Download U - McEachern High School

Quick Reference
US History Review
Topic
SI
Handouts
European Settlement
American Revolution
British North America
p.16-17
p.18-20
p.21-22
U.S. Constitution
19th Century Growth
p.1-2
p.23-27
Growing N-S Division
Civil War
p.28-33
p.34-38
Reconstruction
Progressive Era
America and the World
p.39-42
p.43-46
p.47-49
World War I
p.50-54
Key Developments After WWI
Great Depression
New Deal
p.55-57
World War II
Post WWII and Cold War
p.58-62
p.62-63
Civil Rights
Social Movements
p.64-66
American Gov’t Review
Declaration of Independence
U.S. Constitution
p.21-22
p.1-2
Federal Government
p.3-5,
p.10-11
Bill of Rights & Civil Liberties
Citizenship
p.6-7
Political Parties & Elections
p.7-9,
p.12-13
*recommended
*p.13-14
World History Review
Topic
Renaissance
Reformation
SI
Handouts
p.85-86
p.86-89
Discovery & Exploration
p.90-92
Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
Revolutions & Rebellions
World War I
p.93-94
Between the Wars
World War II
p.95-97
Decolonizing & Cold War
Late 20th Century
p.98-100
World Geography Review
Physical Geography
Cultural Geography
p.67-68
Middle East
Asia
p.69-71
p.72-73
Europe
Latin America
p.74-76
p.77-80
United States
p.80-81
*recommended
*p.82-84
U.S. Constitution
The first 20 years of the United States government was full of issues and conflicts. From the Bill of Rights to the
Election of 1800, from the Judiciary Act to the formation of two political parties, the United States experienced
change, confusion, and the establishment of the federal government as the supreme power in this new country.
A Two-Party System
As George Washington prepared to leave the Presidency, two political parties appeared on the scene: the
Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson.
The Federalists emerged in the 1790s with Alexander Hamilton in the lead. Federalists supported a strong
central government and believed in a broad interpretation of the Constitution through the Elastic Clause.
Federalists also supported Hamilton in his creation of a national bank and his desire for the U.S. to pay back its
debts from the Revolutionary War.
The Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, were started as an opposition to the Federalists. The
Democratic-Republicans supported a weak national government that left the states to make major decisions, and
they believed in a narrow interpretation of the Constitution. They opposed the creation of a national bank and
many other issues that Alexander Hamilton supported.
Important Events and Issues from 1789 to 1800
Judiciary Act of 1789
This act set up the national court system, which is made up of circuit courts, district courts, and the Supreme
Court, according to the Constitution.
Bill of Rights
Also known as the first 10 amendments of the constitution, these amendments were passed within two years of
the date they were written.
Whiskey Rebellion, 1794
In 1791, Congress passed a tax on whiskey made in the United States, which angered the farmers who sold
whiskey on the frontier. They thought it was unfair and refused to pay it. In 1794, Alexander Hamilton sent troops
to Pennsylvania to get farmers to follow the law.
Alien and Sedition Acts
In 1798, Congress passed four laws known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were directed at the
Democratic-Republican party and its supporters. The Alien Act increased the number of years required to live in
the U.S. before becoming a U.S. citizen from five years to 14. The Sedition Act made it illegal for U.S. citizens to
say or write critical remarks about the government.
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison wrote papers that protested these acts. They argued that states had a right
to declare them null and void. The state legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia passed resolutions saying they could
declare federal laws null and void. The Federalists did not agree with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
because they thought only the Supreme Court could declare a law unconstitutional. This issue of state power vs.
national power was not resolved until later.
Election of 1800
Before 1804, the president was elected by having the most electoral votes, and the person with the second-most
votes became vice president. In 1800, Thomas Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr received the same
number of votes, with current President John Adams coming in third and losing the election. The Federalistdominated House of Representatives, which then had the right to select the president, almost elected Aaron Burr in
order to deny the presidency to Thomas Jefferson. They eventually voted to elect Jefferson after Alexander
Hamilton convinced them that Burr was a worse choice. In 1804, the 12th Amendment was passed, separating the
voting for president and vice president.
Marbury v. Madison
At the end of John Adams term, he appointed his supporters to positions as judges and court officers. They were
called "Midnight Judges." They did not receive their documentation to begin their positions before Adams left
office. Newly elected President Jefferson instructed Secretary of State James Madison not to give appointees their
papers. One appointee, William Marbury, sued Madison for his papers. The case, Marbury v. Madison, made it to
the Supreme Court in 1803. There, Chief Justice John Marshall stated the opinion that the Court did not have the
power to make Madison give Marbury his papers. The Court ruled that the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that
granted the Court the power to do so was unconstitutional. It was the first time the Supreme Court declared an act
of Congress unconstitutional.
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It establishes principles that guarantee the
government will not overstep its power, but it still gives the government enough authority to carry out its
responsibilities.
Popular sovereignty is the concept that governmental power is given with the consent of the people. In the United
States, the Constitution mandates that certain political officials are elected into office, and while all officials are
able to exercise power, they are still held accountable to the people.
Individual rights were a concern for many early Americans, who did not want the United States government to
infringe on their rights as they felt Britain had. Most individual rights we have are listed in the Bill of Rights,
which became the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
Limited government implies that legal restrictions are placed on governmental power. Usually, governmental
power is curtailed by a written document, such as the U.S. Constitution. This idea is also closely related to
individual rights. The Tenth Amendment declares that state governments and individuals—not the central
government—have rights to any powers not specifically enumerated to the central government. Furthermore, the
Constitution lists further specific powers that the central government does not have.
Federalism is the constitutional principle that the central government—also called the federal government—must
share power with state and local governments. By giving state and local authorities responsibility for their areas,
the central government can still fulfill its national responsibilities while being limited from attaining too much
control.
Republicanism relates to the form of democratic government in which the people are represented by elected
leaders. At the time when the United States Constitution was written, republicanism was an alternative to the
monarchy that existed in England. Republican government derives its power from the people and from
constitutional law.
Separation of powers is a key principle established in the Constitution. The failed Articles of Confederation had
taught Americans that the central government needed some power, but many still did not want to see one leader (or
group of leaders) completely dominate the country. Instead, they divided responsibilities among three branches of
government: executive, legislative, and judicial.
Checks and balances are related to separation of powers. Checks and balances were set by the Constitution to
grant the three government branches certain powers over each other. For example, the president of the United
States is the head of the executive branch and has certain powers over the Congress, who makes up the legislative
branch. If Congress attempts to pass a bill that the president does not agree with, the president can veto the bill,
hindering it from becoming a law.
Federal Government
As designated by the U.S. Constitution, the Federal Government has three branches: legislative, executive, and
judicial.
Legislative Branch -The legislative branch of the U.S. government is made up of the Congress. Congress is made
up of two chambers, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The legislative branch is
responsible for making laws. Members of the House of Representatives are elected to serve
two-year terms, and senators are elected to serve six-year terms. The House is presided over
by the Speaker of the House, who is elected by colleagues, and the Senate is presided over by
the vice president. Each state has two senators, but the number of representatives in the
House is determined by the state's population.
Executive Branch -The executive branch of the U.S. government is made up of the president, vice president, and
the many executive departments. It is the responsibility of the executive branch to enforce the
laws created by the legislative branch. Also, the president has veto power. There are fifteen
cabinet level departments of the executive branch which are Agriculture, Commerce,
Defense, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and
Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, State, Transportation, Treasury, and Veterans
Affairs. The leaders of these departments are members of the Cabinet and serve as policy
advisers to the U.S. President.
Judicial Branch -The judicial branch of the U.S. government consists of a system of courts spread throughout
the country, headed by the Supreme Court of the United States. The judicial branch is
responsible for interpreting laws and determining whether they are constitutional or not.
Checks and Balances -A system of limits imposed by the U.S. Constitution on all branches of government by
granting each branch the right to amend or void certain actions of other branches.
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It established principles that guaranteed the
government would not overstep its power, but it still gave the government enough authority to carry out its
responsibilities.
Popular sovereignty is the right people have to elect their leaders. In concept, the leaders derive their right to rule
from the will of the people. The Constitution mandates that certain political officials are elected into office, and,
while all officials are able to exercise power, they are still held accountable to the people.
Individual rights were a concern for many early Americans, as they did not want the United States government to
infringe on their rights as they felt Britain had. Most individual rights we have are listed in the Bill of Rights,
which became the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
Limited government is closely related to individual rights. The Tenth Amendment declares that state governments
and individuals—not the central government—have rights to any powers not specifically enumerated to the central
government. Furthermore, the Constitution lists further specific powers that the central government does not have.
Federalism is the constitutional principle that the central government—also called the federal government—must
share power with state and local governments. By giving state and local authorities responsibility for their areas,
the central government can still fulfill its national responsibilities while being limited from attaining too much
control.
Republicanism relates to the form of democratic government in which the people are represented by elected
leaders. At the time when the United States Constitution was written, republicanism was an alternative to the
monarchy that existed in England. Republican government derives its power from the people and from
constitutional law.
Separation of powers is a key principle established in the Constitution. The failed Articles of Confederation had
taught Americans that the central government needed some power, but many still did not want to see one leader (or
group of leaders) completely dominate the country. Instead, they divided responsibilities among three branches of
government: executive, legislative, and judicial.
Checks and balances are related to separation of powers. Checks and balances were set by the Constitution to
grant the three government branches certain powers over each other. For example, the executive president holds
power over the legislative Congress through veto, the ability to prevent a passed bill from becoming a law.
Court cases that verified Constitutional supremacy
Marbury v. Madison (1803) - established that the Supreme Court had the right to strike down any law it perceived
as in violation of the Constitution. It is notable that this right is called "judicial review," and it is one of the checks
and balances given to the judicial branch.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) - ruled that the U.S. Constitution overrides any state laws that directly conflict.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) - ruled that "separate but equal" was constitutional.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) - ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional.
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1969) - instituted school busing to force desegregation.
Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
Civil liberties refers to freedoms that protect the individual from government. They set limits for government so it
cannot abuse its power. Civil disobedience is the refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a
government, or of an occupying power, without turning to violence.
