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WORLD GEOGRAPHY
Tools of Geography
Why does Geography Matter?
1. “Geo” is also Latin for earth. “Graphy” is Greek for graph or map. So Geography is the mapping of
the earth, but it is also the study of how people, places, and environments affect each other.
2. The elements of a good map include: DOGTAILS
a. D-Date
b. O-Orientation~ Compass Rose or Directional Arrow
c. G-Grid= Begin with latitude first, and then you locate the lines of longitude
d. T-Title
e. A -Author
f. L-Legend
g. S-Scale
Meridians: lines of longitude
Parallels: Lines of Latitude
Global Grid: a grid system that identifies the absolute location using latitude and longitude lines that cross
exactly at one place.
Absolute Location: the precise point where one line of latitude crosses a line of longitude
Relative Location: location of one place in relation to another place
Identify and label these major lines of lat & long:
h. Prime meridian- 0 longitude
i. Equator- 0 latitude
j. Tropic of Cancer- 23.5 N
k. Tropic of Capricorn- 23.5 S
l. Arctic Circle- 66.5 N
m. Antarctic Circle- 66.5 S
n. North Pole- 90 N
o. South Pole- 90 S
3. Major Map Projections:
a. Conic map-a map projection that comes from placing a cone over part of a globe.
b. Cylindrical map-a map projection based on the projection of the globe onto a cylinder. Most accurate
near the equator, but shapes and distances are distorted near the poles.
c. Planar map/Azimuthal Map-a map projection that shows the earth centered in such a way
that a straight line coming from the center to any point represents the shortest distance.
Aspects of the Earth
that can be distorted
on a map
1. Area
2. Shape
3. Distance
4. Direction
d. Winkel-Tripel Projection: provides good balance between the size and shape of land areas and polar
areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape
e. Robinson Projection: sizes and shapes near eastern and western edges of the map are accurate, and
the outlines of the continents appear like they would on a globe. However, the shapes of the polar areas
are somewhat distorted
f. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection: shows true size and shape of the earth’s landmasses, but
distances are generally distorted
g. Mercator Projection: increasingly distorts size and distance as it moves away from the equator;
accurately shows true directions and the shapes of landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel
Know the Different Types of Map Projections.
4. Great Circle Route-a path along the imaginary line that follows the
curve of the earth, or a great circle. Used by pilots to travel the shortest
distance. It's shorter to travel in an Arch rather than a straight line in this
situation.
5. Types of Maps:
a. Physical Map-shows locations and topography of the earth’s physical features.
b. Political Maps-shows the boundaries between countries.
c. Special Purpose Map-they emphasize a single idea or particular kind of information about an area, like
climate, resources, flora, etc.
d. Small Scale Map- shows a large area, but little detail/ Large-Scale-Shows small area in great detail
6. Time zones-the 24 longitudinal zones around the world where clocks are set to the same solar time. They
are represented at 15° longitude, or the distance the earth rotates in one hour. Time zones are not perfectly
straight, some curve to serve special needs, such as political or geographical.
7. Map bias- to show prejudice or preference for or against something in mapping, for example:
a. When south is depicted as being toward the top of the map
b. When cities shown in green are and countryside shown in yellow
8.
Academic divisions of Geography are Physical
Geography and Cultural Geography Geography-Study of
earth’s physical processes
1) Geology – rocks and earth formations
2) Environmental science – human interaction with the environment
3) Topography – earth’s features
4) Cartography – map making.
b. Cultural Geography-Characteristics of human activities
1) Politics – governments
2) History – significant events
3) Economics – how use resources
4) Sociology – human societies
5) Urban – cities
6) Demographics – human population statistics
9. The 5 themes of geography are:
a. Location- Absolute/Relative: Where might this place be located?
b. Place & Region- What is special about this place? What makes it
different from other Places? How is this place like others near or
around it?
c.
Physical systems-What physical processes shape the features and patterns of the place? What is the
weather/climate like?
d. Human Systems-How might people, goods, and ideas travel into and out of this place?
e. Environment and Society- How have people affected this environment? How might this environment
affect people?
10. Define terms:
a. Formal regions- A region defined by a common characteristic, for examples: Texas, United States, Corn
Belt.
b. Functional regions- A central point and the surrounding territory linked to it, for example: Houston.
c. Perceptual Regions- A region defined by popular feeling rather than objective data, for example: Dirty
South, Bible Belt.
II.
Planet Earth
16. Define layers of the Earth & Parts of the Biosphere :
a. Crust- The outermost surface of the earth.
b. Mantle- The thick layer just below the crust and extending all the way down to the Earth's core
c. Outer Core- The hot liquid layer beneath the mantle, mostly made of iron, that spins as the earth rotates,
which creates the Earth’s magnetic field.
d. Inner Core- The innermost layer of the earth that is hot, solid, and very dense.
e. Ecosystem – community of plants and animals
f. Biosphere – the part of the earth where life exists
g. Lithosphere- all the land on earth including the land under the ocean
h. Hydrosphere – all the water on earth
i. Atmosphere – the gasses that surround the earth
17. Parts of the Water Cycle: The amount of water in the water cycle is constant as water moves
throughout different stages of the cycle.
a. Evaporation- Water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil by the sun’s heat.
b. Condensation-When water vapor in the air gets cold and changes back into liquid, forming clouds.
c. Precipitation-when too much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it anymore. The clouds get
heavy and water falls back to the earth in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.
d. Collection/Runoff- When water falls back to earth as precipitation, into bodies of water or on land. When
it ends up on land, it will either soak into the earth and become part of the “ground water” or stay close to
the surface and seep back into surface-water bodies.
18. Parts of a river:
a. River - large natural stream of water that runs through the land
b. River Source- place where a river or stream begins, usually in the highlands
c. Tributary- small river or stream that flows into a large river or stream (branch of a river).
d. Headwaters- the sources of river waters
e. Confluence- flowing together of two or more rivers or streams
f. Meander-Winding path or course of a river.
g. Oxbow Lake- a bow shaped lake formed in a former channel of a river.
h. Upstream/downstream-up is the direction opposite flow towards source & down is the direction the river
flows from the source towards its mouth.
i. Wetland- A lowland area, such as a marsh or swamp, that is saturated with moisture.
j. Floodplain- low plain next to a river that is formed of river sediment and is subject to flooding.
k. Estuary- an area where a tide meets a river current.
l. Delta- alluvial deposit at a river’s mouth that looks like the Greek letter
delta.
m. Mouth- place where a stream or river flows into a larger body of water.
n. River Basin- area of land drained by a river and its branches.
o. Watershed- area of land where all the water that is underneath it or
drains off of it goes to the same place.
p. Divide- stretch of highland or mountains that separates direction of
river systems.
q. Alluvial Plain- flood plain where flooding rivers deposit rich soil
r. Cataract-a large waterfall.
19. The Theory of Plate Tectonics states that the Earth's outer shell is not
one solid sheet of rock but a series of large and small moving plates
(tectonic plates). The theory builds on the older concepts of continental
drift. Continental Drift Theory-Theory proposed in 1912 by Alfred
Wegener that states that part of the Earth’s crust slowly drift atop a liquid
core and that 200 million years ago the Earth was one giant continent
called Pangaea, and that from this one continent today's continents
broke apart and drifted into their current locations.
