Download Glossary Chapter 1 adolescence The transitional period between

Glossary
Chapter 1
adolescence
The transitional period between childhood and adulthood that begins with puberty and ends
when the individual has acquired adult competencies and responsibilities.
age effects
In developmental research, the effects of getting older or of developing. Contrast with cohort
effects and time of measurement effects.
age grades
Socially defined age groups or strata, each with different statuses, roles, privileges, and
responsibilities in society.
age norms
Expectations about what people should be doing or how they should behave at different points
in the life span.
aging
To most developmentalists, positive, negative, and neutral changes in the mature organism;
different from biological aging.
baby biographies
Carefully recorded observations of the growth and development of children by their parents over
a period; the first scientific investigations of development.
baby boom
generation
The huge generation of people born between 1946 (the close of World War II) and 1964.
bioecological
model
Bronfenbrenner’s model of development that emphasizes the roles of both nature and nurture
as the developing person interacts with a series of environmental systems (microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem).
biological aging
The deterioration of organisms that leads inevitably to their death.
case study
An in–depth examination of an individual (or a small number of individuals), typically carried out
by compiling and analyzing information from a variety of sources such as observing, testing, and
interviewing the person or people who know the individual.
chronosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach, the system that captures the way changes in
environmental systems, such as social trends and life events, are patterned over a person’s
lifetime.
cohort
A group of people born at the same time; a particular generation of people.
cohort effects
In cross–sectional research, the effects on findings that the different age groups (cohorts) being
compared were born at different times and had different formative experiences. Contrast with
age effects and time of measurement effects.
correlation
coefficient
A measure, ranging from 11.00 to 21.00, of the extent to which two variables or attributes are
systematically related to each other in either a positive or a negative way.
correlational
method
A research technique that involves determining whether two or more variables are related. It
cannot indicate that one thing caused another, but it can suggest that a causal relationship
exists or allow us to predict one characteristic from our knowledge of another.
cross–sectional
design
A developmental research design in which different age groups are studied at the same point
and compared.
culture
A system of meanings shared by a population of people and transmitted from one generation to
the next.
dependent
variable
The aspect of behavior measured in an experiment and assumed to be under the control of, or
dependent on, the independent variable.
development
Systematic changes in the individual occurring between conception and death; such changes
can be positive, negative, or neutral.
emerging
adulthood
Newly identified period of the life span extending from about age 18 to age 25, when young
people are neither adolescents nor adults and are exploring their identities, careers, and
relationships.
environment
Events or conditions outside the person that are presumed to influence and be influenced by the
individual.
ethnicity
A person’s classification in or affiliation with a group based on common heritage or traditions.
ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own cultural or ethnic group is superior to others.
evidence–based
practice
Grounding what they do in research and ensuring that the curricula and treatments they provide
have been demonstrated to be effective.
exosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach, settings not experienced directly by individuals still
influence their development (for example, effects of events at a parent’s workplace on children’s
development).
experiment
A research strategy in which the investigator manipulates or alters some aspect of a person’s
environment to measure its effect on the individual’s behavior or development.
experimental
control
The holding of all other factors besides the independent variable in an experiment constant so
that any changes in the dependent variable can be said to be caused by the manipulation of the
independent variable.
functional
magnetic
resonance
imaging (fMRI)
A brain–scanning technique that uses magnetic forces to measure the increase in blood flow to
an area of the brain that occurs when that brain area is active. By having children and adults
perform cognitive tasks while lying very still in an fMRI scanner, researchers can determine
which parts of the brain are involved in particular cognitive activities.
gene
A functional unit of heredity made up of DNA and transmitted from generation to generation.
gerontology
The study of aging and old age.
growth
The physical changes that occur from conception to maturity.
hypothesis
A theoretical prediction about what will hold true if we observe a phenomenon.
independent
variable
The aspect of the environment that a researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an
experiment to see its effect on behavior; a causal variable. Contrast with dependent variable.
learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) that results from a person’s
experiences or practice.
life expectancy
The average number of years a newborn baby can be expected to live; now almost 78 years in
the United States.
life–span
perspective
A perspective that views development as a lifelong, multi–directional process that involves gain
and loss, is characterized by considerable plasticity, is shaped by its historical–cultural context,
has many causes, and is best viewed from a multidisciplinary perspective.
longitudinal
design
A developmental research design in which one group of subjects is studied repeatedly over
months or years.
macrosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach, the larger cultural or subcultural context of
development.
maturation
Developmental changes that are biologically programmed by genes rather than caused primarily
by learning, injury, illness, or some other life experience.
mesosystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach, interrelationships between microsystems or
immediate environments (for example, ways in which events in the family affect a child’s
interactions at a day care center).
meta–analysis
A research method in which the results of multiple studies addressing the same question are
synthesized to produce overall conclusions.
microsystem
In Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach, the immediate settings in which the person
functions (for example, the family).
