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Roman Emperors: 1
JULIUS CAESAR
A superb general and politician, Julius Caesar (c.100 BC – 44 BC / Reigned 46 – 44 BC)
changed the course of Roman history.
Although he did not rule for long, he gave Rome fresh hope and a whole dynasty of emperors.
Dangerous times
Born into an aristocratic family in around 100 BC, Julius Caesar grew up in dangerous times. Rome
could not yet handle its own size and power. The nobility were widely discredited and order had given
way to chaos. The only clear alternative was military dictatorship.
Caesar allied himself against the nobility. As his career took off, he won a number of political offices,
not always by reputable means. By 63 BC, he had become a well-known, but controversial figure.
Viva Espana
Despite his notoriety, he was appointed governor of Farther Spain. This was a lucrative position,
because it offered him the chance to plunder the local inhabitants at will. He returned to Rome in 60
BC and, the following year, was elected consul, the highest office in the republic.
Now holding real power, Caesar allied himself with two key people, Pompey and Crassus. Pompey was
a war hero who had been badly treated by the Senate, while Crassus was a multimillionaire. The two
men were rivals but Caesar was able to bridge the gap between them and the three men formed the
powerful ‘first triumvirate’.
I predict a riot
As consul, Caesar wanted to pay off Pompey’s soldiers by allocating them public lands. This was
unpopular, so to get the measure through he engineered a riot and used the chaos to get his own
way. He then used his power to secure the governorship of Gaul (modern day France and Belgium).
Gaul gave Caesar a power-base to recruit soldiers and conduct the military campaigns that would
make his name and secure his fortune.
Conquering Gaul
Between 58 and 50 BC, Caesar used his expertise in military strategy, along with the Roman army’s
training and discipline to conquer and subdue the rest of Gaul, up to the river Rhine.
When battling foreign enemies, Caesar was ruthless. Besieging rebels in what is now the Dordogne
part of France, he waited until their water supply ran out and then cut off the hands of all the
survivors.
Under threat back home
He now turned his attention back home. His triumvirate was badly strained. Pompey was increasingly
jealous of Caesar’s success and Crassus still hated Pompey. After Crassus was killed in battle, Pompey
and Caesar drifted apart, ultimately finding themselves on opposing sides.
By now, Caesar was very successful, but he had many enemies and found his position and his life
under threat. He believed the only way he could protect himself was by seizing power. In January, 49
BC, he led his troops across the Rubicon River into Italy and started civil war.
Civil war
Caesar scored some early victories and, by 46 BC, was dictator of Rome. After a year spent
eliminating his remaining enemies, he returned home. Generous in victory, he was kind to his
defeated rivals, giving them all amnesties and even inviting some to join him in government.
Yet his position remained insecure. Without a son of his own, he needed an heir. Caesar quickly
adopted his great nephew, Augustus. He also moved fast to strengthen the northern borders of the
empire and tackle its enemies in the east.
At home, he reformed the Roman calendar, tackled local government, resettled veterans into new
cities, made the Senate more representative and granted citizenship to many more foreigners.
Beware the Ides of March
But his rule would be cut short. Old enemies joined forces with some of his supporters, fed up of his
dictatorial style. On March15, 44 BC, the Ides of March, Caesar was assassinated in the Senate.
Although his own rule was unremarkable, his victory in the civil war replaced a republic, ruled by the
consuls and the Senate, with an empire, reigned over by emperors and their hereditary successors. It
was the start of a brand new age for Rome.
Roman Emperors: 2
AUGUSTUS
Adopted by Caesar, Augustus (c.62 BC – 14 AD / Reigned 31 BC – 14 AD) had to fight for his
throne. His long rule saw a huge expansion in the Roman Empire and the beginnings of a
dynasty that, over the next century, would transform Rome, for better and worse.
The man who would become one of Rome’s greatest leaders had an unpromising start in life. Despite
prophesies of future greatness , Augustus was a sickly child in a family with few connections.
His father died when Augustus was four. His prospects were bleak: Rome was dangerous, engulfed by
civil war between power-hungry factions. One of these was led by his great-uncle, Julius Caesar.