The Bill of Rights is the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. Some of the amendments that have been
approved since the adoption of the Bill of Rights have expanded the definition of American citizenship.
First Amendment guarantees freedom of religion, speech, and the press. It also guarantees the right to assemble
and to petition.
Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear arms.
Third Amendment spells out conditions for housing soldiers.
Fourth Amendment guarantees protection from unreasonable search and seizure.
Fifth Amendment guarantees the right to due process of the law and protects citizens from double jeopardy and
self-incrimination. Also, private property cannot be taken without compensation.
Sixth Amendment guarantees a speedy trial and other rights of the accused.
Seventh Amendment guarantees trial by jury.
Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment.
Ninth Amendment protects rights not specified in the Bill of Rights.
Tenth Amendment protects powers of states and people.
Amendments since the Bill of Rights
Eleventh Amendment clarifies judicial power.
Twelfth Amendment establishes the procedure for electing a president and vice president.
Thirteenth Amendment abolishes slavery.
Fourteenth Amendment establishes citizenship rights for former slaves.
Fifteenth Amendment establishes that race cannot be used to prevent a citizen from voting.
Sixteenth Amendment authorizes Congress to assess income taxes.
Seventeenth Amendment provides for the direct election of senators by the people of a state.
Eighteenth Amendment prohibits the sale, manufacture, or transportation of liquor.
Nineteenth Amendment extends the right to vote to women.
Twentieth Amendment establishes Jan. 20 for the presidential inauguration.
Twenty-first Amendment repeals the Eighteenth Amendment, ending Prohibition.
Twenty-second Amendment establishes term limits for the president.
Twenty-third Amendment permits the District of Columbia to choose electors for president and vice president.
Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits poll taxes or any other kind of taxes as a condition for voting.
Twenty-fifth Amendment sets the order of succession to the presidency, and establishes procedures for filling a
vice presidential vacancy and handling presidential disabilities.
Twenty-sixth Amendment lowers the voting age to 18.
Twenty-seventh Amendment provides that any change in the salary of members of Congress may only take effect
after the next general election.
Civic affairs are the ways citizens interact with their society and government. You can participate in civic affairs
through politics, education, and public service.
Political civic participation: includes voting, serving jury duty, and political protesting. People who participate in
political affairs are trying to influence the government.
Educational civic participation: includes public awareness campaigns and organizations that teach useful skills
to individuals. People who participate in educational affairs are trying to help others get educated on various
topics.
Public service civic participation: includes volunteer work and nonprofit organizations. People who participate in
public service affairs are trying to help those less fortunate and increase awareness of various social problems.
Examples of civic participation are joining a nonprofit organization like the Red Cross, creating a public
awareness program for a social problem like child labor, protesting a political topic like segregation, and
volunteering to tutor at a local elementary school.
Elections & Leadership
In general, American voters have the opportunity to participate in more elections than the citizens of most other
democracies. Some Americans may have five or six opportunities a year to vote, with each ballot filled with
different choices for different offices at various levels of government. Because of its federal system, in which both
the national government and the state governments have distinct powers, election day in the United States is
actually the occasion for a series of simultaneous state and local elections, each held under separate administrative
procedures.
The following are the types of elections held in the U.S. and the different regulations and rules involved during the
election process:
Election of the President & Vice President
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According to the United States Constitution, a presidential election is to be held once every fourth year.
To run for President, you must be: a natural-born citizen of the U.S., at least 35 years of age, and a resident
of the U.S. for at least 14 years.
In order to officially represent a political party, a candidate must be nominated by that party.
In order to secure a party’s nomination, a candidate must receive a majority of the votes from the delegates.
This occurs during a primary election.
The candidate for President then must choose a vice-presidential candidate.
If a President is running for re-election, this nomination process must be completed. Even if the President
does not face any opposition from within his own political party, the national convention will still occur.
Some people choose to run for president without being affiliated with a political party. Such independent
candidates need not concern themselves with getting nominated by a party, but must meet other
requirements. Because these candidates do not affiliate with a party, they have to raise much of their own
funding. The U.S. government offers federal grants to candidates who need public funding to pay for their
election costs or meet other election costs.
In this national presidential election, every citizen of legal age (who has taken the steps necessary in his or
her state to meet the voting requirements, such as registering to vote) has an opportunity to vote.
The president is not chosen by direct popular vote. The Electoral College ultimately decides who will win
the general election.
An absolute majority is necessary to prevail in the presidential and the vice presidential elections, that is,
half the total plus one electoral votes are required. With 538 Electors, a candidate must receive at least 270
votes to be elected to the office of President or Vice President.
Should no presidential candidate receive an absolute majority, the House of Representatives determines
who the next president will be. Some elections have been decided by Congress in the past as well as the
Supreme Court.
Election of Senators
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Each state has two senators who are elected to serve six-year terms in the Senate.
Every two years one third of the Senate is up for re-election.
Most states have primary elections to decide which candidates will be on the November general election
ballot.
The 17th Amendment to the Constitution now requires senators to be elected by a direct vote of those he or
she will represent. Election winners are decided by the plurality rule. That is, the person who receives the
highest number of votes wins. This may not necessarily be a majority of the votes. For example, in an
election with three candidates, one candidate may receive only 38% of the vote, another 32%, and the third
30%. Although no candidate has received a majority of more than 50% of the votes, the candidate with
38% wins because he or she has the most votes (the plurality).
Election of Representatives
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The House of Representatives has 435 members and is led by the Speaker of the House.
Members of the House are up for re-election every two years.
The number of persons representing each state depends upon its population as reported in the nation's
decennial census counts.
Each state is divided into congressional districts accordingly. There is a representative for every
congressional district, and every state has at least one congressional district.
Most states have primary elections to decide which candidates will be on the November general election
ballot. Some states' parties hold conventions in conjunction with the primary.
Senate and representative elections differ in who votes for the candidates. All eligible voters within a state
may vote for Senator. A Representative is elected by only those eligible voters residing in the congressional
district that the candidate will represent.
Election winners are decided by the plurality rule.
MAKING LAWS
In the United States, there are law-making processes to make a law. The Constitution covers this process and gives
many opportunities for citizens to participate in the U.S. political process. The Constitution also covers the
freedom of the press, and the press has responsibilities that come with that freedom.
U.S. Law-Making Process
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For a bill to become a law, the Senate and the House of Representatives must pass identical forms of it.
A law is introduced in either house of Congress as a bill.
If both houses cannot agree on an identical form, one usually calls a conference committee.
The bill can be left unapproved in Congress, or go through revisions until it is approved.
Senators have the right to unlimited debate and opportunity to offer amendments and sometimes use this
power to filibuster. Filibuster occurs when a senator uses his unlimited debate to talk or offer meaningless
amendments, taking up long periods of time in hope of preventing legislation from passing.
A filibuster can be ended with cloture, a process that involves 3/5 of the Senate vote.
Both houses meet during a conference committee, and they agree on a final version of the bill.
After the bill has been approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate, it is sent to the President.
Once the Senate approves it, the bill goes to the President.
The President signs the bill, making it a law.
The President can veto a bill if he does not approve and send it back to Congress to be changed, dismissed,
or voted on to override the veto.
After a presidential veto, the Congress has the opportunity to override the veto. If two-thirds of both houses
vote to override the veto, the bill will become law.
Joint committees, made up of members from both the House and the Senate, do not have authority to
consider legislation but instead focus on subjects such as economic matters, printing, and taxation.
Citizens Participation
The Constitution provides many opportunities for citizens to participate in the political process and monitor and
influence government. They include:
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voting—the Constitution gives all native-born or naturalized U.S. citizens over the age of 18, with the
exception of convicted felons, the right to vote. U.S. citizens vote in elections for various positions
including representatives in Congress and the President and Vice-President. Citizens also have the
opportunity to vote directly on a proposed law in a referendum.
political parties—U.S. citizens can participate in the political party they choose. This allows them to
participate in elections and campaigns, as well as to monitor the political system and influence government
officials.
interest groups—groups of people that work for or strongly support a particular cause. This can be a bill or
an industry, or even a non-profit organization. U.S. citizens can participate in interest groups, which
sometimes influence and monitor the government and the political process.
Influences on the Legislative Process
People and organizations do not directly participate in legislation, but they do have the ability to influence
legislators through individual actions and special interest groups. Special interest groups are formed from
people who attempt to influence candidates and politicians without running for office themselves.
A political action committee (PAC) is a group that raises money to aid candidates who share the group's
political views. Political lobbyists are similarly-organized groups who try to influence elected officials to
support a specific cause. Many of these special interest groups are in fact single interest groups, groups formed
only in support or opposition to a single issue.
Other Congressional Powers
The House of Representatives has the power to impeach a federal official. After the House has impeached, or
charged, an official with wrongdoing, the person is tried before the Senate. If two-thirds of the Senate vote to
convict the person, then he or she is removed from office.
VOTING
Citizens must meet a few requirements to participate in the election process. Political organizations, parties, and
other interest groups do what they can to convince people to support their candidates or platforms.
The voting process
Voting laws differ slightly from state to state, but the following are generally the only qualifications you need to
exercise this right and privilege today in the United States:
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You are at least 18 years of age.
You are not a convicted felon (in North Carolina, you can still vote after completing the terms of your
sentence).
You are a U.S. citizen.
You are a legal resident of the state (for North Carolina, it is a 30-day residency requirement).
You are registered to vote.
Referendum voting occurs when citizens vote directly on a proposed law. This is more affiliated with direct
democracy than with representative government.
Partisan describes someone who is partial to a certain political party. Legislation and other political activities can
also be partisan. Bipartisan refers to people or activities that focus on goals not specific to any party, or it can
refer to activities resulting from the combined effort of more than one major party.
Caucuses and Political Action Committees (PAC) both play important roles in the election process. Both are
formed from groups of people who share the same interests or geographic area. Caucuses decide which candidates
a group will support based on that group's goals. PACs, in contrast, are not formally related to any party; they
instead raise money to influence candidates toward their position.