The lithospheric plates ride on the asthenosphere. These plates move in
relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries:
convergent or collisional boundaries; divergent boundaries, also called
spreading centers; and conservative transform boundaries. Earthquakes,
volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur
along these plate boundaries.
The tectonic plates are composed of two types of lithosphere: thicker continental and thin oceanic. The upper
part is called the crust, again of two types (continental and oceanic). This means that a plate can be of one
type, or of both types.
One of the main points the theory proposes is that the amount of surface of
the (continental and oceanic) plates that disappear in the mantle along the
convergent boundaries by subduction is more or less in equilibrium with the
new (oceanic) crust that is formed along the divergent margins by seafloor
spreading. This is also referred to as the "conveyor belt" principle. In this
way, the total surface of the Globe remains the same. This is in contrast
with earlier theories advocated before the Plate Tectonics "paradigm", as it is sometimes called, became the
main scientific model, theories that proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the
Globe, and that still exist in science as alternative models.
Regarding the driving mechanism of the plates various models co-exist: Tectonic plates are able to move
because the Earth's lithosphere has a higher strength and lower density than the underlying asthenosphere.
Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection. Their movement is thought to be driven by a
combination of the motion of seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and
density of the crust that result in differences in gravitational forces) and drag, downward suction, at the
subduction zones
20. Internal forces that change the surface of the earth by building it up, include physical processes such as
convergence, divergence, and faulting where enormous pieces of the Earth’s crust move.
21. Define terms:
a. Convergence occurs where plates are moving toward each other, and sometimes one plate sinks (is
subducted) under another. The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. If the
subduction occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, an island arc is produced at the surface. If the
subduction occurs beneath continental crust, a continental volcanic arc is produced. When two plates
that have continental lithosphere collide with one another the margin becomes a continental collision
margin.
b. Divergence occurs where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from
the mantle
c. Faulting happens when fracturing and displacement processes produce a fault or crack that breaks rock
masses
d. Subduction- When a sea plate and a continental plate collide, the heavier sea plate dives under the
lighter continental plate. The sea plate is then heated and becomes magma which escapes through
volcanoes.
e. Accretion- Slow process that occurs when a sea plate slides under a continental plate. This causes
debris that causes continents to grow upward.
f. Sea-floor spreading- When sea plates pull apart leaving a rift, or deep crack, where magma swells up
between the two plates to make underwater volcanoes or ridges.
g. Fold- places where rocks have been compressed into bends by colliding plates.
h. Fault- places where rock masses have been broken when moving plates grind or slide past each other
i. Rift- a long narrow zone of faulting or fissures resulting from tensional stress in the earth's crust, where
new crust is not formed.
j. Ridge- A geological feature consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that form a continuous elevated
crest for some distance, or where two plates are moving apart and new crust is being formed.
22. Explain terms:
a. Rift valleys- A long, narrow valley lying between two normal geologic faults. Unlike river valleys and
glacial valleys that form primarily through erosion processes, rift valleys form by the subsidence of the
intermediate land as the faults are pulled apart. That is to say that rift valleys are created when a block of
the earth sinks.
b. Mountain ranges- The process of mountain building, or Orogeny, involves either the collision of two
plates causing the slow, continuous convergence of the two plates, a crumpling and folding under the
enormous pressure, creating great mountain ranges. Or it involves subduction, where uplift is mostly
heat driven as magma rises off of the subduction zone and then volcanoes build even higher atop that.
c. Faults- areas where the stretching or compression of plates causes slight fractures in the earth’s crust.
Another type of fault occurs where plates are sliding, shearing, or grinding past each other, folding
mountains and producing earthquakes in the process.
d. Earthquakes- earthquakes result from tectonic plates pulling apart, sliding or grinding past one another.
23. Explain External forces, which wear down the Earth and make it more level, include weathering,
erosion, and soil building.
a. Weathering includes any of the chemical or mechanical processes by which rocks exposed to the
weather undergo chemical decomposition and physical disintegration.
b. Erosion occurs where water, wind, or glacial movement wears away the earth’s crust.
c. Soil building occurs where erosion stops, meaning that the transport medium (wind, water, or glaciers)
stop and the transported sediment particles finally settle, laying down a buildup of new material.
Identify landforms on world map:
Define:
Archipelago-a group or chain of islands
Basin-area drained by a river or land surrounded by higher elevations
Bay-part of a large body of water extends into a shoreline. Generally smaller than a gulf.
Canal- man-made waterway or improved river for travel
Canyon-deep narrow valley with steep walls
Cape- point of land that extends into a body of water
Channel-strait or waterway between two land masses that lie close to each other.
Cliff-steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
Continent-one of the seven large landmasses on earth
Delta-flat, low lying land built from deposits of soil carried downstream and deposited at the mouth of a river.
Depression-an area that is sunk below the surrounding area.
Desert-a dry area with sparse vegetation; receives less than 10 “ of precipitation in a year.
Divide-stretch of highland that separates river systems
Escarpment-steep cliff or slope between higher and lower land surfaces
Glacier-large, thick body of slowly moving ice
Gulf-part of a large body of water that extends into the shoreline. Larger and deeper than a bay.
Harbor-a sheltered place along shore where ships can safely anchor.
Highland-elevated land (hills, mountains, plateaus)
III.
Island-land area, smaller than a continent that is surrounded by water.
Isthmus-a narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land areas.
Lake-a sizeable inland body of water
Lowland-land, usually level at a low elevation
Mesa-broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides, smaller than plateau
Mountain peak-pointed top of a mountain
Mountain range-series of interconnected mountains, rising sharply from surrounding land (1000+ feet)
Ocean-one of 5 major bodies of salt water that surround continents
Peninsula-body of land surrounded by water on 3 sides
Plain-area of level land, usually at low elevation and often grassy.
Plateau-area of flat rolling land of high elevation (300-3000 feet)
Rift valley-a crack in the earth’s surface created by shifting.
River-large natural stream of water that runs through land
Sea-large body of water completely/partially surrounded by land
Sound-broad inland body of water, often between a coastline and one or more islands off coast
Strait-narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of water
Tributary-small river or stream that flows into a larger river or stream
Valley-area of low land usually between hills or mountains.
Volcano-mountain of hills created as liquid rock and ash erupt from inside the earth.
Climate
24. Describe latitudes:
a. Low Latitude climates- or The Tropics" at 0 - 23.5 N & S.
b. Low and mid-latitude climates- or the steppe/deserts - low and mid-latitudes at 0 - 66.5 N & S.
c. Mid-latitude climates-“Temperate Zone" at 23.5 to 66.5 N & S.
d. High latitude climates- “Polar Climates” at 66.5 - 90 N & S.
25. Earth Sun relationship:
a. The Earth rotates (Rotation) or spins on its axis which causes the day/night phenomenon (24 hours), and
revolves (Revolution) about around the sun on a fixed plane that is tilted 23.5° with respect to its vertical
axis (365 ¼ days).
b. Seasons are caused by the Earth’s axis which is Tilted by 23.5° with respect to the ecliptic and due to the
fact that the axis is always pointed to the same direction. Season reversed in southern hemisphere.