naturalistic
observation
A research method in which the scientist observes people as they engage in common everyday
activities in their natural habitats. Contrast with structured observation.
nature–nurture
issue
The debate over the relative importance of biological predispositions (nature) and environmental
influences (nurture) as determinants of human development.
neuroplasticity
The brain’s remarkable ability to change in response to experience throughout the life span, as
when it recovers from injury or benefits from stimulating learning experiences.
plasticity
An openness of the brain cells (or of the organism as a whole) to positive and negative
environmental influence; a capacity to change in response to experience.
population
A well–defined group that a researcher who studies a sample of individuals is interested in
drawing conclusions about.
quasi experiment
An experiment–like study that evaluates the effects of different treatments but does not
randomly assign individuals to treatment groups.
random
assignment
A technique in which research participants are placed in experimental conditions in an unbiased
or random way so that the resulting groups are not systematically different.
random sample
A sample formed by identifying all members of the larger population of interest and then
selecting a portion of them in an unbiased or random way to participate in the study; a technique
to ensure that the sample studied is representative or typical of the larger population of interest.
research ethics
Standards of conduct that investigators are ethically bound to honor to protect their research
participants from physical or psychological harm.
rite of passage
A ritual that marks a person’s “passage” from one status to another, usually in reference to
rituals marking the transition from childhood to adulthood.
sample
The group of individuals chosen to be the subjects of a study.
scientific method
An attitude or value about the pursuit of knowledge that dictates that investigators must be
objective and must allow their data to decide the merits of their theorizing.
sequential design A developmental research design that combines the cross–sectional approach and the
longitudinal approach in a single study to compensate for the weaknesses of each.
social clock
A personal sense of when things should be done in life and when the individual is ahead of or
behind the schedule dictated by age norms.
socioeconomic
status (SES)
The position people hold in society based on such factors as income, education, occupational
status, and the prestige of their neighborhoods.
storm and stress
Hall’s term for the emotional ups and downs and rapid changes that he believed characterize
adolescence.
structured
observation
A research method in which scientists create special conditions designed to elicit the behavior
of interest to achieve greater control over the conditions under which they gather behavioral
data. Contrast with naturalistic observation.
theory
A set of concepts and propositions designed to organize, describe, and explain a set of
observations.
time of
measurement
effects
In developmental research, the effects on findings of historical events occurring when the data
for a study are being collected (for example, psychological changes brought about by an
economic depression rather than as a function of aging). Contrast with age effects and cohort
effects.
Chapter 2
activity–passivity
issue
The issue in developmental theory centering on whether humans are active contributors to their
own development or are passively shaped by forces beyond their control.
behaviorism
A school of thinking in psychology that holds that conclusions about human development should
be based on controlled observations of overt behavior rather than on speculation about
unconscious motives or other unobservable phenomena; the philosophical underpinning of early
theories of learning.
classical
conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit
a response because of its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response.
concrete
operations stage
Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about age 7 to age 11, when children
are acquiring logical operations and can reason effectively about real objects and experiences.
conditioned
response (CR)
A learned response to a stimulus that was not originally capable of producing the response.
conditioned
An initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after it is paired with an
stimulus (CS)
unconditioned stimulus that always elicits the response.
conservation
The recognition that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its
appearance is altered in some superficial way.
constructivism
The position taken by Piaget and others that humans actively create their own understandings
of the world from their experiences, as opposed to being born with innate ideas or being
programmed by the environment.
continuity–
discontinuity
issue
The debate among theorists about whether human development is best characterized as
gradual and continuous or abrupt and stagelike.
defense
mechanisms
Mechanisms used by the ego to defend itself against anxiety caused by conflict between the id’s
impulses and social demands.
developmental
stage
A distinct phase within a larger sequence of development; a period characterized by a particular
set of abilities, motives, behaviors, or emotions that occur together and form a coherent pattern.
eclectic
In the context of science, an individual who recognizes that no single theory can explain
everything but that each has something to contribute to our understanding.
ego
Psychoanalytic term for the rational component of the personality.
Electra complex
Female version of the Oedipus complex, in which a 4– to 6–year–old girl is said to envy her
father for possessing a penis and would choose him as a sex object in the hope of sharing this
valuable organ that she lacks.
epigenesis
The process through which nature and nurture, genes and environment, jointly bring forth
development in ways that are difficult to predict at the outset, according to Gottlieb’s epigenetic
psychobiological systems perspective; in a more specific sense, epigenetic effects refer to ways
in which environmental influences alter gene expression.
epigenetic
psychobiological
systems
perspective
Gilbert Gottlieb’s view that development is the product of interacting biological and
environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system, both over the course of evolution and
during the individual’s life.
ethology
A discipline and theoretical perspective that focuses on the evolved behavior of different species
in their natural environments.
evolutionary
psychology
The application of evolutionary theory and its concept of natural selection to understanding why
humans think and behave as they do.
extinction
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response when it is no longer
reinforced.