A bit of luck
Then Augustus got a lucky break. In 46 BC, Caesar won the civil war and was named dictator of
Rome. To secure his position, he needed an heir. With no son of his own, he adopted Augustus.
This was a fantastic opportunity for a young man from nowhere. Almost at once, however, Caesar was
dead – murdered by his own advisors. Augustus was just 19, but immediately threw himself into the
backstabbing world of Roman politics .
Claiming the throne
He formed a strategic alliance with Marc Antony, a successful and ambitious general. Over the next
few years, they defeated their enemies in Rome and chased the survivors to Greece, where they
finished them off in two of the bloodiest battles in Roman history.
The killing over, the empire was theirs and they divided the spoils. Augustus kept Rome, while Antony
took Egypt. There he fell under the spell of Cleopatra, Egypt’s beautiful queen.
Trouble in Egypt
Romans feared that Cleopatra wanted the throne for herself and his relationship with her made Mark
Antony a hated man in Rome. His alliance with Augustus disintegrated but, before Antony and
Cleopatra could strike Rome, Augustus attacked.
The Battle of Actium in 31 BC destroyed three-quarters of the Egyptian fleet. Cleopatra and Marc
Antony killed themselves and, finally, the Roman Empire now included the land of the pharaohs.
Local hero
Back home, Augustus was a hero. At the age of 32, he had become Rome’s first Emperor, promising
to restore peace and security.
Winning the war had been difficult, but was nothing compared to the challenge of winning the peace.
He had divorced his wife and married his pregnant mistress, Livia. Many immediately suspected him of
wanting to create a dynasty to rule Rome for generations to come.
A charm offensive
To avoid Caesar’s fate, Augustus charmed the Senate and the people by pretending to give up power.
But a series of disasters panicked Romans. They became convinced that only he could save them and
begged the Senate to vote him absolute ruler.
Augustus agreed, but did so cleverly. He convinced Romans that he was ruling in the best traditions of
the republic, but actually was an absolute ruler creating a dynasty. The Romans bought it.
Growing older
During his reign, Augustus achieved a lot. He expanded the empire, adding Egypt, northern Spain and
large parts of central Europe before invading Germany. At home, he spearheaded a conservative
approach that used the glory of Rome’s past as a blueprint for its future.
But problems remained. His moral conservatism had clashed with the public promiscuity of his
daughter, Julia. He was forced to banish her.
What’s more, Augustus was growing older and weaker. Despite his successes, the plotting continued.
Everything that Augustus had worked so hard to achieve was in danger of collapsing as he faced crisis
after crisis, both at home and abroad.
Nevertheless, Augustus clung onto power for another 10 years. When he died, in 14 AD, the Senate
declared him a god. With his two grandsons already dead, power passed to his stepson, Tiberius.
So what did he do?
Augustus had ended 100 years of civil war and achieved over 40 years of internal peace and
prosperity. His vision and power had expanded the Roman Empire to become far more than a
collection of countries. Instead, it was a diverse society and enormous marketplace in which people
across Europe, north Africa and the Middle East could trade and travel under Rome’s protection.
He had won over the Senate and founded a dynasty. But this would feature as many villains as
heroes, and would take Rome on a roller-coaster ride into assassination, insanity and terror.
Roman Emperors: 3
CLAUDIUS
Disfigured, awkward and clumsy, Claudius (10 BC – 54 AD / Reigned 41 – 54 AD) was the
black sheep of his family and an unlikely emperor. Once in place, he was fairly successful,
but his poor taste in women would prove his undoing.
Nobody expected Claudius to become emperor. Although he was the only surviving heir of Augustus
and was the brother of the war hero, Germanicus, Claudius was a figure of fun.
The black sheep
Left disfigured by a serious illness when he was very young, Claudius was also clumsy and coarse ,
and was the butt of his family’s jokes. When he dozed after dinner, guests pelted him with food and
put slippers on his hands so that he’d rub his eyes with his shoes when he woke up.
Caligula’s murder in 41 AD changed everything for Claudius. Unexpectedly, the family fool had
become emperor. Discovered trembling in the palace by one of his own soldiers, he was clearly
reluctant and afraid.
