Download Healthier meat products as functional foods

Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55
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Meat Science
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / m e a t s c i
Review
Healthier meat products as functional foods
Eric A. Decker ⁎, Yeonhwa Park
Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 January 2010
Received in revised form 26 March 2010
Accepted 15 April 2010
Keywords:
Functional foods
Fatty acids
Omega-3 fatty acids
Conjugated linoleic acid
Bioactive peptides
Antioxidants
Dietary fiber
a b s t r a c t
A promising approach to improving health care would be to produce a healthier food supply as a preventive
health care strategy. The food supply could be improved by producing functional foods that have nutritional
profiles that are healthier than conventional products. However, production of functional foods is not always
easily accomplished since they must also taste good, be convenient and reasonably priced so that consumers
will regularly purchase and use the products. Meats have great potential for delivering important nutrients
such as fatty acids, minerals, dietary fiber, antioxidants and bioactive peptides into the diet. However, to
produce successful products with these ingredients, technologies must be developed to increase their
stability and decrease their flavor impact on muscle foods. In addition, many regulatory hurdles must be
overcome for the commercial production of meats with added nutrients. These include redefinition of
standard of identities and policies that allow front of the package nutritional claims. Without these
regulatory changes, production of healthier meat products won't become a reality since these products
would not have a competitive advantage over unfortified meats.
© 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
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5.
6.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unsaturated fatty acids . . . . . . . . . .
Dietary fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Antioxidant vitamins . . . . . . . . . . .
Other potential functional food compounds
6.1.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) . . .
6.2.
Bioactive peptides . . . . . . . . .
7.
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Introduction
Each year, in the U.S. alone, medical costs for major chronic
diseases including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis and obesity exceed $400 billion (DHHS, 2010). Many of these
disorders are known to be directly linked to the human diet. This
means that many challenges in health care could be proactively
improved by producing a healthier food supply as a preventive health
care strategy. However, this is not easily accomplished since
improving the food supply must be done without dramatically
⁎ Corresponding author. Department of Food Science, Chenoweth Laboratory,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, United States. Tel.: +1 413 545
1026; fax: +1 413 545 1262.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E.A. Decker).
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altering consumer needs such as food quality, convenience and
costs. One way to look at the challenge of improving the food supply is
to realize that the success of food-based health care intervention is
dependent on both efficacy and compliance. Efficacy relates to the
ability of the food-based intervention to alter the biological pathways
that improve health, whereas compliance relates to the propensity for
an individual to actually consume the health promoting product. No
matter how efficacious an intervention is, it will not be effective if
compliance is poor. This is especially true for functional foods as they
must be efficacious while also tasting good, being convenient and
reasonably priced so that consumers will regularly purchase the
products.
Meat and poultry products are a food category with both positive
and negative nutritional attributes. Muscle foods are major sources for
many bioactive compounds including iron, zinc, conjugated linoleic
0309-1740/$ – see front matter © 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.04.021
50
E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55
Table 1
Factors to consider when choosing a functional food ingredient for a specific food.
Is the bioactive compound under consumed by general population?
Is the bioactive compound under consumed by a target population?
What is the evidence for efficacy in humans?
Is the form of the bioactive compound being used bioavailable?
What is the stability of the bioactive compound in the food of interest?
○ Oxidative stability
○ Light stability
○ Stability to inherent food enzymes
○ pH sensitivity
○ Heat stability
How does the bioactive compounds impact food quality?
○ Flavor
○ Texture
○ Color
Is an economically generally recognized as safe (GRAS) source of the bioactive
compound commercially available?
Are there any regulatory restrictions to added the bioactive compounds to the food
of interest?
○ Standard of identify
Can health or nutrient content claims be made about the bioactive compound so
that the health benefits of the product can be communicated to the consumer?