fixation
In psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which development is arrested and part of
the libido remains tied to an early stage of development.
formal operations
stage
Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development (from age 11 or 12), when the individual
begins to think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical
ideas.
human agency
Ways in which humans deliberately exercise cognitive control over their environments and lives,
according to Bandura.
id
A psychoanalytic term for the inborn component of the personality that is driven by the instincts
or selfish urges.
identification
Freud’s term for the individual’s tendency to emulate, or adopt the attitudes and behaviors of,
another person, particularly the same–sex parent.
information–
processing
approach
An approach to cognition that emphasizes the fundamental mental processes involved in
attention, perception, memory, and decision making.
instinct
An inborn biological force assumed to motivate a particular response or class of responses.
latent learning
Learning occurs but is not evident in behavior; children can learn from observation even though
they do not imitate (perform) the learned responses.
libido
Freud’s term for the biological energy of the sex instinct.
negative
punishment
The process in operant conditioning in which a response is weakened or made less probable
when its consequence is the removal of a pleasant stimulus from the situation.
negative
reinforcement
The process in operant conditioning in which a response is strengthened or made more
probable when its consequence is the removal of an un pleasant stimulus from the situation.
observational
learning
Learning that results from observing the behavior of other people; emphasized in Bandura’s
social cognitive theory.
Oedipus complex
Freud’s term for the conflict that 4– to 6–year–old boys experience when they develop an
incestuous desire for their mothers and a jealous and hostile rivalry with their fathers.
operant
conditioning
Also called instrumental conditioning, a form of learning in which freely emitted acts (or
operants) become more or less probable depending on the consequences they produce.
positive
punishment
The process in operant conditioning whereby a response is weakened when its consequence is
an unpleasant event.
positive
reinforcement
The process in operant conditioning whereby a response is strengthened when its consequence
is a pleasant event.
preoperational
stage
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about age 2 to age 7, when
children think at a symbolic level but have not yet mastered logical operations.
projection
Defense mechanism that involves seeing in others the motives we fear we possess, as when a
husband charges his wife with being the one who is jealous and insecure, not he.
psychoanalytic
theory
The theoretical perspective associated with Freud and his followers that emphasizes
unconscious motivations for behavior, conflicts within the personality, and stages of
psychosexual development.
psychosexual
stages
Freud’s five stages of development, associated with biological maturation and shifts in the libido:
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
psychosocial
stages
Erikson’s eight stages of development (trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy,
generativity, and integrity), emphasizing social influences more and biological urges less than
Freud’s psychosexual stages.
reaction formation Defense mechanism that involves expressing motives that are just the opposite of one’s real
motives, as when a woman who unconsciously wants to gratify her sexual urges instead takes
up a crusade against all the sex on television.
reciprocal
determinism
The notion in social cognitive theory that the flow of influence between people and their
environments is a two–way street; the environment may affect the person, but the person’s
characteristics and behavior will also influence the environment.
regression
A defense mechanism that involves retreating to an earlier, less traumatic stage of
development.
repression
Removing unacceptable thoughts or traumatic memories from consciousness, as when a young
woman who was raped has no memory at all of having been raped (or less drastically, engages
in denial, knowing deep down that she was raped but not accepting the reality of it).
school refusal
behavior
A reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there, sometimes called school phobia
because it often involves intense anxiety.
self–efficacy
The belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes in a particular area of life.
sensorimotor
stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, spanning the first 2 years of life, in which infants
rely on their senses and motor behaviors in adapting to the world around them.
social cognitive
theory
Bandura’s social learning theory, which holds that children and adults can learn novel
responses merely by observing the behavior of a model, making mental notes on what they
have seen, and then using these mental representations to reproduce the model’s behavior;
more broadly, a theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive processing of social
experiences.
sociocultural
perspective
Vygotsky’s contextual theory of development, which maintains that cognitive development is
shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs and grows out of children’s social
interactions with members of their culture.
superego
The psychoanalytic term for the component of the personality that consists of the individual’s
internalized moral standards.
systems theories
Theories of development holding that changes over the life span arise from the ongoing
interrelationships between a changing organism and a changing environment, both of which are
part of a larger, dynamic system.
tabula rasa
The idea that the mind of an infant is a “blank slate” and that all knowledge, abilities, behaviors,
and motives are acquired through experience.
unconditioned
response (UCR)
The unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning.
unconscious
motivation
Freud’s term for feelings, experiences, and conflicts that influence a person’s thinking and
behavior even though they cannot be recalled.
universality–
context–
specificity issue
The debate over the extent to which developmental changes are common to everyone
(universal, as in most stage theories) or different from person to person (particularistic).
vicarious
reinforcement
In observational learning, the consequences experienced by models, because of their behavior,
that affect the learner’s likelihood of engaging in the behavior.