He had good reason: like his predecessors, Claudius could never be too sure of his position. Supported
mainly by soldiers and courtiers, he had a rocky relationship with the Senate. Many senators
supported the abortive rebellion in the Balkans in 42 AD and they featured in many of the plots
against his life.
Surprisingly popular
Despite these dangers, Claudius worked hard at his job, starting work just after midnight every day. It
began to pay off: he made major improvements to Rome’s judicial system, passed laws protecting sick
slaves, extended citizenship and increased women's privileges.
He also treated his people with unusual respect, apologizing to visiting pensioners when there were
not enough chairs. Hardly surprising, then, that Suetonius wrote how this sort of behavior endeared
him to the people.
Conquering the Brits
Claudius had some real successes. Britain had resisted Roman rule for over a century, but was
conquered by Claudius, who created client kingdoms to protect the frontier. He had succeeded where
Caesar had failed. This was the most important addition to the empire since the time of Augustus.
Trouble and strife
Even this success, however, was not enough to protect him from political danger. Here, his worst
enemies would turn out to be his own wives.
Claudius had simply awful taste in women. Although he adored his wife, Messalina, she was
extravagant and promiscuous, with a particular weakness for the servants.
Claudius tried to turn a blind eye to her many affairs, but in 48 AD Messalina took a new lover, Gaius
Silius, a nobleman. Their relationship was widely thought to be cover for a plot and Claudius was
urged to take action: “Act fast or her new man controls Rome!"
Permanent separation
Silius was killed and Messalina fled to a friend's villa to decide how to get herself out of trouble. It was
too late. The emperor was hosting a dinner party when he heard that his wife had died. Without
asking how, he called for more wine.
The next year, Claudius decided to marry again, surprising Rome by choosing his own niece,
Agrippina.
Oh dear
This was a bad mistake. Determined to make the most of her luck and happy to use any means
necessary, Agrippina was about the only woman who could make Messalina seem a good catch.
Agrippina began her quest for power by persuading Claudius to bring back Seneca from exile so that
he could become tutor to her own son, Nero, the boy she planned to make an emperor.
Speeding things up
Gradually Agrippina removed all her rivals and convinced Claudius to disinherit his own son,
Britannicus. With Nero now heir, the only remaining obstacle was Claudius himself. Agrippina took
drastic action: as Tacitus reports, her weapon of choice was poisoned mushrooms, delivered by a
faithful servant.
Claudius appeared on the brink of death, but began to recover. Horrified, Agrippina signed up the
emperor's own doctor to her cause. While pretending to help Claudius vomit his food, the doctor put a
feather dipped in poison down his throat. As Tacitus said, "Dangerous crimes bring ample reward."
Claudius was dead. Nero was Emperor. This would prove interesting.
Roman Emperors: 4
NERO
Sensitive and handsome, Nero (37 – 68 AD / reigned 54 – 68 AD) started out well as
emperor. But his early promise gave way to wild extravagance and murder. His rule ended
as violently as it had begun.
When he became emperor, Nero was a young man who enjoyed the theater, music and horse racing.
His dominating mother, Agrippina, had already murdered Claudius to see her son on the throne. She
quickly poisoned Nero’s main rival, Claudius’ son, Britannicus.
But Nero didn’t want to be controlled by his mother. Encouraged by his former tutor, the writer and
philosopher Seneca, he began to make his own decisions. Relations with his mother became frosty and
in 56 AD she was forced into retirement.
Early hope dashed
Nero started well. He ended secret trials and gave the Senate more independence. He banned capital
punishment, reduced taxes and allowed slaves to sue unjust owners. He provided assistance to cities
that had suffered disasters, gave aid to the Jews and established open competitions in poetry, drama
and athletics.
However, like Caligula before him, Nero had a dark side. His impulses began as simple extravagance.
Before long, however, stories were circulating that he seduced married women and young boys, and
that he had castrated and "married" a male slave. He also liked to wander the streets, murdering
innocent people at random.
Getting rid of mother
Both Seneca and Agrippina tried hard to control Nero. Seneca tried to be subtle, but his mother was
not. Relations between mother and son grew worse and Nero decided to kill her.
He invited her to travel by boat to meet him at the seaside resort where he was staying. When their
reunion was over, Agrippina left for home. She was never meant to get there, but the murder attempt
failed and Agrippina swam to safety.