How candidates reach the people
Candidates make use of the mass media to reach their potential voters. Through the media, candidates are able to
advertise themselves. They can also use public debate to make known and defend their policies.
Voter polls are surveys in which people are asked their opinions on candidates or issues. Political parties and
candidates use this information to determine where the public stands, and they focus their campaigns accordingly.
For example, the beliefs and principles listed in party platforms often answer issues that the party feels people
care most about.
Propaganda techniques are also used to attract voters to a candidate or party. Here are some of the most common
techniques:
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Glittering generalities—using virtue words that appeal to voters' emotions
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Bandwagon—convincing people to support someone or something because everyone else already is
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Card stacking—selectively presenting only the positive qualities of something, exaggerating them, and
omitting any downsides or opposing arguments
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Name calling—using negative words to describe opposing candidates or ideas, in order to stir emotions of
dislike
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"Just Plain Folks"—identifying oneself with the common people to convince voters of sincerity and
values
Sometimes political candidates or organization representatives go door-to-door to contact voters—a technique
called canvassing. Though not strictly a "propaganda technique" in the sense of the others, canvassing is
effective because voters often respond favorably to candidates who take the time to meet them face-to-face.
Foreign Policy
A nation’s foreign policy is a set of goals that outlines how that country will interact officially with other countries
of the world. Foreign policies usually are designed to help protect a country’s national interests, national security,
ideological goals, and prosperity. Creating foreign policy is the job of the head of government or head of state and
the foreign minister (or equivalent). In the United States, the head of state (the president) also functions as the head
of government, and the secretary of state is the foreign minister. Some aspects of foreign policy, such as the
approval of treaties, are Congress’ responsibility.
U.S. foreign policy
Along with Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union, foreign policy was influenced by oil supplies in the
Middle East in the latter half of the 20th century. Support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War in 1973 led
Arab oil-producing nations to stop selling oil to the United States, its allies in Europe, and Japan. The Arab oil
embargo led to a substantial increase in the price of gasoline in the United States, but, over the long term, it
also led to more exploration and measures to conserve energy.
Human rights was the focal point of American foreign policy during Jimmy Carter’s presidency (1977-1981).
This was a departure from the long-held U.S. foreign policy toward the Soviet Union of trying to contain the
spread of communism to other countries. In previous administrations, human rights abuses were often
overlooked if they were committed by governments that were allied with the United States. But America
secretly began to send aid to anti-Soviet Islamist factions in Afghanistan in 1979, and the Carter
administration’s foreign policy focused almost entirely on the hostage crisis in Iran in the final year of Carter’s
presidency. The Carter administration achieved its greatest foreign policy accomplishment by persuading
Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat to participate in peace talks at
Camp David, Md., in 1978 and sign the Camp David Accords in 1979.
”Peace through strength” was the foreign policy strategy of the Reagan administration (1981-1989). As part
of what came to be known as the “Reagan Doctrine,” which was designed to oppose the global influence of the
Soviet Union, the United States provided financial and support for equipment and troops for anti-communist
forces in central Europe and took an increasingly hard-line position against communist governments in
countries like Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua. Reagan’s personal support for the Contra rebels
in Nicaragua led some members of the national security staff to dodge congressional restrictions on military
aid, leading to the Iran-Contra affair in the final years of Reagan’s administration.
Activity in the Persian Gulf fueled foreign policy in George H.W. Bush’s presidency (1989-1993), when Iraq
invaded Kuwait in 1990 and Bush assembled a United Nations coalition force to remove Saddam Hussein’s
Iraqi troops from the small monarchy. The war was over in a matter of weeks, but questions lingered, including
the decision not to overthrow Hussein’s government in Iraq. Bush said that he did not give the order to do that
because it had not been an objective before the war. Bush also was president when the Soviet Union collapsed,
an event that many believed was brought about by the foreign policy of his predecessor. Near the end of Bush's
presidency, in 1992, the United States participated in a humanitarian effort, sponsored by the United Nations,
to provide food for civil war-torn Somalia.
Bill Clinton was the first president elected after the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, but
he found his administration (1993-2001) involved in a variety of international conflicts. Based on Clinton’s
belief that the United States had an interest in human rights and promoting political and economic stability,
American troops were sent to Somalia, Rwanda, Kosovo, Haiti, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Clinton’s foreign
policy also was influenced by the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center. The bombing did not result in the
destruction of the World Trade Center, but the investigation that followed uncovered an Iraqi plot to
assassinate George H.W. Bush while he was president, and Clinton responded with missile strikes against Iraq.
The foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration (2001–2009) has been defined by his response to the
terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001. Initially, Bush ordered strikes to punish Afghanistan, which intelligence
reports indicated had been a safe haven for Osama bin Laden and the terrorist group behind the attacks. In
2003, as part of a broader “War on Terror,” the Bush administration launched an invasion of Iraq based on
reports of the existence of weapons of mass destruction.
European Settlement
European settlement in North America is frequently dated to the arrival in the New World of Christopher
Columbus in 1492, but colonists began to settle in North America in the 16th century.
Colonies in New England were first settled by Pilgrims, a religious group who believed it was necessary to
separate from the Church of England. The Pilgrims fled England, seeking a place to freely practice their religion,
and arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts, in November 1620. The cold northern climate required the Pilgrims to
work hard and cooperate with the Indians to survive. The Pilgrims were followed by another religious group, the
Puritans, who wanted to purify the Church of England.
The Virginia Company, which was a pair of English stock companies (the Plymouth Company and the London
Company) chartered by King James I, created an overlapping territory along the coast of North America. After an
initial failure at settlement in Maine, the Plymouth Company had a permanent settlement at Plymouth,
Massachusetts. Investors in the London Company were disappointed that gold and silver were not found in
Virginia, but the company did establish various kinds of trade, with the biggest breakthrough being in the
cultivation and processing of tobacco.
Europeans also explored areas of Canada in the early 1500s. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier first
explored the area around the St. Lawrence River. By the 1600s, France began settling parts of Canada which was
called New France at the time. Samuel de Champlain established the settlement of Quebec in 1608. Because the
area was so rich in wildlife, the French were able to establish a thriving fur trade, especially in beaver fur. This was
the first profitable industry for the French in the New World. The location of Quebec was ideal for a number of
reasons. First, it was located on the St. Lawrence River, which connected it to the Atlantic Ocean, but almost more
important was its interior location. This was also useful as it was closer to Native American territory than other
European colonies. The French were able to use this to their advantage to dominate the fur trade to Europe.
The Mayflower Compact was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was drafted by Pilgrims
seeking religious freedom. It was based on a majoritarian (majority rule) model and the settlers' allegiance to the
king. In order to survive, settlers agreed to follow the compact’s rules and regulations. In return, the government
formed by the compact would receive its power from the consent of the governed. It is often referred to as the
foundation for the American Constitution.
The Halfway Covenant was created by the Puritans in New England in 1662. It provided partial church
membership for children of church members. This was considered necessary because of the large number of
immigrants to the New World who were not Puritans, and it was applied to the children and grandchildren of
church members who were not considered pious enough for full membership. It was a shortcut to church
membership for those who agreed to live by Puritan rules even if they had not had the required conversion
experience.
The Second Anglo-Dutch War was fought to decide who would control world trade and the Atlantic shipping
lanes. The war followed the British takeover of New Amsterdam, located on the tip of Manhattan Island. This was
a strategic location because it allowed for protection of the Hudson River and for fur trade operations. The Treaty
of Breda, in 1667, allowed the British to keep the city, which was renamed New York.
The Salem Witch Trials were trials of people accused of witchcraft in Massachusetts in the late 17th century.
Puritans had created a form of theocracy (a form of government in which a deity is recognized as the supreme civil
ruler) similar to medieval Roman Catholicism, in which the church ruled in legal matters. This included the right to
sentence a person to death for violating church beliefs. Although the best known trials were conducted in Salem,
witch trials were conducted in towns across the province. Twenty-nine people were convicted, and most of them
were hanged in trials held in 1692 and 1693.
The Dominion of New England was a short-lived union of English colonies in New England. It was created by
King James II, a Catholic who wanted to limit Protestant power in New England. When word reached
Massachusetts that James II had been overthrown by William of Orange, the Dominion collapsed.
The Middle Colonies formed the most diverse region in terms of culture, ethnicity, and religion. The region was
already diverse from Dutch settlers who had colonized New York, and it gained more diversity with the founding
of Pennsylvania by William Penn and its policies of freehold ownership (people could own land themselves
instead of paying landlords) and religious freedom. Quakers were a major presence in the region, but their
tolerance attracted so many immigrants that religious diversity grew alongside the population.
The Southern Colonies, with their rich farmland, were known for plantations and a strong agriculture-based trade
economy. Jamestown, Virginia, was actually the first successful English colony, founded on May 14, 1607. It
began as a proprietary colony, meaning it was a privately owned business venture. As it grew more successful
through trade, however, it was made into a royal colony.
Bacon’s Rebellion, in the Virginia colony in 1676, was the first rebellion in the American colonies in which
unhappy frontiersmen took part. The poorest farmers were forced inland to lands that were at the highest risk of
Indian attacks, and that led to clashes between Indians and settlers. The rebellion was aimed at Governor William
Berkeley, who refused to act in order to protect trade agreements with the Indians.
The Powhatan was the name of a Native American tribe, as well as the name of a confederacy of tribes in
Virginia. The Indians and the settlers fought several times in the early 17th century, but eventually the British
fought back and nearly eliminated the Powhatan.
The House of Burgesses was the first elected legislative assembly in the New World, established in Virginia in
1619. It was elected to represent the landowners of Virginia. While its decisions could be overruled by the
governor, the council, or the directors, it enacted laws and gave landowners a voice in government.
Many people who wished to leave Europe could not do so on their own; instead, they would sail to America and
then work off their debt. This process was called indentured servitude. The Southern Colonies originally relied
on indentured servants because of the region's need for labor, but, as blacks were brought from Africa in greater
numbers, indentured servitude was gradually overshadowed by slavery. In the Southern economy, slaves became a
prime commodity—a trade item—and slaves as a result formed a major percentage of the population.