Chapter 3
adoption study
Method of studying genetic and environmental influence that involves determining whether
adopted children are more similar to their biological parents (whose genes they share) or
adoptive parents (who shaped their environment).
allele
One of the possible variants of a particular gene.
amniocentesis
A method of extracting amniotic fluid from a pregnant woman so that fetal body cells within the
fluid can be tested for chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic defects.
behavioral
genetics
The scientific study of the extent to which genetic and environmental differences among
individuals are responsible for differences among them in traits such as intelligence and
personality.
carrier
In genetics, individuals who possesses a recessive gene associated with a disease and who,
although they do not have the disease, can transmit the gene for it to offspring.
chorionic villus
sampling (CVS)
An alternative to amniocentesis in which a catheter is inserted through the cervix to withdraw
fetal cells from the chorion for prenatal testing to detect genetic defects.
chromosome
A threadlike structure made up of genes; in humans, there are 46 chromosomes in the nucleus
of each cell.
chromosome
abnormalities
Conditions in which a child has too few, too many, or incomplete chromosomes because of
errors in the formation of sperm or ova.
codominance
In genetics, an instance in which two different but equally powerful genes produce a phenotype
in which both genes are expressed.
conception
The moment of fertilization, when a sperm penetrates an ovum, forming a zygote.
concordance rate
The percentage of cases in which a particular attribute is present for both members of a pair of
people (for example, twins) if it is present for one member.
crossing over
A process in which genetic material is exchanged between pairs of chromosomes during
meiosis.
cultural evolution
Change in a species achieved not through biological evolution but through learning and passing
on from one generation to the next new ways of adapting to the environment.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the double helix molecule whose chemical code makes up
chromosomes and serves as our genetic endowment; it is made up of sequences of the
chemicals (adenine), C (cytosine), G (guanine), and T (thymine).
dominant gene
A relatively powerful gene that is expressed phenotypically and masks the effect of a less–
powerful recessive gene.
Down syndrome
A chromosomal abnormality in which the child has inherited an extra 21st chromosome and is,
as a result, mentally retarded; also called trisomy 21.
fragile X
syndrome
A chromosome abnormality in which one arm of the X chromosome is only barely connected to
the rest of the chromosome; the most common hereditary cause of mental retardation.
fraternal twins
Twins who are not identical and who result when a mother releases two ova at roughly the
same time and each is fertilized by a different sperm.
gene expression
The activation of particular genes in particular cells of the body at particular times in life.
gene therapy
Interventions that involve substituting normal genes for the genes associated with a disease or
disorder; otherwise altering a person’s genetic makeup.
gene–
environment
correlation
A systematic interrelationship between an individual’s genes and that individual’s environment;
ways in which genes influence the kind of home environment provided by parents (passive
gene–environment correlation), the social reactions to the individual (evocative gene–
environment correlation), and the types of experiences the individual seeks (active gene–
environment correlation).
gene–
environment
interaction
The phenomenon in which the effects of people’s genes depend on the kind of environment
they experience and in which the effects of the environment depend on their genetic
endowment.
genetic
counseling
A service designed to inform people about genetic conditions they or their unborn children are at
risk of inheriting.
genotype
The genetic endowment that an individual inherits. Contrast with phenotype.
hemophilia
A deficiency in the blood’s ability to clot. It is more common among males than females because
it is associated with a sex–linked gene on the X chromosome.
heritability
The amount of variability in a population on some trait dimension that is attributable to genetic
differences among those individuals.
Human Genome
Project
A massive, government–sponsored effort to decipher the human genetic code.
Huntington’s
disease
A genetic disease caused by a single, dominant gene that strikes in middle age to produce a
deterioration of physical and mental abilities and premature death.
identical twins
Monozygotic twins who develop from a single zygote that later divides to form two genetically
identical individuals.
incomplete
dominance
A condition in which a stronger gene fails to mask all the effects of a weaker partner gene; a
phenotype results that is similar but not identical to the effect of the stronger gene.
karyotype
A chromosomal portrait created by staining chromosomes, photographing them under a high–
power microscope, and arranging them into a predetermined pattern.
Klinefelter
syndrome
A sex chromosome abnormality in which males inherit two or more X chromosomes (XXY or
XXXY); these males fail to develop secondary sex characteristics and often show deficiencies
on tests of verbal abilities.
maternal blood
sampling
A noninvasive method of prenatal diagnosis involving testing for substances in maternal blood;
more recently, analysis of fetal cells that have slipped through the placenta into the mother’s
blood.
meiosis
The process in which a germ cell divides, producing sperm or ova, each containing half of the
parent cell’s original complement of chromosomes; in humans, the products of meiosis normally
contain 23 chromosomes.
mitosis
The process in which a cell duplicates its chromosomes and then divides into two genetically
identical daughter cells.
molecular
genetics
The analysis of particular genes and their effects, including the identification of specific genes
that influence particular traits and the comparison of animals or humans who have these
specific genes and those who do not.
mutation
A change in the structure or arrangement of one or more genes that produces a new phenotype.