acid (mainly ruminants) and B vitamins (Jimenez-Colmenero et al.,
2001). However, meats and processed meats are also associated with
nutrients and nutritional profiles that are often considered negative
including high levels of saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, sodium and
high fat and caloric contents (Whitney & Rolfes, 2002). Some of these
negative nutrients in meats can be minimized by selection of lean
meat cuts, removal of adipose fat, dietary manipulation to alter fatty
acid composition and proper portion control to decrease fat
consumption and caloric intake. In addition, the nutritional profile
of meat products could be further improved by addition of potentially
health promoting nutrients. These products would be categorized as
functional foods which are defined as foods with nutritional profiles
that exceed conventional products. In deciding proper nutrients for
functional foods, several factors should be considered including the
bioactive compound's current intake level in the diet (e.g. would the
consumer benefit from an increase in the bioactive compound in the
diet), biological efficacy in humans, stability in the food product and
impact on quality parameters such as color, flavor and texture
(Table 1). The major nutrients currently under consumed by adults in
the U.S. include calcium, potassium, magnesium, fiber as well as
vitamins A, C and E (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). In
addition, omega-3 fatty acids are currently under consumed according
to recommended intake levels set by associations such as the
American Heart Association (for review see Harris, 2007). Finally,
several newly recognized health promoting bioactive compounds
have potential as functional food components such as conjugated
linoleic acid and bioactive peptides. Table 2 shows some examples of
bioactive compounds being considered for addition to functional
foods.
2. Unsaturated fatty acids
In many countries, consumers are over consuming saturated fatty
acids and under consuming polyunsaturated fatty acids especially the
omega-3 fatty acids (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). Fatty
acid intake is a major problem because of the ability of fatty acids to
impact low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels which are
associated with cardiovascular disease. In general, saturated fatty
acids increased LDL cholesterol levels in the plasma and thus increase
cardiovascular disease risk while polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease
LDL cholesterol levels (Whitney & Rolfes, 2002). There is also much
interest in incorporating omega-3 fatty acids into function foods. This
is because many consumers are currently under consuming omega-3
fatty acids so increased consumption could be beneficial by decreasing
blood triacylglycerols, sudden cardiac death, depression and arthritis
(Harris, 2007).
The fatty acid composition of meat from ruminants is generally
more saturated due to the fact that unsaturated fatty acids are
subjected to biohydrogenation in the rumen (Fig. 1). The lack of a
rumen means that the fatty acid composition of muscle foods from
animals such as pigs, poultry and fish can be altered by diet as many
papers have been published on increasing the unsaturated fatty acids
composition of pigs and poultry (for review see Bou et al., 2009). This
practice already occurs in specialty products such as Iberian hams
which are high in oleic acid due to consumption of acorns (NarvaezRivas et al., 2008) and aquaculture salmon which are fed fish oils high
in omega-3 fatty acids (Blanchet et al., 2005). However, these
practices are limited by the fact that increasing levels of unsaturated
fatty acids decreases the oxidative stability of the meat product. In
contrast, increasing unsaturated fatty acids by dietary manipulation
has been very successful in eggs. This is because eggs are naturally
very antioxidative with the lipids packaged in oxidative stable
lipoproteins, the iron inactivated by binding to proteins such as
phosvitin and maintenance of low oxygen environment (Bou et al.,
2009). Increasing unsaturated fatty acids is especially a problem in
muscle foods since they are high in prooxidative metals, generally low
in endogenous antioxidants and subjected to processing operations
that greatly increase oxidative stress (e.g. cooking to produce
warmed-over flavor). Thus, alteration of dietary fatty acids to change
muscle composition is most easily accomplished with oleic acid since
it is at least 10 times more oxidatively stable than polyunsaturated
fatty acids such as linolenic (McClements & Decker, 2008). However, if
dietary manipulation is performed to increase polyunsaturated fatty
acids, then antioxidant technologies must also be employed to
Table 2
Examples of bioactive compounds being considered as functional food ingredients in
meats.
Essential vitamins and minerals
Nonessential nutrients
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Iron
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Long chain omega-3 fatty acids
Dietary fiber
Conjugated linoleic acid
Bioactive peptides
Probiotic bacteria
Antioxidants
Prebiotics
Fig. 1. Biohydrogenation of linolenic acid by rumen bacteria enzymes and endogenous
synthesis of conjugated linolenic acid.
E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55
minimize oxidative deterioration. Inhibition of oxidative deterioration
could be accomplished by increasing muscle antioxidants by diet or
food ingredients, decreasing storage temperature and/or oxygen
exclusion by vacuum packaging.
