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Fat/lipids!D>!glycerol!+!fatty!acids!
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Protein!D>!amino!acids!
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After!absorption,!enzymes!+!coenzymes!can!build!more!complex!compounds.!
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In!metabolism,!they!are!broken!down!further!into!energy!(ATP),!water!+!CO2.!
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Metabolic!reactions!take!place!inside!of!cells,!especially!liver!cells.!
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Anabolism!is!the!building(up!of!body!compounds!+!requires!energy.!
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Catabolism!is!the!breakdown!of!body!compounds!+!releases!energy.!
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The'transfer'of'energy'in'reactions'–'ATP!
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A!highDenergy!compound!called!adenosine!triphosphate!(ATP)!is!made.!
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Coupled!reactions!are!chemical!reactions!that!occur!simultaneously.!
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Enzymes'and'coenzymes'are'helpers'in'reactions'
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Enzymes!are!protein!catalysts!that!cause!chemical!reactions.!
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Coenzymes!are!organic!molecules!that!function!as!enzyme!helpers.!
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Cofactors!are!organic!or!inorganic!substances!that!facilitate!enzyme!action.!
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eg.!vitamin!C!(needed!to!make!collagen)!
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Breaking'down'nutrients'for'energy!
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The!breakdown!of!glucose!to!energy!starts!with!glycolysis!to!pyruvate.!
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This!process!is!called!glycolysis!+!it!occurs!in!the!cytoplasm!of!cells.!
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Pyruvate!may!be!converted!to!lactic(acid!anaerobically!(without!O2)!+!acetyl(CoA!aerobically!(with!O2).!
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Eventually,!all!energyDyielding!nutrients!enter!the!TCA!cycle!(tricarboxylic!acid!cycle/Kreb’s!cycle)!+!the!ETC!
(electron!transport!chain).!
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Glycolysis'
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Next!step,!pyruvate!is!transported!into!the!mitochondrial!matrix!where!it!is!converted!to!acetylDCoA.!
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PyruvateDtoDacetyl!CoA!is!irreversible.!
Acetyl!CoA’s!options:!
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Synthesize!fats!when!body!has!enough!ATP.!
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Generate!ATP!when!cell!is!low!in!energy.!
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***www.learnerstv.com/animations.php(
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Glycerol'+'fatty'acids'
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The!conversion!of!glycerol!to!pyruvate!is!easy!because!they!are!both!3C!compounds.!
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Fatty!acidsDtoDacetyl!CoA!reactions!are!called!fatty!acid!oxidation.!
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Fatty!acids!CANNOT!be!used!to!synthesize!glucose.!
Glucose!must!be!available!to!provide!energy!to!RBC,!brain!+!nervous!system.!
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The'final'steps'of'catabolism'
AcetylDCoA!generated!from!glycolysis!enters!the!TCA!cycle!which!also!occurs!in!the!mitochondria!matrix.!
TCA!cycle!contains!a!4C!compound!called!oxaloacetate!that!has!a!critical!role.!
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The!electron!transport!chain!(ETC)!occurs!on!the!inner!membranes!of!mitochondria.!
The!electron!transport!chain:!
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Consumes!oxygen!
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Produces!CO2!+!water!
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Produces!energy!as!ATP!
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The!kcaloriesDperDgram!secret!revealed:!
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Fat!provides!9kcal/g!
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Fat!provides!more!energy!because!bonds!in!fat!molecules!are!easily!oxidized!+!result!in!more!ATP.!
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Carbohydrate!provides!4kcal/g!
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Protein(provides!4kcal/g!
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LECTURE'4:'DIETARY'FIBRES'
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Regulatory'authorities'+'standards!
“Dietary!fibre!is!that!fraction!of!the!edible!parts!of!plants!or!analogous!carbohydrates!that!are!resistant!to!digestion!+!
absorption!in!the!human!small!intestine,!with!complete!or!partial!fermentation!in!the!large!intestine”!
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Food!Standard!Australia!+!NZ!(FSANZ)!
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Food!regulation,!safety!standard,!analysis!standard!+!labeling!
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Food!Safety!Unit!(FSU,!Vic!Dept!Health)!
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Association!of!the!Official!Analytic!Chemist,!USA!(AOAC)!
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The!American!Association!of!Cereal!Chemists!(AACC)!
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Foods'fibre'compositions!
Fibres!from!cereals,!fruits!+!veges!differs!in!chemical!composition!as!well!as!in!its!physiological!effects!in!humans.!
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Leaves!have!high!water!content,!low!cell!walls!components!+!virtually!no!lignins!
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Fruits!have!high!water!contents,!low!cell!walls!components!+!high!pectic!substances!