natural selection
The evolutionary principle that individuals who have characteristics advantageous for survival in
a particular environment are most likely to survive and reproduce. Over many generations, this
process of “survival of the fittest” will lead to changes in a species and the development of new
species.
nonshared
environmental
influences
Experiences unique to the individual that are not shared by other members of the family and
that tend to make members of the same family different. Contrast with shared environmental
influences.
phenotype
The way in which a person’s genotype is expressed in observable or measurable
characteristics.
phenylketonuria
(PKU)
A genetic disease in which the child is unable to metabolize phenylalanine; if left untreated, it
soon causes hyperactivity and mental retardation.
polygenic trait
A characteristic influenced by the action of many gene pairs rather than a single pair.
preimplantation
Prenatal diagnostic procedure in which a mother’s eggs are fertilized in the laboratory using in
genetic diagnosis vitro fertilization techniques, DNA tests are conducted on the first cells that result from mitosis of
each fertilized egg, and only eggs that do not have chromosome abnormalities or genes
associated with disorders are implanted in the uterus.
recessive gene
A less powerful gene that is not expressed phenotypically when paired with a dominant gene.
schizophrenia
A serious form of mental illness characterized by disturbances in logical thinking, emotional
expression, and inter personal behavior.
selective breeding A method of studying genetic influence that involves deliberately determining whether a trait can
be bred in animals through selective mating.
sex–linked
characteristic
An attribute determined by a gene that appears on one of the two types of sex chromosomes,
usually the X chromosome.
shared
environmental
influences
Experiences that individuals living in the same home environment share and that work to make
them similar. Contrast with nonshared environmental influences.
sickle–cell
disease
A genetic blood disease in which red blood cells assume an unusual sickle shape and become
inefficient at distributing oxygen throughout the body.
single gene–pair
inheritance
The genetic mechanism through which a characteristic is influenced by only one pair of genes,
one gene from the mother and its partner from the father.
species heredity
The genetic endowment that members of a particular species have in common; a contributor to
universal species traits and patterns of maturation.
stem cell
Undifferentiated, primitive cells that have the ability both to multiply and to differentiate into a
variety of specific cells.
temperament
A genetically based pattern of tendencies to respond in predictable ways; building blocks of
personality such as activity level, sociability, and emotionality.
Turner syndrome
A sex chromosome abnormality in which females inherit only one X chromosome (XO); they
remain small in stature, fail to develop secondary sex characteristics, and may show some
mental deficiencies.
twin study
Method of studying genetic and environmental influence in which the similarity of identical twins
is compared to that of (less genetically similar) fraternal twins, often in studies involving both
twins reared together and twins reared apart.
ultrasound
Method of examining physical organs by scanning them with sound waves—for example,
scanning the womb and thereby producing a visual outline of the fetus to detect gross
abnormalities.
X chromosome
The longer of the two sex chromosomes; normal females have two X chromosomes, whereas
normal males have only one.
Y chromosome
The shorter of the two sex chromosomes; normal males have one Y chromosome, whereas
females have none.
zygote
A single cell formed at conception from the union of a sperm and an ovum.
Chapter 4
acquired
The life–threatening disease in which the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the
immunodeficiency immune system and makes victims susceptible to rare, so–called opportunistic, infections that
syndrome (AIDS) eventually kill them. AIDS is transmitted through sexual activity, drug needle sharing, and from
mother to child before or during birth.
age of viability
A point (around the 24th prenatal week) when a fetus may survive outside the uterus if the brain
and respiratory system are well enough developed and if excellent medical care is available.
amnion
A watertight membrane that surrounds the developing embryo, regulating its temperature and
cushioning it against injuries.
anencephaly
Condition in which the top of the neural tube fails to close and the main portion of the brain
above the brain stem fails to develop properly.
anoxia
A lack of sufficient oxygen to the brain that may result in neurological damage or death.
Apgar test
A test routinely used to assess a newborn’s heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, and
reflexes immediately after birth and 5 minutes later; used to identify high–risk babies.
artificial
insemination
A method of conception that involves injecting sperm from a woman’s partner or from a donor
into the uterus.
at risk
Children who have a higher than normal chance of either short–term or long–term problems
because of genetic defects, prenatal hazards, or perinatal damage.
blastocyst
A hollow sphere of about 100 to 150 cells that the zygote forms by rapid cell division as it moves
through the fallopian tube.
breech
presentation
A delivery in which the fetus emerges feet first or buttocks first rather than head first.
cerebral palsy
A neurological disability caused by anoxia that is associated with difficulty controlling muscle
movements.
cesarean section
A surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the mother’s abdomen and uterus so that
the baby can be removed through the abdomen.
chorion
A membrane that surrounds the amnion and becomes attached to the uterine lining to gather
nourishment for the embryo.
couvade
Sympathetic pregnancy, or the experiencing by fathers of some of the same physiological
symptoms their pregnant partners experience (for example, bloating, weight gain, fatigue,
insomnia, and nausea).