The Middle Passage was the forced transportation of Africans to the New World as part of the Atlantic slave
trade. It was the middle leg of the trade route. Ships left Europe for Africa, where goods were sold or traded for
prisoners or kidnapped victims. Traders then sailed for the New World, where slaves were sold or traded for goods
for European markets, which were then returned to Europe.
Under mercantilism, economic activities in the colonies were intended to benefit the parent country. Slave labor
allowed European countries to earn large profits on crops grown.
American Revolution
An understanding of important people, places, and events of the American Revolution is key to a basic
understanding of American history. This lesson outlines some of the major events and important people of the
American Revolution.
Causes of the American Revolution
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The French and Indian War
From 1754 until 1763, Great Britain and France fought for control of North American territory. The first
battle of the war began because of a dispute over land in the Ohio River Valley. Colonel George
Washington led a militia force into the Ohio Valley in 1754 in an attempt to challenge French expansion in
the area. After staging an unsuccessful attack on the French, Washington and his troops decided to build a
stockade, which they called Fort Necessity. The site was near a larger French outpost, Fort Duquesne. The
French retaliated and were able to trap Washington and his soldiers inside Fort Necessity. Washington
eventually surrendered.
The Treaty of Paris of 1763
The French and Indian War ended when the two countries signed the Treaty of Paris of 1763. In this treaty,
France ceded all of Canada and all of its territory east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain. Great
Britain also received Florida from Spain. France had already given the Louisiana Territory to Spain, so
France's control in North America was reduced to only a few Caribbean islands. The French and Indian
War had been quite costly for Great Britain, and it had a large amount of debt that it needed to repay. The
British felt that the American colonists should contribute to the defense costs in North America and began
imposing taxes on the colonists.
The Proclamation of 1763
After Great Britain took control of the land east of the Mississippi River at the end of the French and Indian
War, it issued the Proclamation of 1763. The Proclamation of 1763 was meant to appease the Native
Americans living in the area. It prohibited American colonists from moving west of the Appalachian
Mountains and heavily restricted trade there. These restrictions angered many colonists.
Sugar Act
The Sugar Act of 1764 placed a tax on sugar, wine, and coffee. It was created to generate revenue for the
British Parliament.
Currency Act
The Currency Act of 1764 prohibited the colonists from printing their own money.
Stamp Act
The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 to raise revenue to pay a share of the empire's defense
costs. The Stamp Act required the colonists to use specially stamped paper for all official documents,
newspapers, and pamphlets. It angered many colonists, who regarded it as a violation of the right of British
subjects not to be taxed without representation. Riots broke out in colonial cities, and American merchants
pledged not to buy British goods. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in March 1766, yielding to the
demands of economically depressed British merchants.
The Daughters of Liberty
The Daughters of Liberty helped the colonial boycotts by making clothing and other goods because there
were many items that were no longer available. Women would spin yarn into cloth so that colonists would
not have to buy cloth imported from Great Britain.
Townshend Acts
In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which imposed taxes on lead, glass, tea, paint, and paper
imported by Americans from Britain. Once again the colonists protested vigorously and boycotted British
goods.
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Boston Massacre
In 1770, a riot occurred between British troops and citizens of Boston. The troops fired and killed five
people.
Tea Act
In 1773, Parliament passed the Tea Act, reducing the tax on tea in an attempt to rescue the British East
India Company from bankruptcy. The colonists refused to buy British tea and would not permit British
ships to unload it in Philadelphia and New York City. In Boston, in the incident known as the Boston Tea
Party, a group of colonists dressed as Mohawk Indians dumped cargoes of tea from British ships into
Boston Harbor. When the government of Boston refused to pay for the tea, the British closed the port.
The Intolerable Acts
In order to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, the British Parliament passed a series of laws
known as the Intolerable Acts by the colonists. The Boston Port Act was the first law passed, and it closed
the Boston port until the colonists paid for all of the tea that they had destroyed. The Massachusetts
Government Act revoked the colony's charter, and the British government took more control of the
Massachusetts legislature. The Administration of Justice Act allowed British officials accused of a crime to
have a trial in a colony besides Massachusetts, or even in Great Britain. The Quartering Act required
colonists to provide housing for British soldiers.
The Committees of Correspondence
The Committees of Correspondence were formed as a way to increase communication among the colonies.
Committees in one colony would share their opinions with other colonies. The increased communication
helped to unite the colonies against the British.
Significant Individuals in the American Revolution
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George Washington
George Washington (1732-1799) was the commander of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary
War. He turned an undisciplined, underfunded militia into a functioning army and was able to defeat the
British forces. He is well known for leading his troops through the harsh winter at Valley Forge and for
crossing the Delaware River with his troops. He became the first President of the United States (17891797).
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the third President of the United States (1801-1809). As a delegate at
the Second Continental Congress, Jefferson was on the committee selected to draft the Declaration of
Independence.
Samuel Adams
Samuel Adams of Boston was an American patriot who spoke out against British policies before the
American Revolution. He protested against the Stamp Act and played an important role in the Boston Tea
Party in 1773. He later served as governor of Massachusetts.
Benjamin Franklin
One of the founding fathers, Ben Franklin (1706-1790) was a great American writer, inventor, and
diplomat. Franklin negotiated French support for the colonists, signed the Treaty of Paris in 1783, and
attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He played the role of chief diplomat for the colonies
throughout the Revolutionary War period. His numerous innovations include the lightning rod, bifocal
spectacles, and the Franklin stove.
Thomas Paine
In 1776, Thomas Paine anonymously published the pamphlet Common Sense which called for American
independence from Great Britain. The popular pamphlet criticized the British king and helped encourage
colonists to issue the Declaration of Independence six months later.
King George III
King George III (1738-1820) was King of Great Britain and Ireland (1760-1820) and of Hanover (18151820). His government's policies fed American colonial discontent, leading to revolution in 1775.
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Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry (1736-1799) was an outspoken member of House of Burgesses who inspired colonial
patriotism with a speech in which he declared, “Give me liberty or give me death!”
Marquis de Lafayette
Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834) was a French aristocrat who fought with the American colonists against
the British in the American Revolution. His participation at the Battle of Yorktown contributed to the
American defeat of the British and the end of the Revolutionary War. After the American Revolution,
Lafayette returned to France and was one of the leaders of the French Revolution.
Significant Battles and Events of the American Revolution
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Battle of Lexington
The Battle of Lexington was the first military clash of the American Revolution. It took place on April 19,
1775, when fighting broke out between about 70 colonial minutemen, led by Captain John Parker, and
about 700 British soldiers who were on their way to Concord, Massachusetts. The American militia had
been warned by Paul Revere that the British were coming. During the fighting, eight minutemen were
killed.
Battle of Concord
Occurring hours after the Battle of Lexington, the Battle of Concord was fought at Concord, Massachusetts,
on April 19, 1775. American colonists had gathered a large amount of ammunition and military supplies at
Concord, and British general Thomas Gage sent soldiers to capture or destroy the supplies. The colonial
militia, or minutemen, had been warned of the British advance by American patriot Samuel Prescott. The
minutemen prevented the British advance and forced the British troops to retreat toward Boston.
George Washington Crosses the Delaware On December 25, 1776, George Washington led American
troops across the Delaware River, and he then led a surprise attack in Trenton, New Jersey on the Hessian
soldiers fighting for the British. A few days later, Washington led the American troops to victory at the
Battle of Princeton.
Battle of Saratoga
During the fall of 1777, two battles were fought near Saratoga, New York. The American victory in the
Battles of Saratoga helped convince the French to recognize American independence and to provide
military aid. These battles marked a turning point in the Revolutionary War.
Battle of Yorktown
Taking place in the fall of 1781, the Battle of Yorktown was the last major battle of the Revolutionary War.
With assistance from nearly 8,000 French troops led by Marquis de Lafayette, George Washington was
able to defeat the British. The British could not retreat by sea because the Chesapeake Bay was blocked by
a French fleet. British General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington after this battle.
Treaty of Paris of 1783
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 officially brought an end to the American Revolution. Great Britain recognized the
United States as an independent country and agreed on new boundaries. Under the terms of the treaty, Great Britain
maintained control of Canada, and the United States controlled the land south of Canada, east of the Mississippi
River, and north of Florida, which had been given to Spain.
The Declaration of Independence is the document that announced the colonies were free from British rule. It is
an important document in the history of the United States.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1776 to create a document that would declare the 13
colonies’ freedom from Great Britain. The Congress assigned a five-person committee—Benjamin Franklin,
Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman—to work on the Declaration of
Independence. Thomas Jefferson wrote the first draft because he was the best writer in the group. His draft was
edited by the Congress and was adopted on July 4, 1776.
Declaring Rights
The Declaration of Independence, using a phrase that was borrowed from the writings of John Locke and revised,
states that the government is meant to protect the rights of the governed. Here is a sentence from the first part of
the Declaration.
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness."
The Declaration says that the government runs based on the “consent of the governed.” Locke wrote that citizens
have the right or even the obligation to overthrow the government if it does not protect their rights. The idea of
seeking independence from England had been expressed in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.
Listing Grievances
The Declaration of Independence lists the grievances (complaints) the colonists had against the British government
and King George III. It tried to show that Britain had abused its power and could no longer rule over the colonies.
Some examples of abuse of power include:
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placing heavy taxes
not allowing representation in Parliament
creating unfair acts and laws
seizing ships and cargo
making colonists house British soldiers
sending colonists back to Britain
Stating Independence
The Declaration of Independence reminded the king that the colonists tried to ask him for help. He ignored
their requests, so the colonies declared that all ties to Britain were cut.
Although the Continental Army was fighting on familiar territory and was led by George Washington (who
was able train the undisciplined militia into an army), the colonists needed help from other nations. The
Declaration of Independence helped gather support for the Revolutionary War. The new nation asked for
France’s help, and France gave the United States military assistance.