1) When the northern axis is pointing to the direction of the Sun, it will be winter in the southern
hemisphere and summer in the northern hemisphere. Northern hemisphere will experience
summer because the Sun"s ray reached that part of the surface directly and more concentrated
hence enabling that area to heat up more quickly. The southern hemisphere will receive the same
amount of light ray at a more glancing angle (Indirect), hence spreading out the light ray therefore
is less concentrated and colder. The converse holds true when the Earth southern axis is pointing
towards the Sun.
c. Solstice: when the direct rays of the sun are on the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn and
the days and nights are not equal in length
1) Winter Solstice – Direct rays on Tropic of Capricorn – December 21 – nights longer;
2) Summer Solstice – direct rays on Tropic of Cancer – June 21 – days are longer
d. Equinox: when the direct rays of the sun are on the Equator and the days and night are equal in
length
1) Spring Equinox – direct rays on Equator – March 21 – equal day and night;
2) Fall Equinox – direct rays on the Equator – September 21 – equal day and night
26. Weather is the day-to-day meteorological conditions (temperature, cloudiness, precipitation, etc) in a specific
place, while Climate is the long-term prevalent weather conditions of an area, determined by latitude, position
relative to the oceans or continents, altitude, etc. Climate is measured over a 30 year period.
If the line graph goes up in the middle – it is showing a place in the northern hemisphere.
If the line graph goes down in the middle – it is showing a place in the southern hemisphere.
If the line is fairly straight – it is showing a place that is near or on the Equator.
Be able to
relate
climographs to
various
regions of the
world
Study these climographs and look at how
precipitation and temperatures reflect the labeled Climate
27. Factors that affect climate include: LACEMOPS—
a. Latitude (this is the main control on temperature) and as one moves away from the equator it becomes
drier and cooler
b. Air masses (The type of air masses that is typical of a place reveals much about the climate): cold air
comes from the poles and warm air comes from the equator
c. Continentality & coasts (This refers to the annual range in temperatures. The idea is that temperatures
in the interior of a large land mass will change more with the seasons than the temps along the coast
which are moderated by the ocean),
d. Elevation (Generally the higher the elevation of a station, the cooler its temperature): as one goes up
1,000 feet, the temperature drops 3.5°
e. Mountain barriers (This one is about mountains and their "rain shadow" effect on the areas downwind
from the mountains),
f. Ocean currents (This does not apply to all stations that are located along the sea coast. It really refers to
the temperature of the ocean current, and whether it makes the station warmer or cooler than it would be
otherwise),
g. Pressure cells (Low pressure and High pressure cells are critical elements in climate. If Low pressure
controls the weather most of the time, especially in the mid‐latitudes the place will be cool and wet. If high
pressure controls the weather most of the time, especially in the tropics the place will be hot and dry),
h. Storm tracks (Large storm systems like cyclonic storms and hurricanes are more frequent in certain
places and tend to follow paths. Thus certain places are in very stormy locations.): Air tends to move from
areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, creating wind. In the Northern Hemisphere, the earth's
rotation causes the wind to swirl into a low-pressure area in a counterclockwise direction. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the winds rotate clockwise around a low. This effect of the rotating earth on wind flow is
called the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis effect increases in intensity farther from the equator. To produce a
hurricane, a low-pressure area must be more than 5 degrees of latitude north or south of the equator.
Hurricanes seldom occur closer to the equator.
28. The Westerlies (winds blowing from the west) are those on the poleward sides of the horse latitudes. The
Polar Easterlies blow from 90 to 60 in an eastern direction. [Where the Easterlies and Westerlies meet there
are thunderstorms] The Doldrums are a low pressure belt extending around the earth in the vicinity of the
geographical equator. They shift slightly north or south with the seasons. Trade winds are the relatively
permanent winds on each side of the equatorial doldrums that blow from the northeast in the Northern
Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The Horse Latitudes are zones of high
atmospheric pressure on the poleward side of each trade wind where calms and variable winds prevail.
29. Despite a latitudinal position along the equator, location at higher Elevation can experience freezing
temperatures and precipitation. As air moves up on the windward side of the mountain it cools and release
moisture. If the ascent continues the air temperature will reach freezing possibly releasing snow or ice. After
reaching the peak, the air will descend, warming as it travels down. This results in warm and dry conditions on
the leeward side. The release of moisture as a result of rising air due mountain barriers or topographical
features is called orographic precipitation.
Latitude determines the amount and intensity of sunlight received in a given area, and the climate gets colder
the farther you get from the equator.
Wind often moderate drastic temperature changes, precipitation, thunderstorms, and sometimes tornadic
activity, especially when coming in from the ocean (wet wind and precipitation) or wind from landward side to
ocean (dry wind).
Ocean Currents impact the climate by means of the air off the water. Often this factor serves as a
moderating force, as seen with marine west coast climates.
The impact of a large landmass on climate and weather patterns (Continentality), usually results in more
severe temperatures, depending on latitudinal position, and coastal or inland location.
Mountains serve as a barrier (Mountain Barrier) to moisture and cooler air. Air masses coming down a
mountain on the leeward side will be dry and warm. This set of conditions is the phenomena behind a midlatitude desert. A desert is created by a mountain blocking what would be normal temperature and
precipitation patterns.
For Example: The Gulf Stream with its Northern extension: A major contribution of the Gulf Stream is its
warming effect on the climates of adjacent land areas. Winters in southwestern England are extraordinarily
mild for this northern latitude because of the Gulf Stream. OR Atacama Desert- it is blocked from moisture
on both sides by the Andes mountains and by the Chilean Coast Range. A coastal inversion layer created by
the cold Humboldt Current and the anticyclone of the Pacific is essential to keeping the climate of the
Atacama dry.
30. Hurricane and typhoons are low-pressure areas in which the central core is warmer than the surrounding
atmosphere. They’re called hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and the Eastern Pacific Ocean, and
typhoons in the Western Pacific. In addition, these storms are known as cyclones in the Indian Ocean and
around the Coral Sea off northeastern Australia. Cyclonic winds have a counterclockwise wind flow in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise wind flow in the Southern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of the
wind flow is a result of the Coriolis force.
31. Natural disasters include: flood, avalanches, wildfires, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake,
drought, or landslide. Society uses weather monitoring systems, flood control measures such as levees,
seismic monitoring systems and earthquake-proof building codes, tornado shelters, fire suppression
system/technology.
32. El Niño is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific, as opposed to La
Niña, which characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific.
33. When winter in Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere.
34. The Rain Shadow or Orographic effect is when a parcel of air rises up the windward side of a mountain
range, has its moisture squeezed out. Thus, when the air begins to descend the leeward side of the mountain,
it is dry. As the cool air descends, it warms and expands, reducing its possibility of precipitation.
35. Identify and describe the climate regions:
a. Low Latitude climates- or The Tropics" The tropical rainforest (hot and wet throughout the year, 80-160
inches of rain a year, temperatures about 80°all year; lush vegetation and more than half the plant and
animal species) and tropical savanna (grassland with distinct dry and wet seasons. Winter is dry,
summer is wet. High year round temperatures ~80°. Vegetation is coarse grass and few trees)
b. Low and mid-latitude climates- or the steppe/deserts - low and mid-latitudes Steppes (are dry, largely
treeless grassland; border deserts and interior of continents on leeward side. Only 10-20” rain a year.