critical period
A defined period in the development of an organism when it is particularly sensitive to certain
environmental influences; outside this period, the same influences will have far less effect.
differentiation
In brain development, the progressive diversification of cells that results in their taking on
different characteristics and functions.
embryonic period
Second phase of prenatal development, lasting from the third through the eighth prenatal week,
during which the major organs and anatomical structures begin to develop.
fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS)
A group of symptoms commonly observed in the offspring of mothers who use alcohol heavily
during pregnancy, including a small head, widely spaced eyes, and mental retardation.
fetal period
The third phase of prenatal development, lasting from the ninth prenatal week until birth; during
this period, the major organ systems begin to function effectively and the fetus grows rapidly.
germinal period
First phase of prenatal development, lasting about 2 weeks from conception until the developing
organism becomes attached to the wall of the uterus.
in vitro
fertilization (IVF)
Procedure in which several eggs are removed from a woman’s ovary, fertilized by sperm in a
petri dish in the laboratory, then transferred to the woman’s uterus in hopes that one will implant
on the wall of the uterus.
infertility
A couple’s inability to get pregnant after a year of trying to do so.
kangaroo care
Holding a young infant skin–to–skin on a parent’s chest; often used with premature babies to
help maintain body temperature, heart rate, and oxygen levels in the blood.
Lamaze method
Prepared childbirth in which parents attend classes and learn mental exercises and relaxation
techniques to ease delivery.
low birth weight
(LBW)
A weight at birth of less than 2500 grams, or 5 1/2 pounds, associated with increased risk of
developmental problems.
miscarriage
Loss of a pregnancy before survival of the baby outside the womb is possible.
myelin
A fatty sheath that insulates neural axons and thereby speeds the transmission of neural
impulses.
neonatal
Pertaining to events or developments in the first month after birth.
organogenesis
The process, occurring during the period of the embryo, in which every major organ takes shape
in a primitive form.
perinatal
environment
The environment surrounding birth.
perinatologist
A maternal–fetal specialist who focuses on high–risk pregnancies.
placenta
An organ, formed from the chorion and the lining of the uterus, that provides for the nourishment
of the unborn child and the elimination of its metabolic wastes.
postpartum
depression
An episode of severe, clinical depression lasting for months in a woman who has just given
birth; to be contrasted with milder cases of the “baby blues,” in which a new mother is tearful
and moody in the first days after birth.
prenatal
environment
The physical environment of the womb.
rubella
A disease that has little effect on a pregnant woman but may cause several serious birth
defects, such as blindness, deafness, and mental retardation, in unborn children exposed in the
first 3 to 4 months of gestation; German measles.
spina bifida
Condition in which the bottom of the neural tube fails to fully close during prenatal development
and part of the spinal cord is not fully encased in the protective covering of the spinal column.
stillbirth
Fetal death that occurs late in pregnancy when survival outside womb would normally have
been possible.
sudden infant
death syndrome
(SIDS)
The death of a sleeping baby because of a failure of the respiratory system; linked to maternal
smoking.
surfactant
A substance that aids breathing by preventing the air sacs of the lungs from sticking together.
syphilis
A common sexually transmitted disease that may cross the placental barrier in the middle and
later stages of pregnancy, causing miscarriage or serious birth defects.
teratogen
Any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus.
testosterone
The most important of the male hormones, or androgens; essential for normal sexual
development during the prenatal period and at puberty.
thalidomide
A mild tranquilizer that, taken early in pregnancy, can produce a variety of malformations of the
limbs, eyes, ears, and heart
Chapter 5
adolescent
The rapid increase in physical growth that occurs during adolescence.
growth spurt
adrenarche
A period of increased production of adrenal hormones, starting around 6–8 years of age, that
normally precedes increased production of gonadal hormones associated with puberty.
ageism
Prejudice against elderly people.
androgens
Male hormones that help trigger the adolescent growth spurt and the development of the male
sex organs, secondary sex characteristics, and sexual motivation.
andropause
The slower and less–dramatic male counterpart of menopause, characterized by decreasing
levels of testosterone and symptoms that include low libido, fatigue and lack of energy, erection
problems, memory problems, and loss of pubic hair.
body mass index
(BMI)
An indicator of body fat calculated from a person’s height and weight.
catch–up growth
A phenomenon in which children who have experienced growth deficits will grow rapidly and
catch up to the growth trajectory they are genetically programmed to follow.
celiac disease
An inherited digestive problem in which gluten (the proteins found in all wheat products) triggers
an immune response that damages a person’s small intestine.
cephalocaudal
principle
The principle that growth proceeds from the head (cephalic region) to the tail (caudal region).
congenital
malformations
Defects that are present at birth and are caused by genetic factors, prenatal events, or both.
constitutional
growth delay
Children who are small for age (at or below the 5th percentile on a growth chart) and late
entering puberty, but growing at a normal or near–normal pace.