As mentioned earlier, the fatty acid composition of ruminants is
difficult to change because unsaturated fatty acids are biohydrogenated in the rumen. Attempts have been made to use protected
dietary fats that are unavailable to ruminant bacterial enzymes but are
then released in the small intestine where they are absorbed and
incorporated into muscle or milk. Protected lipids have been largely
unsuccessful due to their higher cost especially in relation to the low
level of fatty acid change they produce in tissue. There are also many
references of improved fatty acid compositions in grass fed beef. These
references relate to the increased levels of omega-3 fatty acids
(especially α-linolenic acid) in beef on pasture. However, the
nutritional importance of increased α-linolenic acid concentration is
not clear since α-linolenic acid is not as bioactive as longer chain
omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA (Harris, 2007) and since the
total increase in omega-3 fatty acids in an 85 g portion of grass feed
beef is generally less than 50 mg (Scollan et al., 2006) which is less
than 10% of current recommendation of 500 mg omega-3 fatty acids
per day (Harris, 2007).
Another approach to altering the fatty acid composition is direct
addition of oils to processed meat products. This approach is most
promising for omega-3 fatty acids which only need to be added at low
levels (50–100 mg, approximately 150–300 mg fish oil) to be
nutritionally significant. An advantage of this approach is that the
omega-3 fatty acids can be encapsulated in delivery systems that
inhibit oxidation without decreasing bioavailability. Lee and coworkers (Lee, Faustman, et al., 2006; Lee, Hernandez, et al., 2006) found
that a combination of protein encapsulation of a high DHA algal oil
and an antioxidant cocktail of citric acid, erythorbate and rosemary
extract was able to control lipid oxidation and not alter sensory
properties of ground turkey and pork sausage. However, a potential
disadvantage of exogenous addition of omega-3 fatty acids into
processed meats is that a portion of the bioactive lipids (up to 30%)
can be lost during cooking (Lee et al., 2006).
51
populations, iron is also under consumed but its addition to meat is
problematic as it will rapidly promote lipid oxidation and discoloration (McClements & Decker, 2008). Fortification of processed meats
with calcium, potassium and magnesium can be accomplished
without major changes in sensory profile (Moon et al., 2008; Schoene
et al., 2009; Selgas, Salazar, & Garcia 2009). An additional advantage of
calcium, potassium and magnesium fortification is that these minerals
can be used to reduce sodium levels in processed meats thus further
improving the nutritional profile of the product (Moon et al., 2008).
Salt such as potassium lactate can also be advantageous since it
inhibits lipid oxidation and microbial growth (Moon et al., 2008).
Calcium can activate the protease, calpain, which increases meat
tenderness. Research has shown that calcium infusion into beef cattle
can both increase muscle calcium concentrations (Dikeman et al.,
2003) and improve beef tenderness after 14 days of aging (Diles et al.,
1994). However, in some processed meats, calcium, potassium and
magnesium inhibit proteolytic enzymes important in the flavor
development of dry-cured meats (Armenteros et al., 2009) although
they do not negatively impact salty flavor (Armenteros et al., 2009).
There has also been considerable interest in the dietary supplementation of livestock with selenium. Muscle selenium concentrations can be increased by dietary selenium supplementation in beef
(Juniper et al., 2008), pork (Morel et al., 2008) and chicken (Pan et al.,
2007) suggesting that supplemented livestock could be beneficial for
human health. Increases in muscle selenium concentrations correlate
with increases in the activity of glutathione peroxidiase, a seleniumcontaining enzyme that decomposes lipid hydroperoxides. However,
increases in the activity of glutathione peroxidase in beef did not
increase the oxidative stability of the muscle (Juniper et al., 2008).
Increases in dietary selenium for humans has been of interest because
of epidemiological evidence that selenium decreases prostate cancer
risk and beneficial for thyroid function (Lippman & Watkins, 2004;
Combs et al., 2009). However, a recent clinical trial with over 35,000
men (SELECT Trial) concluded that dietary selenium does not prevent
prostate cancer in health men in the U.S., Canada and Puerto Rico
(Lippman & Watkins, 2004). In addition, examination of 28 men from
the SELECT Trial found that dietary selenium produced no changes in
thyroid hormone concentrations.