The ideas of the Declaration of Independence were attractive to many groups. Women were likely to
support the Declaration of Independence because they hoped the Revolution would lead to equal voting
rights. Former slaves also supported the new government by joining the Continental Army.
The New Nation
The late 1700s and early 1800s were very important years to the development of the United States. Treaties were
made and broken, the United States went to war for the first time as a country, and the leaders of the country began
to realize the power of a new nation. The following is a timeline of the United States' interaction with other foreign
powers.
Timeline of Events of the New Nation
President Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality, 1793
Proclamation that went against Treaty of Alliance with France. Washington declared the U.S. would not
take sides in the war between Great Britain and France.
Jay's Treaty, 1795
Treaty with Great Britain that enforced the boundaries agreed on at the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Great
Britain agreed to withdraw troops that were stationed in the Northwest Territory.
Pinckney's Treaty, 1795
Treaty with Spain that allowed American boats to sail on the Mississippi and use the port at New Orleans
without paying dues to Spain. Also set up the border between Georgia and Spanish-controlled Florida.
President Washington's Farewell Address, 1796
Speech that President George Washington made before leaving office. A famous part of the speech warns
against the United States making permanent alliances with foreign powers.
XYZ Affair, 1797
U.S. attempt at a treaty with France. Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry met with 3
French agents. The French agents demanded Americans pay a bribe and loan France money before
negotiations. The American agents refused, and Adams sent a report to Congress using X, Y, and Z to stand
for the French agents' names.
Convention of 1800
Also known as the Treaty of Morfontaine, between the U.S. and France. The two countries ended the
alliance they formed in 1778 in which each country had agreed to help the other in case of an attack by
Great Britain. This convention also ended the Undeclared Naval War between the U.S. and France that had
resulted from the XYZ Affair.
Embargo Act, 1807
Prohibited American exports to all foreign ports. The U.S. hoped this act would keep them out of the war
between Great Britain and France. The act hurt American businesses and was lifted in favor of the NonIntercourse Act, which allowed American exports to all countries except Great Britain and France.
War of 1812
Great Britain's impressment of American sailors, blockade of the American coast, interference with
American trade, and aid of Native Americans on the frontier were reasons the War of 1812 was started. The
U.S. declared war on Great Britain on June 18, 1812 under President James Madison.
Treaty of Ghent, 1814
Signed on December 24, 1814 in Ghent, Belgium, the treaty brought an end to the War of 1812. Neither the
U.S. nor Great Britain claimed a victory, and neither of them gained or lost territory as a result of the treaty.
Battle of New Orleans, 1815
Last battle of the War of 1812, fought on January 8, 1815. Because of slow communications across the
Atlantic Ocean, British and American troops continued to fight after the Treaty of Ghent was signed.
General Andrew Jackson led the Americans to victory over the British.
Adams-Onís Treaty, 1819
Treaty between Spain and the U.S. that gave Florida to the U.S. In return, the U.S. assumed $5 million
dollars in damages claimed by U.S. citizens against Spain.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------The War of 1812 started when President James Madison asked Congress to declare war on Great Britain.
Congress declared war on June 18, 1812. The war was started for many reasons, including the British blockade of
the American coast, and it ended on December 24, 1814 with the Treaty of Ghent. Below are important facts and
events about the War of 1812.
Reasons for the War of 1812
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British impressment of American seamen: British ships stopped American ships and forced American
sailors to work on British ships. This policy was known as impressment. The British did not recognize
American citizenship and claimed that the American sailors were actually British subjects.
British blockade of American coast & interference of trade: British warships were blocking American
ships from leaving the coast. The ships did not let American warships or trade ships out of the United
States' main ports. This hurt many American businesses and farms that were trying to export their goods to
France and other European countries.
British aid to Native Americans on frontier: U.S. citizens living on the frontier were worried that British
troops were arming Native Americans and convincing them to attack towns and homes. There was also
concern that the British were trying to block Americans from gaining land in the Ohio River Valley and the
Northwest Territory by turning the Native Americans against U.S. frontiersman and frontier families.
Chesapeake affair: In 1807, British sailors on the warship Leopard wanted to board the Chesapeake, an
American warship, to look for British deserters. American sailors on the Chesapeake refused to let the
British on board, and so the British fired on the ship.
War Hawks
Henry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, and other congressmen were upset that Great
Britain had interfered with American trade to France and other European countries. They wanted the United
States to declare war on Great Britain, believing the U.S. would win.
Hartford Convention, 1814
In 1814, New England states were unhappy that the War of 1812 was still continuing. New England merchants
and shippers had suffered heavy financial losses because of the war and the embargoes that preceded it. On
December 15, 1814, delegates from the New England states met in Hartford, Connecticut, and they continued
their meetings until January 5, 1815. They came up with five amendments that they wanted to add to the
Constitution, but since the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814, the Hartford Convention had no
effect on the outcome of the war. None of the proposed amendments was added to the Constitution.
Treaty of Ghent
Signed on December 24, 1814, this treaty brought the War of 1812 to an end. It was signed in Ghent, Belgium,
and neither the United States nor Great Britain could claim a victory. Also, neither country gained nor lost
territory as a result of the war, though the United States wanted to acquire Canada.
Battle of New Orleans
This was the last battle of the War of 1812, taking place on January 8, 1815. Though the Treaty of Ghent had
been signed by this time, communications were slow across the Atlantic Ocean, and so troops were still
fighting because they had not heard about the treaty. General Andrew Jackson led American troops to victory
against the British in this battle.
------------------------------------------------------------------Manifest Destiny was a term used by Americans to represent the idea that the U.S. was entitled to westward
expansion. The phrase was first used by the writer John O'Sullivan. He wanted the U.S. to annex all of the Oregon
Territory. From the early 1800s to the 1850s, the United States doubled and nearly tripled in size as the new
country gained land west of the Mississippi River.
Timeline of Expansion in the United States
1803: Louisiana Purchase
President Thomas Jefferson sent James Monroe and Robert Livingston to France to purchase the port of
New Orleans for $10 million. France offered the entire Louisiana Territory, stretching from the Mississippi
River to the Rocky Mountains, for $15 million. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United
States.
1803–1806: Lewis & Clark Expedition
Thomas Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the U.S. lands to the west of
the Mississippi River. Jefferson wanted the men to find a land route to the Pacific Ocean and strengthen
U.S. claims to Oregon Territory. Jefferson also wanted them to gather information about Native Americans
living in these areas. Lewis and Clark made a survey of the West, taking notes about people, plants, and
animals living in the U.S.-owned territories. It took them almost three years to complete their survey and
return.
1819: Adams-Onís Treaty
In this treaty signed by the United States and Spain, Spain ceded Florida to the U.S., the border was set
between Texas and Louisiana, and Spain withdrew all claims of land in the West north of the 42nd parallel.
In return, the U.S. assumed $5 million in damages claimed by U.S. citizens against Spain.
1820: Missouri Compromise
This compromise settled some of the debate over the spread of slavery. Southern states wanted slavery
allowed in new states, while northern states opposed the expansion of slavery. Under the Missouri
Compromise, Missouri was admitted as a slave state and Maine was admitted as a free state, keeping the
number of free and slave states in the Union equal. The compromise also made slavery illegal in the
Louisiana Territory north of Missouri's southern border.
1820s: Stephen Austin settles in Texas
In 1822, Stephen Austin traveled with 300 American families to live in Texas along the Brazos River.
Texas was part of Mexico at the time. Many Americans moved there because of the cheap, fertile land.
Texas also allowed slavery.
1821: Sequoyah writes Cherokee language
Sequoyah was a leader among the Cherokee Indians in Tennessee. Sequoyah set out to create a written
language for the Cherokee. He made a table of 85 characters. In 1822, he visited the Cherokee in Arkansas
and taught thousands of them to read and write the Cherokee language.
1830: Indian Removal Act
Congress passed this act to make room for American settlers. The act said that the president could negotiate
treaties with Native Americans to relocate them to areas west of the Mississippi River. Andrew Jackson
was president at the time, and he signed 94 treaties with Native American tribes.
1832: Worcester v. Georgia
Samuel Worcester, a minister from Vermont, was a close friend of the Cherokee leaders in Georgia and had
been living with the Cherokee. The Georgia government saw how influential Worcester was and passed a
law that prohibited white people from living within the Cherokee Nation without permission from the state.
Worcester challenged the law and was arrested many times. The U.S. Supreme Court struck down
Georgia's law, stating that the Cherokee Nation was its own government and so states could not make laws
for the Cherokee Nation.
1836: Battle of the Alamo & Texas Independence
The Battle of the Alamo was an important battle in the Texas War for Independence. One hundred fifty
Texan and American soldiers fought in this fort under the leadership of William B. Travis, James Bowie,
and Davy Crockett from February 24 to March 6, 1836. They fought against thousands of Mexican soldiers
under General Santa Anna. Though the Texans were defeated at the Alamo, other Texans used the memory
of the battle as motivation to defeat the Mexican soldiers six weeks later at the Battle of San Jacinto. Texas
became an independent nation on April 21, 1836. Though Texas then requested to become a part of the
United States, Northerners did not want Texas to become a new state because it allowed slavery. Texas
became the 28th state in 1845.
1838: Trail of Tears
According to the Treaty of New Echota, signed in 1835, the Cherokee would give up their land east of the
Mississippi River in exchange for land west of the Mississippi River and $5 million. Most of the members
of the Cherokee tribe did not agree with this treaty and refused to move. In 1838, the U.S. government sent
troops to force the Cherokee to move to what is now Oklahoma. Along the 1,000-mile route from Georgia
to Oklahoma, over 4,000 Native Americans died due to disease, starvation, and exposure to cold weather.
The journey they took is referred to as the Trail of Tears.
1840s: Oregon Trail
In the 1840s, thousands of pioneers moved west to Oregon. They traveled along a trail called the Oregon
Trail. Along this trail were a couple of towns and forts that allowed pioneers to stock up on food, water,
and other supplies for the long journey. The Oregon Trail stretched for 2,000 miles from Independence,
Missouri to the Willamette River Valley.