developmental
norm
The age at which half of a large group of infants or children master a skill or display a behavior;
the average age for achieving a milestone in development.
diabetes
A metabolic disorder characterized by high levels of glucose or sugar in the blood leading to
symptoms of thirst, excessive urination, fatigue, and problems involving eyes, kidneys, and
other organs.
dynamic systems
theory
A perspective on development applied to motor development which proposes that more
sophisticated patterns of motor behavior emerge over time through a “self–organizing” process
in which children modify their motor behavior in adaptive ways on the basis of the sensory
feedback they receive when they try different movements.
endocrine gland
A type of gland that secretes chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Endocrine glands play critical roles in stimulating growth and regulating bodily functions.
estrogen
The female hormone responsible for the development of the breasts, the female sex organs,
and secondary sex characteristics and for the beginning of menstrual cycles.
fine motor skills
Skills that involve precise movements of the hands and fingers or feet and toes. Contrast with
gross motor skills.
gross motor skills Skills that involve large muscles and whole body or limb movements (for example, kicking the
legs or drawing large circles). Contrast with fine motor skills.
growth hormone
hormone
replacement
therapy (HRT)
Hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates childhood physical growth and the
adolescent growth spurt.
Taking estrogen and progestin to compensate for hormone loss because of menopause in
women.
hot flash
A sudden experience of warmth and sweating, often followed by a cold shiver, that occurs in a
menopausal woman.
lateralization
The specialization of the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex of the brain.
locomotion
The process of moving from one location to another.
menarche
A female’s first menstrual period.
menopause
The ending of a woman’s menstrual periods and reproductive capacity around age 51.
myelination
The depositing of a fatty sheath around neural axons that insulates them and thereby speeds
the transmission of neural impulses.
neurogenesis
The process of generating new neurons across the lifespan.
neuron
The basic unit of the nervous system; a nerve cell.
obesity
Condition of being overweight; specifically, being 20% or more above the “ideal” weight for
one’s height, age, and sex.
orthogenetic
principle
Werner’s principle that development proceeds from global and undifferentiated states toward
more differentiated and integrated patterns of response.
osteoarthritis
A joint problem among older adults resulting from a gradual deterioration of the cartilage that
cushions the bones and keeps them from rubbing together.
osteoporosis
A disease affecting older adults in which bone tissue is lost, leaving bones fragile and easily
fractured.
pincer grasp
A grasp in which the thumb is used in opposition to the fingers, enabling an infant to become
more dexterous at lifting and manipulating objects.
pituitary gland
The “master gland” located at the base of the brain that regulates the other endocrine glands
and produces growth hormone.
plasticity
An openness of the brain cells (or of the organism as a whole) to positive and negative
environmental influence; a capacity to change in response to experience.
premenstrual
syndrome (PMS)
Several symptoms experienced shortly before each menstrual period that include having tender
breasts, feeling bloated, and being irritable and moody.
proximodistal
principle
In development, the principle that growth proceeds from the center of the body (or the proximal
region) to the extremities (or the distal regions).
puberty
The point at which a person reaches sexual maturity and is physically capable of conceiving a
child.
reaction time
The interval between the presentation of a stimulus and a response to it.
reflex
An unlearned and automatic response to a stimulus.
REM sleep
A state of active, irregular sleep associated with dreaming; named for the rapid eye movements
associated with it.
reserve capacity
The ability of many organ systems to respond to demands for extraordinary output, such as
when the heart and lungs work at maximal capacity.
rhythmic
stereotypies
Repetitive movements observed in infants shortly before a new motor skill emerges.
secular trend
A trend in industrialized society toward earlier maturation and greater body size.
semenarche
A boy’s first ejaculation.
synapse
The point at which the axon or dendrite of one neuron makes a connection with another neuron.
ulnar grasp
Holding objects by clamping them between the palm of hand and the fingers.
Chapter 6
age–related
macular
degeneration
Damage to cells in the retina responsible for central vision.
attention
Focusing perception and cognition on something in particular.
attention deficit
hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by attentional difficulties, impulsive behavior, and overactive or fidgety
behavior.
cataracts
A pathologic condition of the eye involving opacification (clouding) of the lens that can impair
vision or cause blindness.
cochlear implant
A surgically implanted amplification device that stimulates the auditory nerve to provide the
sensation of hearing to a deaf individual.
constructivists
NA
contour
The amount of light–dark transition or boundary area in a visual stimulus.
cross–modal
perception
The ability to use one sensory modality to identify a stimulus or a pattern of stimuli already
familiar through another modality.
dark adaptation
The process by which the eyes become more sensitive to light over time as they remain in the
dark.
glaucoma
A condition in which increased fluid pressure in the eye damages the optic nerve and causes
progressive loss of peripheral vision and ultimately blindness.
habituation
A simple form of learning that involves learning not to respond to a repeated stimulus; learning
to be bored by the familiar.
intuitive theories
Organized systems of knowledge, believed to be innate, that allow children to make sense of
the world in areas such as physics and psychology.