Desertification is a problem.) Deserts (are dry area with sparse plant life that covers about 1/3 of the
world’s land. Desert pavement and erg (dunes). 10” or less rain in a year. Temperatures differ
drastically day/night. Scrub and cactus are vegetation. Has oasis.)
c. Mid-latitude climates-“Temperate Zone". Includes Marine (ocean winds bring cool summers and damp
winters, abundant rainfall, temperate rainforest and mixed forests), Mediterranean (mild, rainy winter and
hot sunny summers, 15-30” of rain/year, Chaparral vegetation), Humid subtropical (short, mild winters and
nearly year round rainfall. hurricanes & typhoons, year round rainfall, mixed forests and a variety of
vegetation [OUR ZONE], and Humid Continental (4 distinct seasons. Storms and continentality influence
climate; winters longer as you travel north and inland; agriculture replaced prairie grass and short
coniferous forests).
d. High latitude climates- “Polar Climates”. Includes subarctic (bitterly cold winter and short, cool
summers; widest temperature range between summer and winter, taiga vegetation, and permafrost),
tundra (very cold with polar night for ½ of the year; far north in northern hemisphere, rarely above 50° and
at least 9 months below 0°; permafrost bogs in summer, short bushes/grasses/mosses and lichen), and
icecap (snow and ice cover this area up to 2 miles thick, Polar night, polar desert, below freezing all year,
little vegetation besides lichen and moss).
36. Biome- A major regional or global biotic community, such as a grassland or desert, characterized chiefly by
the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate. Terrestrial- relating to Earth/land rather than the
sea or air.
a. Tropical Rain Forest-located in the tropics, around the equator, with a great diversity of plants and
animals, with abundant precipitation and year round warmth.
b. Desert-Minimal precipitation throughout the year, often hot days and cool/cold nights, and sparse plant
life.
c. Temperate Deciduous Forest- located in cool, rainy areas, fertile soil, 4 Distinct seasons, 5 zones (Tree
Stratum Zone, Sapling Zone, Shrub zone, Herb zone, Ground Zone).
d. Grassland- a grassy, windy, partly-dry biome, a sea of grass. Almost one-fourth of the Earth's land area
is grassland. Often dry and windy and suitable for grazing.
e. Chaparral- a shrubby coastal area that has hot dry summers and mild, cool, rainy winters found in the
Mediterranean climate zone.
f. Temperate Rain Forest- a small portion of the world’s forests, (2-3% of rainforests or 30-40 million
hectares); yet harbor more biomass per acre than any other forest type including the tropical rainforest. It
has a mild coastal climate, heavy summer fog, and very generous rainfall, (more than 50 inches per year).
g. Taiga- a boreal forest or northern coniferous forest, is a cold woodland or forest. Characterized by a
cold, harsh climate, a low rate of precipitation (snow and rain), and short growing season. Taigas are
relatively low in animal diversity because of the harsh winters
h. Arctic Tundra- The tundra biome is characterized by an absence of trees, the presence of dwarf plants,
and a ground surface of permafrost. Small species diversity.
i. Alpine Tundra- The tundra biome is characterized by an absence of trees, the presence of dwarf plants,
but no permafrost, and better drainage. Small species diversity.
j. Aquatic Freshwater-Includes ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and wetlands. Plants and animals in
freshwater regions are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high
salt concentration (i.e, ocean).
k. Ponds or lakes (O2 rich & low nutrient)- Oligotrophic lakes contain very low concentrations of those
nutrients required for plant growth and thus the overall productivity of these lakes is low. One typical
measure of an oligotrophic lake is that it has lots of oxygen from surface to bottom, good water clarity, few
suspended algae, which yield low chlorophyll readings, and low nutrients
l. Ponds or lakes (O2 poor & high nutrient)- Eutrophic lakes are rich in plant nutrients and thus their
productivity is high. They have the potential to be the most biologically diverse type of lake and tend to
support a higher number of rare plant species than the other lake types. One characteristic of eutrophic
lakes is the summertime depletion of oxygen from the lower waters, high chlorophyll, poor visibility/clarity,
lots of algae, and high nutrients. Fishing is good in eutrophic lakes.
m. Aquatic Marine- Marine regions cover about ¾ of the Earth's surface (71%) and include oceans, coral
reefs, and estuaries (areas where freshwater streams or rivers merge with the ocean). Marine algae
supply much of the world's oxygen supply and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The
evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the land.
n. Coastal Waters- Coastal Oceans are waters that lie above the continental shelf. This is where most fish
come from, where the coral reefs grow and where we swim and play. In fact, while the oceans cover 71%
of Earth, only 7% of that makes up the coastal oceans. Adversely affected by agricultural runoff,
pollution, and over-fishing.
o. Near-shore zone- The zone extending seaward from the low water line well beyond the surf zone; it
defines the area influenced by the nearshore or longshore currents. It is rich in aquatic plant diversity and
serves as a prime habitat for a variety of fish. Vegetation here serves as shade and cover for fish from
predators, also serves as a source of food for fish, insects, and avians. It also acts as a trap for sediment
flowing from shoreland ( thus, protects water quality), and anchors bottom sediment. No direct air
exposure; has coral reefs.
p. Coral Reefs- Coral Reefs have been called the rainforests of the ocean because of their rich biodiversity;
found in tropical and sub-tropical waters across the globe. These reefs form the framework for an
incredible diversity of other organisms. The longest coral reef system on Earth is the Great Barrier Reef
off the east coast of Australia.
q. Open Ocean- There are three layers to recognize in any ocean biome. The top layer (the euphotic)
where the water is very shallow. In the middle (the disphotic laye) allows some light to get to the bottom of
it. The deepest layer (the apotic layer) is very deep and light is not able to reach the bottom of it. The
temperature will vary based on the layer that you are talking about. More than half of all the rainfall that
occurs in the world is right there over these various ocean biomes. The ocean holds the largest of Earth’s
biomes. It covers 70% of the planet’s surface, and more than half the rainfall on earth will occur here. Life
in the ocean is diverse (plankton and other fish).
r. Vent communities- Vent communities are animals and plants that are found deep in the ocean near hot
water or geothermal vents. Vents are found where the tectonic plates crack. Molten lava lies deep within
the cracks and heats up the water. This ecosystem is teeming with life because of nutrients from vents.
They are rich in biodiversity. There are many species found near the vent communities that are not found
anywhere else at the bottom of the ocean.
Tundra
Taiga
Grasslands
Deciduous Forest
Chaparral
Desert
Desert-scrub
Savanna
Rainforest
Alpine
37. Define:
a. Leaching- continuous rain pulls the nutrients out of the soil (not arable); common in rainforest ecosystem.
b. Permafrost- only a small layer of the ground thaws; found in subarctic
c.
IV.
Desertification- spread of desert-like
conditions to semi-arid areas; problem in the
steppe.
d. Canopy- layers of broadleaf evergreen
trees; found in tropical rainforest.
e. Erg-dunes; found in desert.
f. Reg- desert pavement (gravel, rocks, and
sand); found in desert.
g. Polar Desert- moisture in the air does not
reach the dew point, so it does not precipitate.