1842: Webster-Ashburton Treaty
This treaty between the U.S. and Great Britain settled the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick,
Canada. It had been in dispute due to differing interpretations of the Treaty of Paris of 1783. The treaty is
named after U.S. Secretary of State Daniel Webster and British Foreign Secretary Lord Ashburton, who
negotiated the treaty.
1844: U.S. Presidential Election
James K. Polk was the Democratic candidate. Henry Clay ran for the Whig Party. Polk was a dark horse
candidate, meaning he was not expected to win, and he narrowly beat Clay in the general election. Clay had
opposed the annexation of Texas, while Polk was an expansionist.
1845: U.S. annexation of Texas & Mexican War
In 1845, the U.S. annexed Texas. Mexico was upset because it did not recognize Texas independence. The
U.S. and Mexico had a dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico, with the U.S. claiming the
border was at the Rio Grande and Mexico claiming the border was at the Nueces River. President James
Polk ordered troops to the north bank of the Rio Grande. Mexico viewed this as an invasion and sent troops
across the river. The U.S. declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846.
1846: "54-40 or Fight!"
The Oregon Territory was jointly occupied by the British and Americans, and 54º 40' was the latitude line
that was the northern extent of the U.S. claim. American expansionists wanted the U.S. to control all of the
land in the Oregon Territory to that latitude line. In 1846, the U.S. signed a treaty that set the boundary
between the U.S. and Canada at the 49th parallel.
1846: Wilmot Proviso
In August 1846, David Wilmot proposed an amendment to Congress that would have outlawed slavery in
any territory gained from Mexico as a result of the Mexican War. The amendment was not approved by
Congress. It did raise the issue of how the U.S. should proceed on the issue of slavery in the event that any
new territory was gained.
1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo & the Mexican Cession
This treaty ended the Mexican War. Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and
Mexico. The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million to gain all of what is now California, Nevada, and Utah along
with parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. This land is known as the Mexican Cession.
1849: California Gold Rush
In 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in California. In two years, over 40,000 prospectors came to
California with the hope of discovering gold. Many of them came in 1849, which gave the prospectors the
name of "49ers." Very few of them actually found gold, but they became an important part of the economic
growth in California.
1853: Gadsden Purchase
This purchase from Mexico allowed the U.S. to acquire the land in Arizona south of the Gila River and the
southwestern corner of New Mexico for $10 million. This land was important to the U.S. because of plans
to build a southern transcontinental railroad route through the area.
Expansion and Slavery
In the early days of the United States, several groups in society were without rights. These included slaves,
women, Native Americans, and free African Americans. Even white men who did not own property were
limited in how they could participate in government.
Slavery in the U.S.
Slavery was beginning to change in the United States. By 1804, all Northern states had eliminated slavery
by passing laws against it. In 1808, the United States passed a law banning the importation of slaves from
Africa. It was called the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves. It did not abolish slavery, however, which was
alive and well in the South. In 1816, Presbyterian minister Robert Finley started the American Colonization
Society. In addition to attempting to end slavery, the society purchased land in Africa (in what is now Liberia).
The society then paid for free blacks to move to the colony the society had set up in Africa.
Southern plantation owners and farmers argued that slavery was a "necessary evil" to keep the Southern
economy alive and well. The South relied on slaves to produce cotton and feared an economic collapse if
slavery were abolished. Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin only increased the South's production of
cotton. The machine removed the seeds from cotton after it had been picked, reducing the time needed to
prepare the cotton before sending it to textile mills. More slaves were sent to the fields to pick cotton since only
a few were needed to run the machine.
Voting Requirements and Rights
In the United States, only white men with property were allowed to vote. The original constitutions of the
first thirteen states required men to own land to be able to vote. In 1792, states began to remove the property
requirement one by one. By 1856, the requirement had been eliminated in all states.
This did not change much in the way of minority groups and voting rights. In fact, all this change allowed
was for white men without property to vote. Women, African Americans, and Native Americans still did not
have any voting rights.
Native Americans and U.S. Land
In the formation of the United States, one group was not considered—Native Americans. As more U.S.
citizens began living on the edge of the frontier and moving farther and farther west, Native Americans saw
their lands and livelihood disappear. Part of this stemmed from the Native Americans' belief in communal
property rather than rather than the emphasis on individual property rights of U.S. law. Many conflicts came
out of this opposing viewpoint. Another problem was the fact that Native Americans were not allowed to
become U.S. citizens because their tribes were viewed as separate nations (until 1924, when the Indian
Citizenship Act was passed).
Native Americans were tired of their land being taken from them. They fought the U.S. at the Battle of
Fallen Timbers and lost. The Native Americans signed a treaty with the U.S. called the Treaty of Greenville. In
this treaty, Native Americans received $20,000 in goods and gave up much of Ohio and land that is now part of
Chicago, Illinois, and Detroit, Michigan. Tecumseh, a Native American leader, formed a confederation of
tribes to try to prevent U.S. citizens from taking more land from the Native Americans. Tecumseh led the
confederation against the U.S. at the Battle of Tippecanoe. General William Henry Harrison defeated the
confederation near the Tippecanoe River in Indiana.
Women's Roles in the New Nation
Abigail Adams, President John Adams' wife, was concerned with the role of women in the new government.
She hoped that women would have more rights than what they had under the colonial government. She wrote
to her husband, then a delegate at the Second Continental Congress, to lobby for women's rights. She asked her
husband to remember the women of the new nation and allow them to have a voice in the new government.
Despite her urgings, women were not allowed to vote in the U.S.
In the early 1800s, factories were being built in the northern U.S. Factories relied on unskilled workers
because the unskilled could be paid lower wages. Many factories began employing women instead of men.
They hired young, unmarried women and paid them much less than they would have paid men for the same
amount of work. In 1814, Francis Cabot Lowell built a factory in Massachusetts. The women he hired not only
worked at the factory, but they lived there as well. These women were known as "Lowell girls" and were paid
very little money for extremely long hours.
ABOLITION & WOMEN’S RIGHTS as REFORM
In the 1800s, increased participation in religion and society led to a number of movements called Reform
Movements. Two major reform movements in the 1800s were the anti-slavery and the women's rights movements.
Abolitionists and Slavery
David Walker
David Walker was born a free African American in North Carolina. Walker wrote an important abolitionist
document called An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World. As he began to write against slavery, he used
the Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, and the Bible as resources. His document asks that African
Americans empower themselves, and it is one of the most important abolitionist documents of the 1800s.
Frederick Douglass
Born a slave in Maryland, Frederick Douglass escaped in 1838 and went to Massachusetts. He published his
autobiography called A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave in 1845. He was a
great speaker and gave many speeches about his experience as a slave. Douglass fought to abolish slavery and
get equality for African Americans.
Grimké Sisters
Angelina and Sarah Grimké grew up in a slave-owning family in South Carolina. They saw how rough and
mean slave owners were to their slaves. The sisters moved to Philadelphia and spoke out against slavery. The
sisters also joined the Quakers and used the Bible in their arguments against slavery.
Nat Turner
Nat Turner, a slave from Virginia, led a violent slave rebellion which resulted in the deaths of over fifty whites.
Shaken by the revolt, the Virginia legislature contemplated a bill providing gradual emancipation and
colonization. The bill, however, was rejected, and the possibility of southern planters attempting to end slavery
faded. Instead, as part of an effort to keep such an occurrence from happening again, southern states took an
opposite approach, such as toughening slave codes, limiting the movement of slaves, and prohibiting slaves
from learning to read.
Dred Scott
Dred Scott, a slave, sued for his freedom and the freedom of his family after the death of his owner. He lived in
a northern territory in which slavery was banned and felt his status should not change after moving to Missouri.
Chief Justice Robert Taney wrote that blacks were not citizens and were only thought of as property. The Court
ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and Congress could not ban slavery from the
territories.
Harriet Tubman
Harriet Tubman was an escaped slave who helped other slaves escape on the Underground Railroad, a
network of people and homes where escaped slaves could go on their way to the North or Canada. Tubman was
a conductor on the Underground Railroad, which meant she helped lead other slaves on the path to freedom.
She made nineteen trips to the South and helped over 300 slaves escape.
Sojourner Truth
Sojourner Truth was one of the most important African Americans in the abolitionist movement. She was
born a slave called Isabella, but she changed her name after she achieved freedom. She traveled as a speaker
and became very important to both the abolitionist movement and the women's rights movement. She was a
very effective speaker even though she was illiterate. Perhaps her most famous speech was entitled Ain’t I a
Woman.
John Brown
John Brown, an abolitionist, led a raid at Harper's Ferry to steal weapons and give them to slaves. He hoped the
slaves would start a rebellion to gain freedom. Shortly after the raid, John Brown was captured and executed.
Slave owners feared that there would be additional slave rebellions.
William Lloyd Garrison
William Lloyd Garrison was an avid abolitionist. He started an abolitionist newspaper called The Liberator
in the 1830s. Garrison called for the immediate emancipation of all slaves, and in 1833, he started the
American Anti-Slavery Society with other abolitionists. In fact, Garrison referred to the Constitution as a
"covenant with death" because it did not prohibit slavery.
Women's Rights Movement
Susan B. Anthony
Susan B. Anthony is one of the most well-known advocates of women's rights. She started organizing for
equal pay as a teen schoolteacher. In the 1850s, she became a national leader for women's suffrage (the right to
vote). She traveled as a speaker throughout the U.S. and Europe and wrote a book about the suffrage
movement.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
Originally abolitionists, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott attended an anti-slavery convention in
London in 1840. They were angry that they were treated differently than men at the convention. They worked
together to fight for women's rights. They were the organizers of the first women's rights convention in Seneca
Falls, New York.
Seneca Falls Convention
Organized and run by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, among other women, the Seneca Falls
Convention was a women's rights convention that took place in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. The
convention had a Declaration of Sentiments that was modeled after the Declaration of Independence and listed
grievances of women who had fewer rights than men.
OTHER REFORMS
In the 1800s, increased participation in religion and society led to a number of movements called Reform
Movements. From education to criminal issues, people were calling for social changes in all aspects of American
society and culture.