Finishing the job
Annoyed that his plot had failed, Nero abandoned subtlety and sent some soldiers to complete the job.
He claimed that his mother had been plotting against him, but fooled nobody. Rome was appalled.
Matricide – the murder of one’s own mother – was among the worst possible crimes.
The omens
Tolerance of Nero’s depravity ebbed away and Rome faced a series of bad omens. Tacitus wrote,
“Unlucky birds settled on the Capitol, houses fell in numerous earthquakes and the weak were
trampled by the fleeing crowd."
Worse was yet to come. The Great Fire of Rome lasted for six days and seven nights. It destroyed or
damaged 10 of Rome’s 14 districts and many homes, shops and temples.
Sing-along with Nero
Nero offered to house the homeless, but it was too late. A rumor had spread of Nero’s behavior during
the fire: although he hadn’t fiddled while Rome burned, he had been singing.
With Nero’s mother dead and his tutor retired, the emperor was beyond anyone’s control. Rome was
now victim to the arbitrary desires of a mad tyrant: there was only one solution.
Murder and mayhem
In 65 AD, one plotter, a freed slave named Epicharis, found a dissatisfied officer who had access to
the emperor. She secretly asked him to kill Nero.
Instead, the officer betrayed Epicharis and she was captured. Rather than give up the names of her
fellow plotters, she killed herself. Not knowing who was involved, Nero redoubled his guard and
unleashed terror on Rome. Huge numbers of people, including Seneca, were executed or forced to kill
themselves.
Public enemy
But Rome had had enough. A revolt in the northern territories quickly spread and the Senate declared
Nero a public enemy. This meant that anyone could kill him without punishment.
Terrified, Nero fled to the country with his few remaining slaves and killed himself. Without any heirs,
the Roman Empire now had no leader. With the ultimate prize up for grabs, rival generals began
moving their troops towards Rome and civil war.
Roman Emperors: 5
VESPASIAN
Vespasian (9 – 79 AD / ruled 69 – 79 AD) worked hard to restore law, order and selfrespect to Rome after the civil war. He established the new, Flavian dynasty.
Born to a Roman knight and tax-collector, Vespasian was a man of relatively humble origins and
played on these roots to great political advantage.
Distinguished service
Vespasian’s early career was spent mainly in military service. After distinguishing himself during the
invasion of England in 43 AD, he was given his first military command. Further success led to more
honors and, in 51 AD, he became consul in Britain.
In 63 AD, Vespasian was appointed proconsul in Africa. Here, he controlled the budget so tightly that,
on one occasion, the locals pelted him with turnips.
Out of Africa
Four years later, in 67 AD, Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the Jewish rebellion in Judaea. His
success here, where others had failed, meant that, by 68 AD, Vespasian was one of Rome’s most
successful generals. His humble origins had led Nero to believe that he was no threat. While Nero was
alive, this was true.
Death changes everything
But then Nero died. After the murder of Galba, civil war was inevitable. What’s more, Vespasian had
as good a claim to the throne as his two main rivals, Otho and Vitellius.
In July 69 AD, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops, as well as legions in Egypt and Syria.
He marched on Rome. Once in Italy, they found themselves facing Vitellius’ army: for the first time in
100 years, their enemy was Roman.
Battleground Rome
By morning, Vespasian’s army had won the battle. They ransacked a nearby town and marched on,
reaching Rome in December. The city became a battleground, with its citizens caught in the crossfire.
Around 50,000 people were killed before the battle was over. Vespasian had won and, with no one left
to fight, he was proclaimed emperor by the Senate.
Might equals right
Vespasian was honest about the source of his power – military strength. Using his new position to
grant himself more powers, Vespasian immediately began talking up his humble origins and publishing
the divine omens he claimed had predicted his spectacular rise. Finally, he wasted no time establishing
his dynasty, insisting that his two sons – Titus and Domitian – would succeed him.
Next on the agenda was the need to restore war-torn Rome to something approaching its former
glory. One of the first jobs was to raise money: Nero’s extravagance and the civil war had almost
ruined Rome.