3. Dietary fiber
5. Antioxidant vitamins
Dietary fiber can be classified as soluble and insoluble fiber. Both
types of fiber have numerous health benefits including maintaining
bowel integrity and health, lowering blood cholesterol levels,
controlling blood sugar levels and providing a non-caloric bulking
agent that can aid in weight loss by replacing caloric food components
such as fat. According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2005),
dietary fibers are under consumed by most adults indicating that fiber
fortification in meat products could have health benefits. Numerous
papers have shown that fiber fortification into sausages at nutritionally significant levels (2–3 g/serving) can be accomplished without
adverse impact on sensory quality (Besbes et al., 2008; Choi et al.,
2008; Salazar et al., 2009; Yilmaz & Gecgel, 2009). In addition to the
benefit of increased fiber consumption, dietary fibers in meat
products also have other advantages such as fat replacement,
increased water-holding capacity and improved oxidative stability
when the fiber source is associated with phenolic antioxidants (Choi
et al., 2008; Sayago-Ayerdi et al., 2009).
4. Minerals
Dietary mineral are essential for bone health, hypertension,
muscle and nerve function, regulation of blood sugar levels and thus
are important in diseases such as hypertension, cardiovascular
disease, osteoporosis and diabetes (Whitney & Rolfes, 2002). Calcium,
potassium and magnesium are the most commonly under consumed
minerals in the diet (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). In some
Dietary antioxidants have been suggested to be beneficial to
immune function, heart disease and cancer. Vitamins A, C and E are
consumed at levels below their recommended dietary intake levels by
many consumers (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). Addition
of vitamin C to meats is difficult because it is not very stable at meat
pH and it tends to promote lipid oxidation (Decker & Hultin, 1992;
Haak et al., 2009). In addition, vitamin C addition to meats is often
prohibited since it can stabilize meat color and thus is considered
adulteration. β-carotene is an important source of dietary Vitamin A.
In general, meats are not a good source of β-carotene or other
carotenoids with the exception of chicken. β-carotene concentrations
can be increased by dietary supplementation (for review see Bou
et al., 2009). Addition of β-carotene to meats as a food ingredient is
often difficult due to its chemical instability. Both exogenous addition
and dietary fortification of β-carotene is also limited since it will alter
the color of the muscle (Torrissen, 2000).
Meats are an important dietary source of vitamin E with poultry
and ground beef being the second and sixth most important sources of
α-tocopherol in men while poultry is the third most important source
in women (Ma et al., 2000). Muscle foods could be even better sources
of vitamin E through meat fortification or dietary supplementation
with α-tocopheryl acetate. Vitamin E fortification in foods is most
effective when α-tocopheryl acetate is used as the ingredient. This is
because the addition of the acetate group onto the tocopherol protects
the molecule from oxidation (McClements & Decker, 2008). Mixed
52
E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55
tocopherols are also sometimes added to meats to inhibit lipid
oxidation (Mitsumoto, 2000). Whether these would significantly
contribute to the nutritional profile is unknown since they would be
oxidatively degraded during storage and since they have significantly
less vitamin E activity than α-tocopherol (Mustacich et al., 2007).
The vitamin E content of muscle foods can also be increased by
dietary fortification (for review see Schaefer et al., 1995). Incorporation of α-tocopherol via the diet allows the biological system to
efficiently incorporate α-tocopherol into the cell membranes (the
other tocopherol homologs are not efficiently incorporated into
biological membranes when incorporated into the diet). Cell
membranes with high levels of tocopherol are significantly more
resistant to lipid oxidation since membrane phospholipids are the
primary site of oxidation. Thus, α-tocopherol has a major benefit to
protecting meat flavor. In addition, lipid oxidation in beef muscle
causes myoglobin discoloration so α-tocopherol supplementation
also protects meat color. Overall, α-tocopheryl acetate supplementation of livestock could have major benefits to both meat quality and
nutritional composition (for review see Schaefer et al., 1995; Jensen
et al., 1998).
epidermis, prostate, colon, liver, kidney, and lung (Lee et al., 2005;
Bhattacharya et al., 2006; Kelley et al., 2007; Park, 2009). There are
limited studies about the effects of naturally occurring CLA on human
cancer incidence. Knekt et al. (1996) reported an inverse relationship
between milk intake and incidence of breast cancer which might be
associated with CLA content in milk. This observation is consistent
with Aro et al. (2000) in postmenopausal women. However, others
reported weak or no association between milk and daily consumption
and CLA levels and breast cancer in humans (Chajes et al., 2002;
Voorrips et al., 2002; Chajes et al., 2003; Rissanen et al., 2003; McCann
et al., 2004; Moorman & Terry, 2004; Larsson et al., 2009), and
Talamini et al. (1984) reported increased breast cancer risk with more
frequent consumption of milk and dairy products. There is an
additional publication reporting that CLA showed an inverse association with colorectal cancer incidence in women (Larsson et al.,
2005). Overall, it is not conclusive if naturally occurring CLA has a
significant health impact on prevention of cancer. Thus, further
studies are needed to confirm the implications of CLA on human
cancer prevention.