Reform Movements in the 1800s
Education
Public schools that provided a free education were not widely available in the 1800s. Communities would
have land set aside to build a school, but they could not collect enough taxes to pay for the schools. Horace
Mann believed that education reform would bring about social changes. He advocated that public education
should be available for all children. In 1837, Mann became Secretary of Education in Massachusetts. By the
end of the 1830s, public education was becoming increasingly available, and more students could attend
school.
Prisons/Mental Institutions
In the U.S., the mentally ill who were poor lived in jails and poorhouses. In the 1830s, Dorothea Dix visited
jails and poorhouses to see how the mentally ill were treated. Many of these patients were treated like criminals
and were kept in cages. Dix advocated reform in the way they were treated. She also worked to get the
government to build federally or state-funded asylums.
Religion
In the 1800s, a period called the Second Great Awakening saw increased participation in religion in the U.S.
Leaders like Charles Finney traveled around the country and gave sermons in front of large groups of people.
These religious events, often held outdoors, were called revivals. One important result of the Second Great
Awakening was the introduction of many new Protestant denominations. This movement emphasized a
personal relationship with God as opposed to the more scientific thoughts of Enlightenment. As more Catholics
began immigrating to the U.S., more concern grew from U.S. citizens. Many believed the Catholics were the
cause of problems in U.S. society. Several of the reform movements of the time were based on religious ideas
like temperance.
Temperance
The American Temperance Society formed in 1826 to work to lower Americans' consumption of alcohol.
People in the temperance movement blamed social problems like crime and poverty on the use of alcohol.
Members of the society pledged not to drink any alcohol.
Utopian Societies
Utopian societies were set up during the reform movements as a way to withdraw from the current society
rather than reforming it. These groups formed communities that they thought were ideal. Everyone worked
together and shared property and wealth. Some of these utopian communities include New Harmony in
Indiana, the Oneida Community in New York, and Brook Farm in Massachusetts.
Healthcare
Clara Barton is most famous for founding the American Red Cross. During the Civil War, she began raising
money to help soldiers who had been wounded. Later, she rode with ambulances to the front, delivering
supplies to those wounded on the battlefield.
DEBATE OVER SLAVERY
During the 1800s, the United States expanded westward as it gained new territories. As the U.S. gained new land,
the debate over the expansion of slavery divided the country.
Missouri Compromise
In 1819, Missouri wanted to be admitted into the Union. At this time, there was an equal number of free and slave
states. Free states did not want to admit Missouri as a slave state and change the balance of power in favor of the
slave states. In 1820, Henry Clay of Kentucky played a major role in getting Northerners and Southerners in
Congress to agree on the Missouri Compromise. Under the terms of the Missouri Compromise, Missouri, a slave
state, and Maine, a free state, were both admitted to the Union. This kept the number of slave and free states equal.
The Missouri Compromise also made slavery illegal in the Louisiana Territory north of Missouri's southern border.
Texas Expansion
The Texas Revolution began in 1835 when Texas began fighting for its independence from Mexico. In 1836, an
important battle took place at the Alamo, a former Spanish mission in San Antonio. About 200 Texans attempted
to defend the Alamo from the Mexican Army, led by General Santa Anna. In April 1836, Texas gained
independence from Mexico and requested to be annexed by the United States. Because Texas allowed slavery,
Northerners did not want Texas to become a new state. Texas remained an independent country until the United
States annexed it in 1845.
Mexican War
In 1836, Texas declared its independence from Mexico. Mexico had never officially recognized the
independence of Texas. When the United States annexed Texas in 1845, Mexico viewed this as an act of
aggression against them and ended diplomatic relations with the U.S. Also, the U.S. and Mexico had a dispute
over the border between Texas and Mexico. The U.S. claimed that the border between the U.S. and Mexico
was at the Rio Grande, whereas Mexico claimed that the border was at the Nueces River. President James K.
Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor and his troops to the north bank of the Rio Grande. Mexico viewed this
as an invasion of their country and then sent their troops across the Rio Grande.
The U.S. declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846. Shortly after the war began, Congressman David Wilmot
of Pennsylvania submitted a proposal to Congress that would have outlawed slavery in any land acquired from
Mexico. The amendment, known as the Wilmot Proviso, was not approved by Congress, but it raised the issue
of how the United States should deal with the expansion of slavery in the event that the U.S. gained new
territory. The Mexican War continued until the U.S. and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In
this treaty, Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and Mexico. Also, the U.S. paid
Mexico $15 million to gain all of what is now California, Nevada, and Utah, along with parts of Wyoming, and
Colorado.
Civil War
During the Civil War, the United States and the Confederate States were led by different key figures. Some of
these figures are described below.
The Union
Abraham Lincoln - As president of the United States, Lincoln wanted to keep the Union
together. At the beginning of the war, Lincoln suspended the right to habeas corpus-the right
that protected citizens from being imprisoned for long periods without explanation or trial.
Throughout the Civil War, his goal was not to end slavery, but to bring the Southern states
back to the U.S. Lincoln put Ulysses S. Grant in charge of the Union army, gave what is
probably his most memorable speech at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was reelected in 1864, and
was assassinated at the end of the Civil War in April of 1865.
George McClellan - George McClellan was a major general in the Union army. He gained
some small victories at the same time that the Confederate Army won the First Battle of Bull
Run. He then commanded the troops in and around Washington, D.C., and he became general
in chief in November 1861. His cautiousness made him fail to take Richmond in the
Peninsular Campaign, and he then suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Antietam. McClellan
was removed from his command in 1862. McClellan ran as the Democratic candidate for
President in 1864 but lost to Lincoln.
George Meade - George Meade was a Union officer who fought many battles in the East,
including the Battle of Chancellorsville. In 1863, Meade was made commander of the Army
of the Potomac—the same army that McClellan led at the beginning of the war. Meade
defeated Confederate General Robert E. Lee in the Battle of Gettysburg, but his failure to
keep striking at Lee after the battle angered President Lincoln. When Ulysses S. Grant took
command of the entire Union army in 1864, Meade lost his control over the Army of the
Potomac.
Ulysses S. Grant - Ulysses S. Grant joined the Union Army in 1860 as a brigadier general.
He was a graduate of West Point. One of his successes was obtaining the unconditional
surrender of General Simon Bolivar Buckner at Fort Donelson. He had many successful
battles, including the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, in 1863. After that, Lincoln put him
in command of all the Union armies. Grant focused on dividing and destroying the
Confederate armies. In 1865, Grant defeated Confederate leader Robert E. Lee, who
surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House.
William Tecumseh Sherman - William Tecumseh Sherman was a Union general who led a
campaign called the March to the Sea, in which his army created a path of destruction
between Atlanta and the Atlantic Coast. Sherman's army destroyed anything that they thought
might be beneficial to the South's war effort, including crops, bridges, and railroad tracks.
The Confederacy
Jefferson Davis - Jefferson Davis had been a senator from Mississippi, but he left the Senate
after Mississippi seceded from the Union. He then was elected president of the Confederate
States of America. Davis managed the army very closely and believed that the South needed a
strong, centralized government, which many of the states did not agree with. He appointed
Robert E. Lee as the leader of the Confederate army. Lee surrendered to Grant without
Davis's approval, and Davis was arrested for his leadership role in the Confederacy.
Joseph Johnston - Joseph Johnston commanded the Army of Northern Virginia (the
Confederacy's main eastern army) until he was wounded in the Battle of Seven Pines in 1862.
After he recovered, Johnston took control of the Confederacy's western armies. He
commanded the Confederates at several battles, but he was unable to prevent the fall of
Vicksburg. Johnson was then ordered to stop General Sherman's invasion of Atlanta, which
he also could not prevent.
Robert E. Lee - Robert E. Lee was the most famous Confederate general in the Civil War.
He took command of the Army of Northern Virginia after Joseph Johnston was wounded at
the Battle of Seven Pines, and he later had control of the entire Confederate Army. Lee led
the Confederate army to many victories from 1862 to 1865, though he lost the Battle of
Gettysburg in 1863. Lee surrendered to Grant in April 1865 at Appomattox Court House
without Confederate President Davis's permission.
Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson - Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson was a brigadier general in the
Confederate army. At the First Battle of Bull Run, he earned his nickname by making sure his
brigade stood "like a stone wall." Jackson was then made a general and took his army into
Maryland and Virginia, where he won several battles before losing a battle in May 1862 and
retreating. He joined Lee in the Seven Days Battles and led the Confederate army into the
Battle of Fredericksburg. He died after the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, when he
was accidentally shot by Confederate soldiers.
As the United States expanded in the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of slavery became
more and more important. The Anti-Slavery Movement gained momentum, political
parties were formed, and acts of violence broke out across the nation. It was only a
matter of time before chaos and war erupted.
Events Leading to the Civil War
Missouri Compromise, 1820
In this act, Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slave state, and Maine was admitted as a free state.
Also, slavery was outlawed in any part of the Louisiana Territory that was north of Missouri's southern
border, minus Missouri itself.
Free Soil Party, 1848
This political party was formed in 1848 by people who were against the expansion of slavery to the western
territories. The party did not last long, though they nominated presidential candidates in the 1848 and 1852
elections and had two senators and fourteen representatives in Congress.
Underground Railroad, 1840-1860
The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes that fugitive slaves took to escape from the
South and gain freedom in the northern states or Canada. Along the way, slaves stayed in abolitionists'
homes and were protected by abolitionists. Harriet Tubman is one of the most famous conductors of the
Underground Railroad. After escaping using the route, Tubman went back to the South at least 19 times
and helped over 300 slaves escape.
Compromise of 1850
After the Mexican War, the United States gained new territory in the West. The Compromise of 1850 was
passed to deal with the issue of slavery in these new lands. The compromise stated that California was to be
admitted as a free state, and New Mexico and Utah were to decide on the issue by popular sovereignty,
meaning that the people living in the territories voted on whether or not to allow slavery.
Fugitive Slave Act, 1850
Passed in 1850, this law put a $1,000 fine on law enforcement officials who did not arrest escaped slaves.
