Download AP Biology Study Guide and Review Packet Chapter 3 Properties of

AP Biology Study Guide and Review Packet
Chapter 3 Properties of Water
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Highly polar molecule due to unequal sharing of electrons
Universal solvent
o Review terms solute, solvent, and solution
Adhesion and cohesion
Surface tension
High specific heat
Expands upon freezing
The difference between hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules
Acids, Bases, and pH
Chapter 4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
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Miller Urey experiment – Created a variety of organic molecules in a system that mimicked
conditions thought to existed on early Earth.
Carbon is able to form a wide variety of molecules because of its valence electrons and bonding
abilities.
Isomers
o Structural
o Cis-trans
o Enantiomers
Functional Groups
o Hydroxyl
o Carbonyl
o Carboxyl
o Amino
o Sulfhydryl
o Phosphate
o Methyl
ATP – adenosine triphosphate
Chapter 5 Macromolecules
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Groups of macromolecules
Formation of polymers through dehydration (condensation) reaction
Breakdown of polymers through hydrolysis
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Carbohydrates
o Mono-, di-, and polysaccharides
o Function of carbohydrates
o Ex. Cellulose, glycogen, and chitin
Lipids
o Not polymers
o Fats, phospholipids, waxes, and steroids
o Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
o Function of lipids
Proteins
o Enzymes
o Subunits are amino acids
 Amino group, carboxyl group, R group
 Polypeptide chain
 Dipeptide bond
o Levels of protein structure
 Primary
 Secondary
 Tertiary
 Quaternary
o Protein structure = function
o Denaturation
Nucleic Acids
o DNA and RNA
o Subunits are nucleotides
 Five carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base
 Different types of nitrogenous bases
 RNA vs. DNA
 Purines and pyrimidines
 Chargaff’s rules
o Structure of DNA
o Types of RNA
Chapter 6 – The Cell
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Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic cells
Every cell has an inner substance (cytosol), outer boundary (cell membrane), and genetic
material.
Organelles and their functions
o Nucleus
o Nuclear envelope
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o Mitochondria
o Chloroplasts
o Golgi apparatus
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Vesicles
o Cytoskeleton
o Ribosomes
Plant cells vs. animal cells
Chapter 7 - Membrane Structure and Function
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Selective permeability – why is this important?
Fluid mosaic model
Structure of the cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
Cell Transport
o Passive
 Down the concentration gradient
 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Facilitated diffusion
o Active
 Against the concentration gradient
 Cell membrane pumps
 Movement in vesicles – endocytosis and exocytosis (bulk transport)
 Cotransport
 Membrane potential
o Hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solution
Chapter 8 – Metabolism
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Definition of metabolism
o Examples:
Catabolic vs. anabolic pathways
Endergonic vs. exergonic reactions (spontaneous)
First and second laws of thermodynamics
Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering the activation energy
Enzyme substrate complex
o Active site
Enzymes are substrate specific
Effects of temperature and pH on enzyme activity (think back to enzyme lab!)
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Competitive inhibitors vs. noncompetitive inhibitors
Enzyme inhibition and regulation of enzyme activity
Chapter 9 – Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
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Equation for cellular respiration
Aerobic vs. anaerobic pathways
Aerobic pathways
o Glycolysis
o Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb’s)
o Oxidative phosphorylation
 ETC and chemiosmosis
Types of fermentation
o Lactic acid
o Alcoholic
Advantages of aerobic cellular respiration
Substrate level phosphorylation vs. oxidative phosphorylation
Reactants and products of each step
How exactly is ATP generated?
Connection to photosynthesis
Chapter 10 – Photosynthesis
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Equation for photosynthesis
Steps of photosynthesis
o Light reactions
 Location
 Reactants
 Products
 Connection with Calvin
o Calvin Cycle
 Location
 Reactants
 Products
 Connection with light reactions
Role of plant pigments
o Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b
Photosystem II and Photosystem I
Primary production
o GPP and NPP
Chapter 11 – Cell Communication
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Type of Cell Signaling - Cells can communicate through either local or long distance signaling.