Rebuilding Rome
By raising taxes and reclaiming public land, Vespasian was able to fill the city’s vaults with cold, hard,
cash. He used some of this money on a massive building program, which included temples, a theater
and early work on what would become the Colosseum.
He then turned his attention to the army. In a wholesale reorganization, he restored discipline,
removed officers loyal to Vitellius and ended the war in Judaea. In Britain, he conquered Wales and
northern England.
An average Joe
All the time, Vespasian was changing the traditional image of the emperor. He approached his work
with an earthy humor and common sense unusual in someone of his rank.
More importantly, he provided the first real stability since Claudius, 20 years earlier. Although he had
gained his position through violence and was still a military dictator, he legitimized himself and his
dynasty by offering Rome a stable, peaceful future.
Becoming a god
By 79 AD, Vespasian was dying, but his sense of humor remained intact. "Oh dear!" he joked,
mocking the Roman tendency to turn dead emperors into gods, "I think I'm becoming a god."
Vespasian had brought Rome through bitter civil war and left the empire stronger than ever. But by
declaring, "My sons will succeed me, or no one will”, Vespasian had ignored history and his own
experience. Like his predecessors, he insisted on tying Rome to the lottery of hereditary rule.
Roman Emperors: 6
NERVA AND TRAJAN
Domitian’s murder marked the end of the Flavian dynasty and changed the rules of
succession. Nerva and Trajan (ruled 96 – 98 AD, 98 – 117 AD) were not born to rule, but
were chosen for the job. The results were remarkably successful.
Nerva became emperor immediately after Domitian’s murder in 96 AD. He had a lifetime of service to
Rome and its emperors, and had served as consul twice, in 71 and 90 AD.
Now he was called to higher office. He immediately promised an end to the tyranny of Domitian’s rule,
swearing that he would never execute any senator, whatever the provocation.
Promises, promises
This promise was soon stretched to its limits. Domitian had bought the army’s loyalty with large pay
rises and when he was murdered, it was furious. Seeking revenge, the Praetorian Guard stormed the
palace and demanded that those responsible be executed.
Nerva faced the soldiers, offering his own life by baring his neck to their swords. The soldiers just
laughed and went on to kill many of his friends and allies. Astonishingly, Nerva thanked them for
carrying out justice, but he had been badly humiliated. His will broken, he died soon afterwards.
TRAJAN
A sharp turn
At this point history took a sharp turn. Shortly before Nerva died, Roman generals had debated who
should be the next emperor. They chose Trajan, a former army commander, senator and governor of
Upper Germany.
The first emperor to have been born outside Italy, Trajan came from southern Spain. His nomination
by the generals was a bold and important move, signaling that educated and wealthy men from all
over the empire were eligible for the highest office.
Expanding the empire
It was also very successful. As emperor, Trajan expanded the Roman Empire to become larger than
ever before. He conquered Dacia (now part of Romania), which provided land for Roman settlers and
rich pickings from gold and salt mines.
He then attacked the Parthians, Rome’s old enemy in the East, who lived in what is now part of Iran.
By 115 AD, he had captured the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon and had reached the Persian Gulf.
The Roman Empire now stretched across Europe and the Middle East, from the borders of Scotland to
southern Spain. It included North Africa, western and central Europe, and what is now Israel, Turkey,
Lebanon, Syria and parts of Iran and Iraq. It would never be bigger.
Good governance
Back home, Trajan was just as busy. He treated the Senate with respect and tried to find competent
and honest officials to rule the provinces.
With the army, Trajan was fair but strict, ordering the execution of the Praetorian Guard who had
defied Nerva. With the Christians, he ignored those who wanted them persecuted and, instead,
treated them like other citizens, punishing them only when they deserved it.
Welfare and public works
He was generous to Rome’s population, giving out cash and increasing the number of poor citizens
who could receive free grain. Trajan also began a massive program of public works, building bridges,
harbors and aqueducts. Finally, he reduced taxes and started a new welfare program for poor
children. This work brought him acclaim from many, including the statesman and author, Pliny the
Younger.
Trajan held onto power until 117 AD. His civilized rule set the tone for future generations; his
expansion of the Roman Empire made it a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic melting pot that is still relevant
today, 2,000 years later.