Far away from Equator (dry & cold as move
away); found at icecap.
h. Taiga- (Russian word for forest) a boreal forest – needled evergreens; found in subarctic
Settlement
39. 10 Most Populated Urban cities:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Tokyo, Japan
Mexico City, Mexico
Seoul, South Korea
New York City, New York
San Paulo, Brazil
Mumbai (Bombay), India
Delhi, India
Los Angeles, California
Shanghai, China
Jakarta, Indonesia
40. Cultural Hearths- A cultural hearth
is a source area from which new
ideas radiate
a. Near a river
b. In a temperate climate
c. On arable land
d. Abundance of food
41. Early cultural Hearths:
a. Mesopotamia
b. Indus River Valley
c. Yellow River Valley
d. Nile River Valley
e. Ganges River Valley
f. Mesoamerica/Middle America (not shown)
42. Factors that lead to development of a city:
a. Natural protection
b. Good climate
c. Fertile land
d. Abundant food source
1) Subsistence farming – growing enough food for daily life.
2) Commercial agriculture – growing crops for sale.
3) Slash and burn agriculture – cutting down forest, using ash for fertilizer, growing crops, and then
moving on in a couple of years when the land becomes infertile.
e. Water (fresh)
f. Near a trade center
g. Near a river – for transportation
h. Located near natural resources (Substance from nature that is not made by man, but can be used by
them.)
43. After a city starts to develop:
a. Schools develop
b. Banks develop
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
c. Housing develops
d. Transportation develops
e. Hospitals/medical care develops
f. Energy develops
g. Cultural Centers develop
City economies break down if a resource disappears (example Detroit, Michigan when the auto industry
closed factories and jobs were lost).
Urban areas- a city area considered to be the inner city plus its adjoining neighborhoods` . Having
something to do with cities. People make a living in ways other than farming.
Rural Areas- an area outside of cities and towns; primarily involved in agriculture.
Kinds of Urban Areasa. Suburbs – areas around a city – large central city
b. Metropolitan Area – land of a central city and all of its suburbs.
c. Megalopolis: chain of closely linked metropolitan areas “great city” “Boswash” Boston, New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington DC
d. Primate City: leading city in its country or region
Functions of Urban areas:
a. Manufacturing
b. Government – national, state, provincial capitals.
c. Transportation
d. Trade/office – generally will be located in a central area.
e. Recreation centers
f. Educational centers
g. Religious centers
Earliest cities: (started about 6,000 years ago);
a. Specialization started to develop: artisans, merchants, farmers, ruling elite (military or religious leaders)
b. Running the cities – (usually the ruling elite): wrote the laws, levied taxes, supervised public
building
50. Earliest Great City:
a. Mesopotamia in SW Asia: along the Tigris/Euphrates Rivers- 4,000 BCE
b. Rome: center of Roman Empire
1) built all over Europe
2) roads still used today
3) developed the grid system to lay out their cities (later spread all over Europe)
4) brought water from the mountains by aqueducts
5) Fell under invasion of Germanic Tribes
51. Economic Activities:
a. Primary: The primary sector of the economy extracts or harvests products from the earth. The primary
sector includes the production of raw material and basic foods. Agriculture (both subsistence and
commercial), mining, forestry, farming, grazing, hunting and gathering, fishing, and quarrying. The
packaging and processing of the raw material associated with this sector is also considered to be part of
this sector.
b. Secondary: The secondary sector of the economy manufactures finished goods. All of manufacturing,
processing, and construction lies within the secondary sector. Activities associated with the secondary
sector include metal working and smelting, automobile production, textile production, chemical and
engineering industries, aerospace manufacturing, energy utilities, engineering, breweries and bottlers,
construction, and shipbuilding.
c. Tertiary: The tertiary sector of the economy is the service industry. This sector provides services to the
general population and to businesses. Activities associated with this sector include retail and wholesale
sales, transportation and distribution, entertainment (movies, television, radio, music, theater, etc.),
restaurants, clerical services, media, tourism, insurance, banking, healthcare, and law.
d. Quaternary: The quaternary sector of the economy consists of intellectual activities. Activities associated
with this sector include government, culture, libraries, scientific research, education, and information
technology.
52. Industrial Revolution: started in Europe and would spread to N. America in the late 1700s. It was the rapid
development of industry in Britain in the late 18th and 19th centuries, brought about by the introduction of
machinery
53. Second Agricultural Revolution: (Move from hunter-gatherer to farming) Gradual transformation of the
traditional agricultural system that began in Britain in the 18th century. Aspects of this complex transformation
included the reallocation of land ownership to make farms more compact and an increased investment in
technical improvements, such as new machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and
experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation. The agricultural revolution was an essential
prelude to the Industrial Revolution.
a. Helped spread urbanization in the 20th c. Rural to Urban Migration
b. Dramatically increased the size of cities in North America.
54. Site and Situation: site is the location of the city and its various features within it and situation is what is
surrounding the city, or what features are located near the city.
a. Site: actual physical features (landforms, waterways, climate, etc.)
b. Situation: position of a place in relation to all places around it.
55. Factors that are needed for a city:
a. Natural protection
b. Good climate
c. Fertile land
d. Abundant food source
e. Water (fresh)
f. Near a trade center
g. Near a river – for transportation
h. Located near natural resources.
56. Confluence- the meeting of a river (or rivers) and mouth like: the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi
rivers
57. Hinterland- An area surrounding a town or port that supply it with raw materials and/or farm products.
58. Stage of the Burgess Model:
a. A concentric zone model: The centre is the oldest part of the city, CBD, (Central Business District) and
building gradually spreads out from the middle leaving the newest parts of the city on the edge
b. Entire area surrounded by the Hinterland
59. Urban Heat island- a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas; can be
up to 3º warmer because of lack of vegetation and buildings that change wind patterns
60. Reasons for Urbanization- More job opportunities and higher wages
61. Factors cause people to move to cities:
a. Jobs
b. Higher wages
c. Education
d. Better standard of living
e. More services, etc.
62. Common Urban problems:
a. sanitation
b. transportation
c. water
d. crime
e. fire
f. racial/religious conflict
g. environmental pollution
h. decline of the Central Business District
63. Since natural resources are not evenly distributed around the world, countries trade to import goods for its
citizens (either raw resources or goods they don’t produce) and export surplus goods.
64. Define:
a. Imports-to bring something or cause something to be brought in from another country, usually for
commercial or industrial purposes.
b. Exports-the selling of goods to other countries or to foreign markets.
65. Countries try to balance their imports and exports because if they export more than they import, they have a
surplus that enriches their country, but if the import more than they export, they impoverish their country.
66. Trade routes used to be confined to navigable routes over land or by waterway, but with the advent of modern
times, commercial activity shifted from the major trade routes of the Old World to newer routes between
modern nation states.
a. unemployment
b. lack of housing
67. Free Trade-the removal of trade barriers so goods can flow freely among countries.
68. WTO-World Trade Organization; the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade
between nations.
69. NAFTA-North American Free Trade Agreement; a powerful treaty that governs all North American trade.
Cutting tariffs between the US, Canada and Mexico. (1994)
70. EU-European Union; a collaborative effort between 27 European countries to form a mutually beneficial
economic and policy community.
71. Agriculture-the deliberate alteration of the earth’s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals
to obtain sustenance or economic gain.