nativist
An individual whose approach to human development emphasizes the contribution of genetic
factors; specifically, a person who believes that infants enter the world equipped with knowledge
that allows them to perceive a meaningful world from the start. Contrast with empiricist.
olfaction
The sense of smell, made possible by sensory receptors in the nasal passage that react to
chemical molecules in the air.
orienting system
An attentional system that that reacts to events in the environment; contrast with a focusing
system that deliberately seeks out and maintains attention to events.
perception
The interpretation of sensory input.
phoneme
One of the basic units of sound used in a particular spoken language.
presbycusis
Problems of the aging ear, which commonly involve loss of sensitivity to high–frequency or
high–pitched sounds.
presbyopia
Problems of the aging eye, especially loss of near vision related to a decreased ability of the
lens to accommodate to objects close to the eye.
retinitis
pigmentosa (RP)
A group of hereditary disorders that involve gradual deterioration of the light–sensitive cells of
the retina.
selective attention Deliberately concentrating on one thing and ignoring something else.
sensation
The process by which information is detected by the sensory receptors and transmitted to the
brain; the starting point in perception.
sensitive period
As compared to a critical period, a period of life during which the developing individual is
especially susceptible to the effects of experience or has an especially high level of plasticity.
sensory threshold The point at which low levels of stimulation can be detected.
size constancy
The tendency to perceive an object as the same size despite changes in its distance from the
eyes.
tinnitus
Condition caused by exposure to high noise levels that involves ringing sounds in one or both
ears and that can last for days, weeks, or indefinitely.
umami
A taste sensation that roughly equates to “brothy” or “savory.”
visual
accommodation
The ability of the lens of the eye to change shape to bring objects at different distances into
focus.
visual acuity
The ability to perceive detail in a visual stimulus.
visual cliff
An elevated glass platform that creates an illusion of depth and is used to test the depth
perception of infants.
Chapter 6
age–related
macular
degeneration
Damage to cells in the retina responsible for central vision.
attention
Focusing perception and cognition on something in particular.
attention deficit
hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by attentional difficulties, impulsive behavior, and overactive or fidgety
behavior.
cataracts
A pathologic condition of the eye involving opacification (clouding) of the lens that can impair
vision or cause blindness.
cochlear implant
A surgically implanted amplification device that stimulates the auditory nerve to provide the
sensation of hearing to a deaf individual.
constructivists
NA
contour
The amount of light–dark transition or boundary area in a visual stimulus.
cross–modal
perception
The ability to use one sensory modality to identify a stimulus or a pattern of stimuli already
familiar through another modality.
dark adaptation
The process by which the eyes become more sensitive to light over time as they remain in the
dark.
glaucoma
A condition in which increased fluid pressure in the eye damages the optic nerve and causes
progressive loss of peripheral vision and ultimately blindness.
habituation
A simple form of learning that involves learning not to respond to a repeated stimulus; learning
to be bored by the familiar.
intuitive theories
Organized systems of knowledge, believed to be innate, that allow children to make sense of
the world in areas such as physics and psychology.
nativist
An individual whose approach to human development emphasizes the contribution of genetic
factors; specifically, a person who believes that infants enter the world equipped with knowledge
that allows them to perceive a meaningful world from the start. Contrast with empiricist.
olfaction
The sense of smell, made possible by sensory receptors in the nasal passage that react to
chemical molecules in the air.
orienting system
An attentional system that that reacts to events in the environment; contrast with a focusing
system that deliberately seeks out and maintains attention to events.
perception
The interpretation of sensory input.
phoneme
One of the basic units of sound used in a particular spoken language.
presbycusis
Problems of the aging ear, which commonly involve loss of sensitivity to high–frequency or
high–pitched sounds.
presbyopia
Problems of the aging eye, especially loss of near vision related to a decreased ability of the
lens to accommodate to objects close to the eye.
retinitis
pigmentosa (RP)
A group of hereditary disorders that involve gradual deterioration of the light–sensitive cells of
the retina.
selective attention Deliberately concentrating on one thing and ignoring something else.
sensation
The process by which information is detected by the sensory receptors and transmitted to the
brain; the starting point in perception.
sensitive period
As compared to a critical period, a period of life during which the developing individual is
especially susceptible to the effects of experience or has an especially high level of plasticity.
sensory threshold The point at which low levels of stimulation can be detected.
size constancy
The tendency to perceive an object as the same size despite changes in its distance from the
eyes.
tinnitus
Condition caused by exposure to high noise levels that involves ringing sounds in one or both
ears and that can last for days, weeks, or indefinitely.
umami
A taste sensation that roughly equates to “brothy” or “savory.”
visual
accommodation
The ability of the lens of the eye to change shape to bring objects at different distances into
focus.
visual acuity
The ability to perceive detail in a visual stimulus.
visual cliff
An elevated glass platform that creates an illusion of depth and is used to test the depth
perception of infants.