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Legumes((eg.(lentils)!have!high!level!of!cell!walls!polysaccharides!
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Whole(grain(cereals!have!high!cell!walls!polysaccharide!that!are!less!water!soluble!
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Seaweeds!have!structurally!different!water!soluble!alginic!acid!containing!polysaccharides!
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Fibre'classes!
Plant!cell!wall!structural!polysaccharides:!
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Cellulose!
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Homopolysaccharide!containing!glucose!
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Hemicellulose!
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Arabinoxylans!
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Heteropolysaccharides!containing!DDxylopyranose!polymer!chain!with!branched!LDarabinofuranose!
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Wheat!bran,!husks!(metamucil)!and!endosperms!
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Pectic!substances!
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Galactouronan!
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Heteropolysaccharide!containing!galacturonic!acid!polymer!interspaced!with!single!LDrhamnose!
unit!
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Fruits!+!veges!
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Plant!cell!wall!structural!nonDpolysaccharides:!
•
Lignins!
o
3D!polymer!made!of!phenolic!acids!
!
Plant!cell!wall!nonDstructural!polysaccharides:!
•
βDGlucans!
•
o
Gums!
o
o
o
Mixed!linked!β(1D3)!+!β(1D4)Dlinked!glucose!polymer!
Galactomannans!
Heteropolysaccharide!containing!DDmannose!polymer!chain!with!branched!DDgalactose!units!
Guar!gum,!locust!bean!gum,!gum!Arabic!
!
Seaweed!polysaccharide:!
•
Alginates!
o
Heteropolysaccharide!containing!oligomeric!βDDDmanuronic!acid!+!αDLDguluronic!acid!units!
o
Charged!polymers!of!βDDDmanuronic!acid!+!αDLDguluronic!acid!
•
Carrageenans!
o
Homopolysaccharide!containing!sulfated!+!mixed!linked!galactose!units!
o
Charged!polymers!of!sulfated!mixed!linked!galactose!
!
NonDplant!polysaccharides:!
•
Chitosan!
o
Poly!β(1,4)DDDglucosamine!
o
Crustacean!shell!–!fat!magnets,!xenical!
•
Chondroitin!
o
Repeating!disaccharide!units!of!glucuronic!acid!+!NDacetylDgalactosamine!
!
!
Chemical'+'nutritional'definitions!
Crude!fibres!(chemical)!
•
Residue!remaining!after!acid!+!alkaline!extractions!
•
Cellulose!+!lignin!components!
!
Dietary!fibres!(nutritional)!
•
Plant!substances!that!are!resistant!to!mammalian!digestive!enzymes!
!
Total!dietary!fibres!(AOAC)!
•
Food!residue!remaining!after!removal!of!lipids,(proteins(+(starch!
o
Cellulose!
o
Lignins!
o
Noncellulose!polysaccharides!(NCP)!–!hemicellulose,!pectins,!βDglucans,!gums!
!
!
Total'dietary'fibres'(TDF)!
Procedures!for!determining!TDF!defined!by!the!Association!of!Official!Analytic!Chemists!(AOAC!1984),!based!on:!
•
Removal!of!lipids!by!solvent!extraction!
•
Removal!of!proteins!by!protease!digestions!
•
Removal!of!starch!by!aminoglucosidase!digestions!
!
!
!
Beneficial'health'effects'of'fibres!
•
Provides!bulk!for!fullness!from!meals!
•
Control!release!of!nutrients!by!rate!of!controlling!digestion!
•
Retention!of!water!in!stool!
•
Provides!bulk!for!stool!elimination!
•
As!prebiotics!
•
Reduces!cholesterols!+!fats!absorption!
!
!
Colon'cancers!
Strong,!epidemiology!links!between!high!fibre!intake!+!lower!incident!of!colon!cancers.!
Probably!mechanisms:!
•
Increases!stool!mass!aiding!toxins!elimination!by!dilution!+!rapid!removal!
•
Bacteria!fermentation!of!fibres!produces!short!chain!fatty!acid!products!(propionic!+!butyric!acids)!that!kill!
colonic!cancer!cells!+!inhibit!their!metastasis!
•
As!probiotic!for!the!proliferation!of!endogenous!colonic!bacteria!population!
•
Bacteria!degradation!of!certain!pectins!produce!antiDcancer!fragments!
!
!
Cardiovascular'diseases'(CVD)!
Risk!factors!for!CVD:!
•
High!blood!cholesterol!level!
•
Diabetes!(long!term!D>!hypertension)!
•
Hypertension!
•
Atherosclerosis!
!
Strong!epidemiological!links!between!fibres!intake!+!lower!incident!of!CVD:!