72. Agriculture is dependent upon:
a. Climate
b. culture
c. traditions
d. demand
73. Three Agricultural revolutions:
a. The First Agricultural Revolution dating back 10,000 years ago achieved plant and animal
domestication (Dr. Carl Sauer) Flourished in Fertile Crescent of Tigris and Euphrates river
b. The Second Agricultural Revolution arose from improved methods of cultivation, harvesting, and
storage of farm produce. Coincided with Industrial Revolution, so surpluses of food provided sustenance
for factory workers. New technologies improved crop yields. Was supported by governments of Europe
(Enclosure Act of Great Britain—forced large scale farms).
c. The Third Agricultural Revolution is currently in progress. It is oriented around the development of
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s), and it is also known as the Green Revolution. Dates back to
the 1930’s; manipulating seeds to increase yields. 1960’s focus turned to India. Crops: corn, wheat, &
rice; decreased famine; “Hunger Areas” greatly impacted.
Agriculture developed into vegetative planting/direct cloning from existing plants (by cutting
stems and dividing roots). Later was seed agriculture, that is practiced by most farmers today.
Technology has impacted agriculture by mechanizing farms to reduce labor needs, and in manipulating
seeds/plants to improve or increase crop yields. High agricultural output, mechanized farming, and lower labor
forces in agriculture would be seen in most developed countries.
74. Impacts of agriculture on environment:
a. Increased deforestation
b. Loss of habitat for wildlife
c. Increased use of chemicals leading to runoff into waterways
75. Define:
a. Subsistence farming: form of farming in which nearly all the crops or livestock raised are used to
maintain the farmer and his family, leaving little surplus for sale or trade.
b. Commercial farming: Commercial Agriculture refers to a process of large-scale production of crops for
sale, intended for widespread distribution to wholesalers or retail outlets.
76. Define:
a. Deforestation: large scale clearing of forests
b. Slash and Burn agriculture: of a method of agriculture used in the tropics, in which forest vegetation is
felled and burned, the land is cropped for a few years, and then the forest is allowed to reinvade.
c. Strip farming - a method of farming used when a slope is too steep or too long, or when other types of
farming may not prevent soil erosion. Strip farming alternates strips of closely sown crops such as hay,
wheat, or other small grains with strips of row crops, such as corn, soybeans, cotton, or sugar beets. It is
also known as strip cropping. Strip Farming helps to stop soil erosion by creating natural dams for water,
helping to preserve the strength of the soil.
d. Dry Farming- farming in arid areas without irrigation by planting drought-resistant crops and maintaining
a fine surface tilth or mulch that protects the natural moisture of the soil from evaporation
e. Husbandry- The act or practice of cultivating crops and breeding and raising livestock; agriculture
77. Examples of nonrenewable and renewable resources
a. Nonrenewable resources: fossil fuels, metal ores, precious gemstones
b. Renewable resources: solar power, wind, water, domesticated animals, plants, trees
78. Sustainability- Development that satisfies current needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations
to meet their needs
79. The 3 things that sustainability must consider: the environment, the economy and society
80. Six principles of sustainability:
a. Soil erosion cannot exceed soil formation
b. Forest destruction cannot exceed forest regeneration
c. Species extinction cannot exceed species evolution
d. Fish catches cannot exceed the regenerative capacity of fisheries
e. Pollutants cannot exceed the capacity of the system to absorb them
f. A society can violate the principles of sustainability in the short run, but not the long, if they want to
endure
81. 3 strategies of sustainable development:
a. Conservation
b. Reuse
c. Substitution
82. Developing countries are in the best position to promote sustainable development because they have the
money they need to afford these practices or develop the new technology needed.
83. Developing countries struggle with sustainable practices because they lack the money needed to develop
sustainable practices
84. The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized
countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions .These amount to an
average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
An example of the sustainability conflict between Developed and Developing Countries was that Developing
countries did not use a lot of energy in 1990, so the Kyoto protocol prevents them from developing like more
developed countries did
85. The U.N. is an international organization composed of most of the countries of the world. It was founded in
1945 to promote peace, security, and economic development, and is located in New York City.
86. Migrant: a person who moved to another country
87. Most people migrate from Rural to Urban areas.
88. Immigrant: someone who enters another country
89. Emigrant: someone who leaves their country
90. Refugee: someone who is forced to leave their country and seeks asylum in another country
91. Internally Displaced Person: someone who is forced to leave their home, but does not cross a border
92. Define
a. Push Factors - those things that make someone leave a place
b. Pull Factors - those things that draw someone to a place
V.
Population and Demographics
97. Population of the Earth is 7 billion people.
98. The earth’s population is expected to double in 57 years.
99. The Earth’s population is not distributed evenly because physical barriers make some places inhospitable.
100.
The world’s population is growing because of declines in death rates due to better medicine and
technology
101.
The problems that can arise when population increases too rapidly are that there are Not enough
resources, land, infrastructure to sustain populations.
102.
Define characteristics:
a. Developed Country:
1) People are relatively well off
2) People live long lives
3) People are well educated and highly skilled (literacy)
4) Population is growing slowly
5) Most people live in cities
6) Few people work in agriculture
7) Energy consumption is high
8) Most people work in manufacturing or service industries
9) Transportation and communication networks are well developed
10) Environmental control is high
b. Developing Country:
1) People are relatively poor
2) People do not live long lives
3) People are not well educated (literacy)
4) Population is growing rapidly
5) Most people live in rural areas or urban slums
6) Many people work in agriculture
7) Energy consumption is low
8) Few people work in manufacturing or service industries
9) Transportation and communication networks are not well developed
10) Environmental control is low
103.
The world's population growth rate since the Industrial Revolution is graphically
illustrated as a “J” curve
104.
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a tool developed by the U.N. to
measure and rank countries’ levels of social and economic development based on
four criteria: Life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling, expected years of
schooling and gross national income per capita
105.
Define:
a. Most Economically Developed Country-term used by modern geographers to specifically describe the
status of countries referred to as more economically developed or having high levels of economic
development (low birth, low death, low infant mortality, low agriculture workforce, high nutrition,
education/literacy, high energy use, high GDP).
b. Least Economically Developed Country- is the name given to a country which according to the United
Nations exhibit the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development, with the lowest Human Development
Index ratings of all countries in the world. A country is classified as a Least Developed Country if it meets
three criteria[1] based on (updated 2009, Ref: http://www.unohrlls.org/en/ldc/related/59/):
1) low-income (three-year average GNI per capita of less than US $905, which must exceed $1,086
to leave the list)
2) human resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy)
and
3) economic vulnerability (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of
goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export
concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by
natural disasters)
c. Newly Industrialized Country- NICs are countries whose economies have not yet reached First World
status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts. Another
characterization of NICs is that of nations undergoing rapid economic growth (usually export-oriented).
Incipient or ongoing industrialization is an important indicator of a NIC. In many NICs, social upheaval can
occur as primarily rural, agricultural populations migrate to the cities, where the growth of manufacturing
concerns and factories can draw many thousands of laborers.
NICs usually share some other common features, including:
1) Increased social freedoms and civil rights.
2) Strong political leaders.
3) A switch from agricultural to industrial economies, especially in the manufacturing sector.
4) An increasingly open-market economy, allowing free trade with other nations in the world.
5) Large national corporations operating in several continents.
6) Strong capital investment from foreign countries.
7) Political leadership in their area of influence.
8) Lowered poverty rates.