6.2. Bioactive peptides
6. Other potential functional food compounds in muscle foods
6.1. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)
One fatty acid that has drawn significant attention for its potential
health benefits in the last two decades is conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA). CLA is naturally found in milk and dairy products (Chin et al.,
1992) and was originally identified as an anti-cancer component from
ground beef extract (Pariza & Hargraves, 1985; Ha et al., 1987).
Although there are a number of CLA isomers, the primary natural
isomer of CLA in food is the cis-9,trans-11 isomer (Chin et al., 1992;
Kramer et al., 1998). The cis-9,trans-11 CLA isomer in food can
originate by one of two pathways (Fig. 1); from the incomplete
biohydrogenation of linoleic acid to stearic acid by rumen bacteria or
from the delta-9 desaturation of trans-11 vaccenic acid (a primary
intermediate for ruminant biohydrogenation) in mammalian tissues
(Corl et al., 2003; Kay et al., 2004). This isomer consists of up to 80–
85% of total CLA in food (Chin et al., 1992).
The average dietary intake of CLA from natural sources (mainly the
cis-9,trans-11 isomer) is estimated as 151 mg/d for American women,
212 mg/d for American men, and 97.5 mg/day for English people
(Ritzenthaler et al., 2001; Mushtaq et al., 2009). Typical CLA
concentrations in beef range from 6 to 9 mg/g fat. Since CLA is
found in adipose fat, CLA concentrations are highly influenced by fat
concentrations. Dietary CLA from beef can be increased by manipulation of animal diets and direct CLA addition to meats. CLA concentrations in beef can be influenced by diets containing oils or oilseeds high
in polyunsaturated fatty acids (usually linoleic or linolenic). These
dietary practices can increase CLA concentrations up to 3 fold (Enser
et al., 1999; Madron et al., 2002). Muscle CLA concentrations can also
be increased by the direct inclusion of CLA into animal feeds which
has the added benefit of decreasing muscle adipose fat concentrations
(Dugan et al., 1997). Since CLA is also available as a food additive, it
can be directly added to foods.
Most current CLA research using synthetically prepared CLA
(consisting mainly of two isomers, cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis12) has shown a number of biological benefits, such as prevention of
cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, diabetes, and osteoporosis (Park &
Pariza, 2007). Not all of these activities have been positively
associated with the naturally occurring cis-9,trans-11 CLA. For
example, CLA is associated with decreased body weight. However,
this bioactivity is primarily associated with the trans-10, cis-12 CLA
isomer (Park et al., 1999; Park & Pariza, 2007). The most significant
bioactivity of the cis-9,trans-11 CLA isomer is its anti-cancer property,
as shown in a number of animal cancer models such as breast,
Hypertension is the long term elevation of blood pressure. Long
term hypertension results in increased risk of stroke, heart attack,
arterial aneurysm and kidney failure. One in three Americans has been
estimated to have high blood pressure but this estimate might be low
since hypertension has no symptoms and thus many people are
unaware of their condition. From 1995 to 2005, the death rate from
hypertension increased 25.2% (Thom et al., 2006). In 2004, high blood
pressure was listed as a contributing cause of death for over 300,000
Americans (Thom et al., 2006; National Heart, Lung & Blood Institute,
2009). Even moderate hypertension can shorten life span. For
example, increases of systolic pressure of 20 mm Hg or diastolic
pressure of 10 mm Hg can double the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Subjects with blood pressure of 120/80 mm Hg have approximately
half the lifetime risk of stroke of subjects with hypertension.
Hypertension is common to 69 and 77% of people who have their
first heart attack or stroke, respectively. Overall, total life expectancy
was 5 years longer for normotensive individuals compared to
individuals with hypertension (Thom et al., 2006; National Heart,
Lung & Blood Institute, 2009). The estimated direct and indirect cost of
hypertension for 2009 is $73.4 billion (Thom et al., 2006; National
Heart, Lung & Blood Institute, 2009).
