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Chapter 2
Theoretical Foundations of Adolescence
Samuel R. Mathews, Ph.D.
The Department of Psychology
The University of West Florida
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What is a theory?
o Statement
 Names constructs
 Defines Relationships among the constructs
What are the functions of a theory?
o Guide our research questions
o Allow us to make predictions about outcomes
o Provide us with a way to organize or structure information
o Guide development of interventions or applications to change behavior
Theories lead to research questions that address 4 basic functions of science:
o Description
o Prediction
o Explanation
o Application
Large issues within developmental theories
o Nature-Nurture—
 genetic/environmental impacts
 by adopting the biopsychosocial model the nature-nurture debate
becomes mut
o Continuous-Discontinuous—
 is the course of human development a progression in which the
major change is in the magnitude or intensity of some phenomenon
that emerges early (gradual slope)—same set of factors operate
across the lifespan OR
 is it based on changes in quality or type of phenomenon that
changes in type or kind across development (stair step model)—
different sets of factors function differently across the lifespan OR
 does the continuous/discontinuous differentiation vary by domain?
Models of Development
o Reflect ways of thinking about the human condition; basic assumptions
about the forces of human development
o Environmental Theories
 Focus is on the impact of the environment on the developing
organism
 Continuous development—same set of behavioral laws
govern development across the lifespan
 Behaviorism of B.F. Skinner—based on contingencies
between the organism’ behavior and environmental
outcomes (e.g. pos reinforcement, extinction)
 Direction of influence is Environment Organism
o Organismic Theories
 Focus is on the organism as the force driving the course of human
development;
 Frequently these theories focus on a discontinuous model
of human development; at different points in the lifespan,
the organism is functionally and structurally different than
at other points
 Psychosocial theory of Erikson and theory of cognitive
development by Piaget
 Direction of influence is Organismenvironment
o Contextualist Theories
 Focus is on the dynamic transactions between the organism and its
environment;
 Theories from this perspective typically focus on the
mutual impacts the organism and the environment have on
each other
 Social Cognitive Theory of Bandura and Developmental
Systems Theory of Ford & Learner
 Direction of influence is bidirectional (Environment 
Organism)
o Key theoretical perspectives on adolescence: (Piaget will be discussed in
next chapter)
 Erikson—identity development
 Epigenetic Principle
 Focused on how individual functions within a cultural
milieu
 8 stageso Birth—trust v. mistrust
o Toddler—autonomy v shame and doubt
o Young child—intiative v guilt
o Middle childhood—industry v. inferiority
o Adolescence—identity v. role confusion
o Young adult/emerging adult—intimacy v. isolation
o Middle adult—generativity v stagnation
o Senior adult—ego integrity v despair
 Stages build on each other but are active throughout the
lifespan.
 Bandura—social cognitive—focuses on perceived self efficacy—
sense that organism can complete a given task OR acquire the
needed knowledge, skills, or ability to complete ti.
 Environments with which the individual interacts:
 Imposed—typically associated with infancy and very
young children; parents typically control the
environment for the infant;
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Selected—the young child seeks those who provide
support and reinforcement;
 Created—the individual constructs the environment that
fits preferences, skills, knowledge, and motives
Strategies for encouraging perceived self efficacy:
 Mastery Experiences—opportunities to succeed given
challenging but attainable goals
 Vicarious Learning—observing others similar to
oneself acting and attaining goals
 Verbal/Social persuasion—encouragement and
instructional (not evaluative) feedback
 Positive affective environment—experiences of
attempting challenging tasks with instructional not
evaluative feedback; encouragement of attempting
tasks, not simply succeeding;