106.
The Brandt line is The north–south divide is a socio-economic and political division that exists between
the wealthy developed countries, known collectively as "the north", and the poorer developing countries (least
developed countries), or "the south”
107.
Define & Describe
a. Demographic Transition model- The Demographic Transition Model literally means 'Population Change
Model'. This is a very useful model, showing how dynamic (subject to change) population is. Population
change is shown in two ways here. The first is change over SPACE: a number of countries at the same
time can exhibit the population characteristics of different stages. Second is change over TIME: a country
will theoretically progress through stages
b. Demographic Transition model Stages:
1) stage 1: high birth and death rates
2) stage 2: declining death rates
3) stage 3: declining birth rates
4) stage 4: low birth and death rates
108.
a.
b.
c.
The problems with the Demographic Transition model are:
Based on European experience, assumes all countries will progress to complete industrialization
Many countries “stuck” in stage 2 or stage 3
Reflects logic of continuous growth, which is an impossibility
109.
Population Pyramids: A diagram that shows the percentage of the total population of a state in five-year
age categories Mostly Economically Developed
Lest Economically Developed
110.
Define:
a. Annual- each year
b. Annual Growth Rate- percentage a country’s population grows or decreases each year (including
immigration and emigration)
c. Arable Land- land that is capable of growing crops (to feed one person you need approximately .17
acres)
d. Birth Rate -the average number of births per 1,000 people per yea
e. Capital - money and materials used to produce more wealth
f. Carrying Capacity - how many people the land can sustain (support)
g. Commodity - something of use, advantage, or value (goods, merchandise, services, etc.)
h. Death Rate - the average number of deaths per 1,000 people per year
i. Demographics - study of human population statistics
j. Doubling Rate/Time - projected number of years it will take for a population to double in size
k. Emigrant- An emigrant leaves their land to live in another country. The person is emigrating to another
country.
l. Energy Consumption- total amount of energy used by each place divided by the number of people in
the same place (includes industrial use)
m. Exchange Rate- ratio at which a unit of the currency in one country can be exchanged for that of another
country
n. Export - to ship (commodities) to other countries or places for sale, exchange, use, etc. (SELL)
o. Fertility Rate - average number of children a woman shall have in her lifetime in a given place
p. Gross Domestic Product -(GDP) common measure of the nation’s wealth – annual profits from all goods
and services produced in a country in a year
q. Gross National Product-(GNP) common measure of the nation’s wealth – annual profits from all goods
and services produced by a country in a year
r. Immigrant- is a person who once resided somewhere else and now lives in your country
s. Import - to bring in (merchandise, commodities, workers, etc.) from a foreign country for use, sale,
processing, re-export, or services (BUY)
t. Infant Mortality- annual average number of children who die before reaching the age of one per 1,000
live births
u. Inflation - rise in the general level of prices related to an increase in the volume of money and resulting in
the loss of value of currency. Example: at 10% inflation a $1 bag of chips will cost $1.10 the following
year.
v. Infrastructure- buildings and other structures needed to industrialize – hospitals, roads, schools,
electricity, airports, factories, etc
w. Landlocked- having no direct access to the sea (surrounded by other nations – not water)
x. Life Expectancy-average number of years a person born today can expect to live if conditions remain
the same
y. Literacy Rate-percentage of the population that has the ability to read and write
z. Mass Production- large scale processing of raw materials into products
aa. Median Age- the age where half of the population is older and half of the population is younger than the
midpoint. (The US is 35.3 – ½ the population is younger than 35.5 and ½ is older)
bb. Migration - to leave a place and move permanently to another place
cc. Natural Increase- growth or decline caused by subtracting the birth rate from the death rate (this is
different from annual growth rate because it does not include immigration and emigration)
dd. Natural Resources - materials from nature used by humans
ee. Negative Population Growth- when the death rate exceeds the birth rate
ff. Non-Renewable Resource- resource that can not be replaced, recycled, or grown in a fairly short period
of time
gg. Per Capita - average per person
hh. Per Capita Income - average annual income for a person in a place – GNP or GDP divided by number
of population
ii. Population Density- average number of people per square mile (kilometer in some nations)
jj. Postindustrial Economy- economy based on services, information, and high technology
kk. Primary Industry- makes a living directly from the land (farming / mining)
ll. Pull Factor- factors that make people want to come to a place
mm. Push Factor- factors that make people want to leave a place
nn. Quaternary Industry- makes a living from new knowledge and information jobs
oo. Renewable Resource- resources that can be recycled, renewed, or replanted in a fairly short period of
time
pp. Rural Population- percentage of the total population living in towns under 2,000 people
qq. Secondary Industry- makes a living from manufacturing or processing
rr. Standard of Living - quality of life
ss. Suffrage - the right to vote, especially in political elections
tt. Telecommunications - computer enhanced communication over a long distance
uu. Tertiary Industry - makes a living from service jobs
vv. Unemployment - the percentage of the work force that is out of work; jobless
ww. Urban Population - percentage of the total population living in towns of over 2,000 people
xx. Zero Population Growth- when a populations birth and death rates are equal
111.
Asia has the highest population, while Oceana has one of the lowest
112.
Infant mortality rates are consistently lowered by better medical care and a better standard of living
113.
High Infant mortality rates, limited access to decent infrastructure, and short life expectancy indicate
that it is a developing world country.
114.
As population increases, the amount of arable land per person decreases. Only 11% of land is arable
in the world.
115.
The United States consumes the most energy in the world.
116.
Countries want to control their population growth because it will create a balance between population
and available Resources.
VI.
Government and Economic Systems
117.
There are approximately 196-200 countries in the world today.
118.
The features of a government are:
a. Responsible for maintaining order (make and enforce laws)
b. Providing defense
c. Supplying public services
119.
The difference between Nation, State, and Country is that a Nation is the people and the border around it
(people in a territorial area), a State is the border around an area (the territory), and a Country is a state or
nation with a unified government, &/or the territory around a nation.
120.
The levels of government are
a. Unitary: Strong Central Government
b. Confederation: Strong local government
c. Federation: Federal and Local government share power.
121.
The types of government are
a. Autocracy-Power and rule are given to a single individual (oldest form of government)
1) Totalitarian Dictatorship-come to power through election or revolution. Control all aspects of
social/economic life. People have no power. (was Libya)
2) Monarchy-inherited position
i. Absolute Monarchs-Complete and Unlimited power (Saudi Arabia)
ii.
Constitutional Monarchs-share power with elected legislatues or serve as ceremonial
leaders. (United Kingdom)
b. Oligarchy-system where a small group hlds the power, which comes from wealth, military power, social
position, or a combination of these elements.
1) Theocracy-religious leaders hold power (Iran)
2) Communist- communist party and military hold power (China)
c. Democracy-leaders rule with consent of the citizenry, so people hold power.
1) Direct Democracy-citizens decide on issues. (No national governmentas example)
2) Representative Democracy-people elect representatives to make laws and conduct government.
(Germany)
3) Voters elect all major government officials who are responsible to the people. (U.S.)
122.
123.
a.
b.
c.
The U.S. government is a Federal Republic.
Three Economic systems:
Communism: Government controls all aspects of the economy, [Cuba, North Korea]
Free Enterprise: Individuals control all aspect of the economy
Traditional: Economy is based on tradition (what has always been done); subsistence farming and
cottage industries. [Native American or Eskimo tribes]
Mixed Economy: State Regulations with Private business ownership-United States
124.