One of the biochemical pathways that impacts blood pressure is
the renin–angiotensin system (RAS). RAS is a hormone based pathway
that responds to low blood pressure by initiating the kidneys to
secrete the enzyme renin. Renin (also referred to as angiotensinogenase) circulates in the blood where it hydrolyzes angiotensinogen
into angiotensin I (a 10 amino acid peptide). Angiotensin I is then
converted to angiotensin II (8 amino acids ) by angiotensin Iconverting enzyme (ACE, a dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase) which is
associated with endothelial cells on blood vessel walls especially in
the lungs. Production of angiotensin II in blood vessels induces the
constriction of arteries and a subsequent increase in blood pressure
(Rude, 2000).
An effective treatment of hypertension can be accomplished with
angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. These inhibitors
work by competitively binding to angiotensin I-converting enzyme
thus blocking its ability to convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II.
Pharmaceutical based ACE inhibitors such as Lisinopril are often
peptide mimetics that contain amino acid derivatives such as lysine.
Lisinopril has been shown to be effective at decreasing the risk of
myocardial infarction mortality by 11% (Goa et al., 1996). ACE
inhibitors can be even more effective in high risk populations such
as those with pulmonary disease decreasing myocardial infarction
mortality by 23% (Mancini et al., 2006). The ACE inhibitor Perindopril
E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55
which can decrease systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 9 and
4 mm Hg, respectively, decreases the risk of stroke 28% (PROGRESS
Collaborative Group, 2001).
Food-based strategies to control high blood pressure would be an
excellent intervention to improve health and wellness and decrease
health care costs. Naturally occurring peptides with ACE inhibitory
activity have been identified from the proteolytic degradation
products of food proteins. Proteins that can produce ACE inhibitory
peptides can be of animal (e.g. dairy, fish, meat and eggs), plant (e.g.
soy, rice and garlic) or microbial (e.g. yeast) origin (see FitzGerald &
Meisel, 2000; Hong et al., 2008 for reviews) Bioactive peptides have
been identified from the hydrolysis of skeletal muscle proteins
including myosin, tropomyosin, troponin, actin and collogen (for an
extensive review see Vercruysse et al., 2005). The ACE inhibitory
activity of peptides from sources such as dairy proteins has been the
most extensively studied. For example, the casein polypeptides (e.g.
αs1, αs2 and β) can be hydrolyzed into over 65 different peptides with
ACE inhibitory activity. The ACE inhibitory activity of these peptides
varies extensively with half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50)
ranging from 2 to N1000 μM when measured with in vitro tests. The
peptides also vary greatly in size ranging from 2 to over 80 amino
acids (Hong et al., 2008).
A large number of studies have shown that peptides originating
from food proteins have ACE inhibitory activity in vitro and can
decrease blood pressure in laboratory animal studies (see FitzGerald &
Meisel, 2000; Hong et al., 2008 for reviews). However, evidence also
exists for the ability of these peptides to decrease blood pressure in
human populations. Epidemiological studies show that individuals
with low milk consumption have a higher incidence of hypertension
(McCarron et al., 1984). The association of milk consumption and
hypertension was also reported for men in Puerto Rico with men who
drank no milk having twice the incidence of hypertension as men who
drank a liter or more of milk per day (Garcia-Palmieri et al., 1984).
Several epidemiological studies have also shown a link between
protein consumption and hypertension. Both the Honolulu Heart
Program (Reed et al., 1985) and the Intersalt (Stamler et al., 1996)
studies concluded that blood pressure was lower in populations that
had high protein intake. More direct evidence of the ability of ACE
inhibitory peptides to reduce blood pressure in humans has been
reported in several clinical trials. Consumption of a fermented milk
(Seppo et al., 2003) high in bioactive peptides can decrease systolic
blood pressure 6.7 ± 3.0 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure 3.6 ±
1.9 mm Hg in human patients with high blood pressure while
fermented milk tablets containing bioactive peptides decreased
systolic blood pressure 11.2 ± 3.0 mm Hg but did not significantly
decrease diastolic blood pressure (Aihara et al., 2005). In a study with
the sardine dipeptide, valyl-tyrosine, systolic and diastolic blood
pressures were found to decrease 7.4–9.7 and 4.5–5.2 mm Hg,
respectively, in human patients (Kawasaki et al., 2000). While these
studies show that peptide originating from food proteins have
promise in decreasing blood pressure, other studies have not been
so promising showing that lactopeptides (van der Zander et al., 2008)
and milk supplemented with whey peptides (Lee et al., 2007) did not
decrease blood pressure in human populations.
As mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of a food-based health care
intervention is dependent on both efficacy and compliance. The
inability of ACE inhibitory peptides to decrease blood pressure in
some human studies could be due to the loss of their efficacy in the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Most clinical studies on ACE inhibitory
peptides have utilized peptides derived from the hydrolysis of
proteins by microbial proteases. These peptides are susceptible to
further proteolytic hydrolysis in the stomach and intestine from acids
or from enzymes including pepsin, chymotrypsin and various
peptidases (FitzGerald & Meisel, 2000). In addition, naturally
occurring microbes in the GI tract produce additional proteases and
peptidases that will catalyze further peptide hydrolysis. As with all
53
proteinaceous material, the combination of proteases and peptidases
in the GI tract could result in hydrolysis of ACE inhibitory peptides
resulting in loss of their efficacy.
If ACE inhibitory peptides are to be included in functional foods
they must not only be efficacious but they must also not negatively
impact the quality of foods so that consumers will regularly purchase
these products thus insuring high levels of compliance. This can also
be a challenge for ACE inhibitory peptides since these peptides can be
bitter (Cho et al., 2004). In fact, increasing ACE inhibitory activity of
peptides is strongly correlated with increasing bitterness meaning
that the most efficacious peptides would produce strong bitter offflavors in functional foods thus negatively impacting compliance.
ACE inhibitory peptides from foods could be introduced into the
diet in two ways. The first method would be to add proteins to the
food which would then produce ACE inhibitory peptides upon
hydrolysis by naturally occurring peptides in the GI tract. This method
could be difficult since high levels of proteins would need to be
included in the diet to reach a sufficient dose that could reduce blood
pressure. An alternative method to introduce ACE inhibitory peptides
into the diet would be to utilize enzyme technologies to hydrolyze
food grade proteins and then concentrate the resulting peptide
fractions that are high in ACE inhibitory peptides. These fractions
could then be used as nutraceutical ingredients that could be
incorporated into functional foods at relatively low levels. Since
addition of large amounts of proteins as a source of ACE inhibitory
peptides is problematic, it seems more likely that preformed bioactive
peptides would be the ingredient of choice for addition to functional
foods. However, addition of ACE inhibitory peptides into functional
foods must be done without altering the quality of the food while
maintaining the peptides in their bioactive forms. One potential
mechanism to accomplish both of these goals would be to encapsulate
the peptides in lipid carrier systems such as liposomes or water-inoil-in-water emulsions. The flavor and efficacy of the peptides is
dependent on their interactions with taste buds and naturally
occurring proteases and acids in the stomach and intestine.
Encapsulation of the ACE inhibitory peptides into a lipophilic matrix
would inhibit these interactions and upon entering the intestine, the
lipids would then be digested and the peptides would be released so
they could be absorbed into the blood where they could reduce blood
pressure.
7. Conclusions
Meat systems have great potential for delivering important
nutrients into the diet. The nutritional composition of meat products
can be altered by direct addition of bioactive food ingredients or by
the inclusion of bioactive compounds into animal diets. The latter
technique has the advantage that the bioactive compounds would be
biologically introduced into the food and thus would not have to be
declared as a food additive. This is important since food additives are
often not allowed in meats products since they could violate the
products standard of identity. An additional challenge for the
nutritional fortification of meat products is the issues of front of the
package nutritional claims. Many countries, including the U.S., are
currently not allowing nutrient label claims especially for nutrients
added to or endogenous in meat products. These policy are a major
deterrent to production of healthier meat products since the
producers of such products cannot communicate the health benefits
of their products to the consumer and thus do not have a competitive
advantage over unfortified meats. An additional barrier to the
successful marketing of meat products as functional foods is the
added expense of the production of these products. It is currently
unclear whether consumers would be willing to pay a premium price
for these products or if meat companies would absorb the cost to
produce a more competitive product.
54
E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55
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