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Local Signaling
 Direct Contact
 Cell junctions
 Cell-cell recognition
 Paracrine signaling
 Synaptic signaling
o Long-distance signaling
 Endocrine (hormonal signaling)
 Transmission of a signal through the nervous system
Three Stages of Cell Signaling
o Reception
 Signaling molecule binds to receptor protein
 Chemical signal is detected
o Transduction
 Converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response
 May occur as a single step
 May also occur as a signal transduction pathway involving a series of molecules
o Response
 Transduced signal triggers a specific cellular Response
Reception
o Ligand – a molecule that specifically binds to another molecule
o Ligand binding generally causes receptors to undergo a change in shape
o Many receptors are embedded in the plasma membrane
 Cell surface receptors
 G protein-coupled receptors
o Works with a G protein
o Binds to GTP (similar to ATP)
o Many signaling molecules including hormones and
neurotransmitters
o GTP binds to enzyme, activating the enzyme and leading to a
response
 Receptor tyrosine kinases
o Kinase – an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate
groups
o Transfers a phosphate group from ATP to tyrosine
o Proteins bind to specific phosphorylated tyrosine and become
activated
o Activated proteins trigger a transduction pathway
 Ion channel receptors
o Ligand gated ion channel
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“gate” opens or closes, allowing or blocking ions through a
channel in the receptor
Flow of ions through the channel changes the concentration
and causes a cellular response
Voltage gated ion channels important part of the nervous
system
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Intracellular Receptors
 Intracellular receptor proteins are found in the cytoplasm or nucleus
 Chemical messenger passes through plasma membrane
 Example – testosterone
Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules in the cell
o Signal transduction pathway
 Chain of molecular interactions
 Relay a signal from receptor to response
o Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation
 Involved in a signal transduction pathway
 Protein kinase – an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a
protein
o Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers
 cAMP (Cyclic AMP) is an example of a second messenger
 Calcium is a widely used second messenger
Cell Signaling Leads to Regulation of Transcription or Cytoplasmic Activities
Many signaling pathways regulate protein synthesis
Activated molecule may function as a transcription factor
Signal pathways can be amplified
Chapter 12 – The Cell Cycle
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Binary fission vs. mitosis
Chromosomes
o Prokaryotic chromosomes vs. Eukaryotic chromosomes
o Chromosome structure
 Sister chromatids
 Centromere
Phases of the cell cycle and what occurs in each phase
o Interphase
 G1
 S
 G2
o Mitotic
 Mitosis
 Cytokinesis
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Structure of the mitotic spindle
o Centrosome, aster, microtubules, kinetochore
Checkpoints
Loss of control of the cell cycle leads to cancer
Chapter 13 – Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
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What is a karyotype?
Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes
Haploid cells vs. diploid cells
How does the process of meiosis differ from mitosis?
- Crossing over
- Homologous chromosomes pair at metaphase plate
- Separation of homologs
Sexual reproduction is important because it creates genetic variation
- Crossing over
- Independent assortment
- Random fertilization
Chapter 14 – Mendel and the Gene Idea
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Mendel’s experiments
- P, F1, F2
Alleles
Law of Segregation
Law of Independent Assortment
Genotype vs. phenotype
Probability
- Multiplication rule
- Addition rule
Patterns of inheritance
- Complete dominance, incomplete dominance, codominance
Polygenic inheritance
Pedigree analysis
- Carriers
- Sex-linked traits
Chapter 15 – The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
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Sex determination (humans, fruit flies, other animals)
Linked genes
- Usually inherited together
- Proximity on the same chromosome violates Mendel’s Law on I.A.
- Linkage maps and recombination frequencies
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Nondisjunction and associated disorders
- Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome
Chromosomal mutations
Chapter 16 – The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
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Structure of DNA
- Double helix
- Sugar-phosphate backbone
- Nitrogenous bases
- Distances between bases and bonding
- Roles of Watson, Crick, and Franklin
- Antiparallel
Replication
- Why does it have to occur?
- Semiconservative model
- Origins of replication in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
- Role of enzymes
- Helicase
- Topoisomerase
- Primase
- DNA polymerase
- Ligase
- Direction of replication
- Leading strand and lagging strand
- Importance of Okazaki fragments
- Role of telomeres and telomerase
Chapter 17 – From Gene to Protein
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Central dogma of Biology: DNA RNAProtein
- Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Transcription
- DNARNA
- Takes place in the nucleus (eukaryotes)
- DNA template strand and mRNA
- Codons
- Reading frame
- Role of enzymes
- RNA polymerase
- Promoter, transcription initiation complex, TATA box
- Stages of transcription
- Initiation
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- Elongation
- Termination
In eukaryotic cells, RNA processing has to occur
- Pre-mRNA
- Post transcriptional modification
1. Cap
2. Tail
3. Splicing
Translation takes place on the ribosomes
Role of tRNA
What is an anticodon?
Stages of translation
- Initiation
- Elongation
- Termination
What is wobble?
E, P, and A sites of the ribosome – what happens at each?
Mutations – multiple terms can be applied
- Point mutation – change in a single nucleotide pair
- Substitution – one nucleotide substituted for another
- Insertion – nucleotide added
- Deletion – nucleotide deleted.
- Insertions and deletions result in frameshifts, typically leading to missense
or nonsense
- Substitutions can result in silent mutations, missense mutations, or
nonsense mutations
Chapter 18 – Regulation of Gene Expression
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Prokaryotes utilize operons
Eukaryotes utilize a number of different methods to regulate gene expressions
Operon consists of
- Promoter
- repressor
- operator
- genes
Examples of operons include the trp operon and lac operon
- Corepressor
- Inducer
- Repressible operon vs. inducible operon
Eukaryotic regulation of gene expression
- Differential gene expression
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Histone acetylation
Methylation
Use of activators only present in certain cell types (pg. 361)
Alternative RNA splicing (pg. 363)
Chapter 19 – Viruses
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Viruses are not considered living things. Why?