125.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
126.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
Karl Marx was the founder of Communism. He favored a classless society.
Define terms:
Autocracy-Controlled by one person
Totalitarian-leader tries to control all aspects of society through military rule
Monarchy-leader inherits power
Colonialism-Countries go out and create colonies around the world
Compulsory-required
Constitution-written document dictating the role and rules of government/country
Constitutional monarchy-King/queen considered figureheads and government is controlled by an
elected body, (democracy)
Democracy- controlled by the people
Direct democracy- citizens vote directly on the issues, no representatives
Representative Democracy (Republic)-people vote for representatives
Dictatorship- leader gets their power through military rule
Federal Government- the government divides governmental powers between the national government
and the state or provincial governments.
Oligarchy: controlled by a few
Parliamentary Government: Country controlled by a parliament (elected body)
Republic- a government in which people elect representatives to exercise power for them.
Sovereignty: no higher authority
Theocracy: laws/government based on religion
Totalitarianism- a centralized government system in which a single party without opposition rules over
political, economic, social, and cultural life.
Unitary System-a government where all key powers go to the national or central government.
Define terms:
Command Economy- an economy in which resources and business activity are controlled by the
government.
Communism - any system of government in which a single, usually totalitarian, party holds power, and
the state controls the economy.
Commercial Agriculture- The production of crops for sale, crops intended for widespread distribution to
wholesalers or retail outlets.
Commercial Industries-The production of goods for sale over a widespread distribution.
Private Property- land or belongings owned by a person or group and kept for their exclusive use.
Free Enterprise- An economic system in which private business operates in competition and largely free
of state control.
Supply and Demand- the relationship between how much of a particular product is available and how
much of it people want, and especially the way that this affects the level of prices.
Goods- articles for sale or use.
Mixed Economy- an economy in which some industries and businesses are government-owned and
some are privately owned.
Scarcity- an insufficient supply
Socialism- a political system that aims to create a society in which everyone has equal opportunities and
in which the most important industries are owned or controlled by the whole community.
Subsistence Agriculture- growing enough food for daily life.
Traditional Economy-what goods or services are offered are dictated by tradition
Needs vs. wants- A need is something that you have to have. A want is something you would like to
have.
Commodity- an item that is bought and sold.
VII.
Culture
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b.
Culture- a way of life.
Custom-a usual way of acting or doing things in an area or amongst a group of people.
Define and Describe:
Culture Hearths- a source area from which new ideas radiate.
Early Cultural Hearths: (Near a river, in a temperate climate, on arable land, abundance of food)
1) Mesopotamia2) Indus River Valley
3) Yellow River Valley
4) Nile River Valley
5) Ganges River Valley
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g.
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6) Middle America
Cultural Region- a region of places that share common cultural aspects.
The two types of Culture are Nonmaterial and Material Culture.
Seven Elements to Consider about a culture:
Location-where a culture lives & Environment a Culture Lives (topographic, climate, natural resource
availability)
Communication in a culture (language, artistic expression
Population Size and social organizations formed (family, work, religious, educational, governmental,
recreational, ethnic, etc)
Population living in Rural/urban areas
Economic Activities of a culture (Service, Industry, Agriculture)
Form of government of a culture
Religion of a culture (beliefs and Values)
Social group- Two or more people who are joined together by some shared bond or affinity, a
lot of time based on wealth.
Ethnic Group-people of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture.
Folk Culture-traditionally practiced by a small, homogenous, rural group living in relative isolation.
Popular culture: mostly defined by popular music, dress and language of the time.
Cultural taboo: A custom prohibiting or restricting a particular practice or forbidding association
with a particular person, place, or thing. Examples:
Dietary taboos-eating pork (Jews & Muslims), eating meat (Hindus)
Medical taboos-not using insulin because of pork derivative, taking medicine during Ramadan(Muslims)
Universal taboos-prohibition of cannibalism, homicide, restrictions on sexual activities/relationship, etc.
Cultures change by coming in contact with other cultures or adapting to new situations, cultural diffusion.
Cultural diffusion- transmission of a cultural element from one culture to another.
The factors that affect diffusion are: contact and geography.
Cultural Convergence are when two or more cultures come in contact.
Cultural divergence - when cultures try to separate themselves from outside influences.
Acculturation- a change in the cultural behavior and thinking of a person or group of people
through contact with another culture.
Transculturation- the change in a culture brought about by the diffusion within it of aspects from
another dominant cultures. Transculturation recognizes the power of the subordinate culture to
create its own version of the dominant culture.
Migrant Diffusion- Migrant diffusion is a type of diffusion when something is prevalent in its hearth
(origin) for a brief period, but then dies in its hearth by the time it spreads outward to other areas. For
example, the spread of the flu is migrant diffusion because by the time it spreads away from its hearth,
most of the people in its hearth are generally already immune to it.
Cultural Assimilation- people of different backgrounds come to see themselves as part of a larger
national family.
Ethnocentrism- based on the attitude that one's own group is superior.
Describe:
Time-Space Compression- the apparent compression of geographic space by faster means of transport
and communication.
Distance Decay Models- Distance decay refers to the decrease or loss of similarity between two
observations as the distance between them increases.
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Placelessness- with mass communication, and increasingly ubiquitous high technology, places become
more and more similar, so that locations lose a distinctive ‘sense of place’.
People trade because resources are distributed unevenly.
Define:
Language- The method of human communication, either spoken, written, or contextual consisting of the
use of words in a structured and conventional way, or nonverbal language.
Language family- a set of languages that derive from a common root and thus are very similar in terms
of grammar or lexicon
Language Group- set of languages with a relatively recent common origin and many similar
characteristics (i.e. Germanic, Romance, Slavic, etc.)
Language sub-family - group of languages with more commonality than a language family (indicates
they have branched off more recently in history)
Creole Language- a mother tongue formed from the contact of two languages through an earlier pidgin
stage. Usually applied to a descendant of Spanish or other European settlers in the Caribbean or Central
or South America.
Dialect- a particular form of a language that is peculiar to a specific region or social group
Indo-European Languages – a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most
major languages of Europe.
Lingua Franca - a common language consisting of Italian mixed with French, Spanish, Greek, and Arabic
that was formerly spoken in Mediterranean ports
Monolingual - having or using only one language
Official Language - a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other
jurisdiction
Pidgin - a simplified speech used for communication between people with different languages
Toponymy - The study of place names
Trade Language- a restructured language (as a lingua franca or pidgin) used especially in commercial
communication
Spatial Diffusion- Process by which an idea or innovation is transmitted:
Columbian Exchange- the exchange of crops, animals, and disease and ideas of different cultures after
Europeans landed in the Americas.
Globalization- the act or process of globalizing, being globalized, especially the development of an
increasingly integrated global economy marked especially by free trade, free flow of capital, and the
tapping of cheaper foreign labor markets. Example:
Bubonic Plague-the epidemic experienced during the middle ages, which killed nearly 1/3 of Western
Europe. Also known as the Black Death.
Columbian Exchange- the exchange of crops, animals, and disease and ideas of different cultures after
Europeans landed in the Americas. (also an example of spatial diffusion).