Viruses are classified by their genetic material
- DNA or RNA
- Double stranded or single stranded
Viruses have a variety of capsid (protein shell) shapes
Bacteriophages
Retroviruses
- Reverse transcriptase
- Ex. Of retrovirus
Lytic vs. lysogenic cycles
What is a prion?
Chapter 20 – Biotechnology
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Recombinant DNA – DNA molecules formed when segments of DNA from two different
sources are combined
Role of a plasmid in biotechnology and genetic engineering
Cloning
Restriction enzymes, restriction site, restriction fragments, sticky ends
Using plasmids pg. 399
PCR (pg. 404)
- Amplifies the amount of DNA available to work with
- Steps
Gel electrophoresis
- DNA fragments (restriction fragments) are separated by size
- Utilizes electricity
- “run to red”
Gene therapy
Use of GMOs
Steps of bacterial transformation (see virtual lab)
Chapter 21 – Genomes and Their Evolution
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Human Genome Project
Chapter 22 – Descent with Modification
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Natural selection
Evidence of evolution
- Biogeography
- Fossil record
- Homologous structures
- DNA, RNA, Proteins (biological molecules)
- Comparative embryology
Homologous vs. analogous structures
Vestigial structures
Phylogenetic tree
Chapter 23 – Evolution of Populations
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Microevolution vs. macroevolution
Sources of genetic variation – needed for natural selection
Population
Gene pool
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
- YOU MUST KNOW HOW TO USE THIS FOR THE EXAM
- No mutations
- Random mating
- No natural selection
- Large population
- No gene flow (no migration)
Genetic drift
Founder effect
Bottleneck effect
What is fitness?
Types of natural selection
- Disruptive
- Directional
- Stabilizing
Chapter 24 – Origin of Species
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Biological species concept
Speciation results from isolation
- Allopatric speciation
- Sympatric speciation
Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers to reproductive isolation (pg 490-491)
Hybrids
Chapter 25 – History of Life on Earth
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Life on early earth was very different than today due to early earth conditions
Anaerobic environment
Oxygen came later “oxygen revolution”
Fossils can be dated using radiometric dating
Endosymbiont theory
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts
- Evidence of this?
Chapter 26 – Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
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Taxonomy
Taxonomic groups
Morphology
Linnean system
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
- (King Philip Came Over for Good Spaghetti)
Binomial nomenclature – genus and species
Phylogenetic tree
- Morphological and molecular homologies
Cladistics
- Shared characters
- Derived characters
- Cladogram
- Ingroup
- Outgroup
Chapter 27 – Bacteria and Archaea
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Gram-positive vs. Gram-negative
Cell wall of peptidoglycan
Genetic recombination in bacteria
- Transformation
- Transduction
- Conjugation
Plasmids and antibiotic resistance
Lawn vs. colony
Plants
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Vascular vs. nonvascular plants
Vascular tissue
- Xylem and phloem (roles of each)
Cuticle
Angiosperms vs. gymnosperms (examples of each)
Role of stomata in photosynthesis
Structure of a flower
Organs of plants
- Roots (function)
- Shoots (function)
- Leaves (function)
Water potential
- KNOW HOW TO DO THESE CALCULATIONS
- Direction of water movement due to water potential
- Pressure potential
- Solute potential
- Turgor pressure
- Phototropism
Chapter 52 - Ecology
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Biotic and abiotic ecosystem components
Rainshadow effect (how mountains affect climate)
Biomes
Zones of a lake
Turnover in a lake
Zones of the ocean
Chapter 53 – Population Ecology
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Population density
Population dispersion
r-selected vs. K-selected species
logistic growth model
carrying capacity
Population boom and bust cycles (ex. Lynx and Snowshoe hare)
Chapter 54 – Community Ecology
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Principle of Competitive Exclusion
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Resource partitioning
Species interactions
- Competition
- Predation
- Symbiosis
- Parasitism
- Mutualism
- Commensalism
Biodiversity
- Species richness and species abundance (relative distribution)
Food webs vs. food chains
Why does energy flow and matter cycle?
Biomagnification
- Bald eagle
Keystone species (ex. Sea otter)
Primary vs. secondary ecological succession
- Primary – no soil, takes a long time
- Secondary – soil intact, happening all the time
Chapter 56 – Ecosystems
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GPP vs. NPP
What is productivity?
Limiting nutrients
- Nitrates and phosphates
- Cultural eutrophication = too much of a good thing
Biogeochemical cycles
- Nitrogen
- Nitrogen fixation important
- Legumes
- Most of the air is metabolically inert nitrogen
- Carbon
- Photosynthesis and respiration
- Phosphorus
- No atmospheric component
- Very slow, weathering of rocks
Environmental Problems
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Climate change
- Causes
- Link between temperature and CO2
- Difference between climate change and greenhouse effect
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Ozone depletion
- Caused by CFCs
- Higher rates of skin cancer
Invasive species
- Take over the ecosystem and cause ecosystem disruption
- May have no natural predators
Acid deposition (acid rain)
- NOx and SOx from burning fossil fuels
- Forms nitric acid and sulfuric acid
- Kills fish and can change soil pH and kill plants