The law was passed because slaves were escaping to the North, and northerners made no effort to capture
and return escaped slaves to their owners.
Uncle Tom's Cabin, 1852
This book, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, was published in 1852. The novel described the realities of
slave life in harsh detail. It was one book that contributed to the anti-slavery movement.
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854
Kansas and Nebraska were both part of the Louisiana Purchase and were north of Missouri's southern
border. Senator Stephen Douglas, who wanted support from southerners for a transcontinental railroad,
introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act. In this act, part of the Missouri Compromise was repealed, and the
people who lived in Kansas and Nebraska territories were able to decide on the issue of slavery by popular
sovereignty. This meant that the people living in the territory would vote on whether or not to allow slavery
there. People from free and slave states moved to Kansas, hoping to become the majority in the territory. In
1856, pro-slavery people burned a hotel in Lawrence, Kansas. A few days later, John Brown and others
killed 5 people who were pro-slavery. Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" because of the
violence shown by both pro-slavery and anti-slavery people.
Republican Party, 1854
The Republican Party formed in 1854 in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The party formed because
its members were against the expansion of slavery into new states. The party did not push for the abolition
of slavery, but it did not want slavery to expand past the states in the South.
Sumner-Brooks Incident, 1856
In May 1856, Senator Charles Sumner gave a speech on the Senate floor entitled "The Crime Against
Kansas." In the speech, Sumner spoke out against the Kansas-Nebraska Act. He blamed the violence in
Kansas on the act and criticized both Andrew Butler of South Carolina and Stephen Douglas of Illinois for
supporting the act. A few days later, on May 22, 1856, Preston Brooks (Congressman and nephew of
Andrew Butler) attacked Sumner and caned him on the Senate floor. Brooks thought that Sumner had
dishonored the state of South Carolina and his uncle. This is just one event that shows how divided the
country was over slavery.
Dred Scott v. Sandford, 1857
Dred Scott was a slave who sued his former owner after that owner took him to live in a free state and then
a free territory. The case reached the Supreme Court in 1857. The court ruled that Scott was his owner's
property, and so he did not have rights to sue. The court also stated that African Americans were not
citizens, so they did not have the same rights as citizens.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858
Held in Illinois in 1858, the Lincoln-Douglas debates were held when Abraham Lincoln and Stephen
Douglas were both campaigning to be senator for Illinois. Douglas was elected senator in the 1858 election,
but Lincoln went on to win the presidential election in 1860. In the second of the Lincoln-Douglas debates,
Lincoln asked Douglas to explain how he could support popular sovereignty and the Dred Scott decision.
Douglas took a stance that was neither pro- nor anti-slavery and argued that even though the Dred Scott
decision stated that territories could not forbid slavery, they could keep slavery out by not passing laws that
protected slavery. This argument is known as the Freeport Doctrine.
Harper's Ferry, 1859
Harper's Ferry, Virginia was a federal arsenal, meaning it was a fort that held guns and other ammunition.
John Brown, an abolitionist, led a raid at Harper's Ferry to steal weapons and give them to slaves. He hoped
the slaves would start a rebellion to gain freedom. Shortly after the raid, John Brown was captured and
executed. Slave owners feared that there would be additional slave rebellions.
Secession, 1860
South Carolina was the first to secede from the Union. Following the presidential election of Abraham
Lincoln, more southern states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America.
Events of the Civil War
Fort Sumter, 1861
The first battle of the Civil War took place at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, when Confederates opened fire
on the fort which held U.S. artillery. There was return fire, but it was ineffective. The fort surrendered on
April 13 and was evacuated.
Anaconda Plan/Blockade, 1861
Union general Winfield Scott created a plan to limit the South's ability to trade. Called the Anaconda Plan,
it called for the Union to blockade the Confederacy's coastline to keep the South from importing or
exporting goods and for the Union to take control of the Mississippi to separate Texas, Louisiana, and
Arkansas from the eastern Confederate states.
Battle of Hampton Roads, March 1862
Also called the Battle of Monitor and Merrimack, Union ship USS Monitor and Confederate ship CSS
Virginia (it had previously been named "Merrimack") battle at Hampton Roads. The ships were both
ironclad, marking the first time this kind of technology had been used in a naval battle.
Emancipation Proclamation, January 1863
Lincoln declared all slaves in Confederate states were now free. Slaves in the Union states of Missouri,
Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware were not free. This proclamation changed the goal of the war to ending
slavery instead of just preserving the Union.
Battle of Vicksburg, May - July 1863
In a series of maneuvers, General Grant and his army crossed the Mississippi River and drove the
Confederates into the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. The Confederate army formed a defensive line around
the city; however, Grant besieged it until the Confederates surrendered. The Union now had control of the
Mississippi River.
Battle of Gettysburg, July 1863
Union leader Meade stopped the Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania at Gettysburg. This battle was one
of the bloodiest battles in the Civil War. Both the North and South lost thousands of soldiers.
John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln, April 1865
While at the theater, an actor named John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln on April 14, just six days
after Lee had surrendered to Grant and ended the Civil War.
African Americans in the Civil War
African Americans were not allowed to join the Union army at the beginning of the Civil War. Only white soldiers
fought for the Union army. After the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in 1863, African Americans were
allowed to join the army. They were assigned to segregated units and were paid less than white soldiers. Still,
many of the African American units contributed to the Union's victory over the Confederate army in several Civil
War battles.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War lasted from 1865–1877. Amendments and laws were passed to
increase the civil rights and liberties of African Americans, but the former Confederate South managed to pass
laws that left African Americans segregated and without a voice or power in government.
Reconstruction Events Timeline
Freedman's Bureau, 1865: Congress set up this bureau to assist former slaves. The bureau set up schools for
African Americans and helped set up farms at which the former slaves could work.
13th Amendment, 1865: This amendment abolished slavery in the U.S. It is known as one of the Reconstruction
Amendments, which extended rights to former slaves after the Civil War.
Black Codes, 1865-68: Black codes were a series of laws passed by ex-Confederate states that restricted the rights
of blacks in the South. These codes included segregation in public spaces and restrictions on blacks' rights to be
free laborers, to own land and homes, and to testify in court.
Civil Rights Act of 1866: This act granted African Americans citizenship and gave them the rights to make
contracts, sue, and own property. The citizenship rights of African Americans were also protected under the 14th
Amendment.
Reconstruction Acts, 1867: These acts divided the former Confederate states into five military districts, except for
Tennessee. Tennessee was not included in this because it had ratified the 14th amendment and had been readmitted
to the Union. A general was in charge of each military district, and soldiers occupied the states. Other
Reconstruction Acts included barring Confederate leaders from voting or holding office and making the
Confederate states ratify the 14th Amendment before being readmitted to the Union.
14th Amendment, 1868: This amendment, passed in 1866 and ratified in 1868, stated that all people born in the
U.S., except Native Americans, were U.S. citizens. It is one of the Reconstruction Amendments.
Johnson's impeachment & Tenure of Office Act, 1868: President Johnson was impeached after removing
Secretary of War Edwin Stanton from office without the approval of Congress. This was in violation of the Tenure
of Office Act, which had been passed in 1867. Johnson faced a trial in the Senate in which he was one vote short of
being convicted and removed from office.
15th Amendment, 1870: This amendment gave African American men the right to vote. It says that no citizen of
the U.S. can be denied the right to vote based on race or color. It is one of the Reconstruction Amendments, along
with the 13th and 14th amendments.
The Whiskey Ring, 1875: The Whiskey Ring was a group of public officials who did not pay their liquor taxes to
the federal government. After the Civil War, liquor taxes were very high. Whiskey makers bribed government
officials to let them keep the tax money. In May 1875, U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin Bristow arrested
the owners of the whiskey plants and recovered over $3 million in taxes. 110 of the 238 persons arrested were
convicted.
Election of 1876 & Compromise of 1877: In the 1876 presidential election, Democrat Samuel Tilden won the
majority of the popular vote, but there was a dispute over who won the electoral votes in several states. A
committee decided that Republican Rutherford B. Hayes won those electoral votes, and he was elected president.
The Democrats said they would accept Hayes as president if federal troops were removed from the South. This
agreement is known as the Compromise of 1877, and it was the official end of Reconstruction.
Jim Crow laws, 1880s: These were laws that segregated blacks from whites. They began to appear in the 1880s,
after Reconstruction had officially ended. The laws forced blacks to sit on separate areas on trains and attend
different schools than whites did, along with having many other effects on daily life.
Grandfather clause, 1895: This clause was added to many Southern states' voting laws to keep African
Americans from voting. Many Southern states required voters to pay poll taxes or pass literacy tests, but this clause
stated that a person could vote anyway if he or his ancestors had the right to vote as of January 1, 1867. Because
African Americans did not have the right to vote until after 1867, the clause allowed poor or illiterate whites to
vote while still keeping the vote from blacks.
Reconstruction Terms
Carpetbagger: a Northerner who came to the South in the Reconstruction period and carried bags made out of
carpet material. Most of them were interested in making money in the areas that needed to be rebuilt, but some
wanted to help the newly freed slaves.
Ku Klux Klan: a group of white supremacists who wanted to keep white control of the South and did not want
African Americans to vote or hold office. They threatened African Americans with violence to keep them from
voting.
Radical Republicans: a group of Republicans who supported punishing the Confederate states. Radical
Republicans wanted to force the majority of white males in the Confederate states to take an oath to the U.S. and to
exclude anyone who had served in the Confederate government or army from participating in new government.
Radical Republicans also wanted to take land away from Southern plantation owners and distribute it among the
newly-freed slaves. Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania was one of the leaders of the Radical
Republicans.
Presidential Reconstruction: refers to the policies favored by Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson in allowing
the Confederate states back into the Union. Johnson wished to pardon anyone in the Confederacy who swore an
oath of loyalty to the United States. Johnson's policies were much more lenient than those of the Radical
Republicans.
Scalawag: a Southern white who helped in the Reconstruction effort. Some Southerners viewed scalawags as
traitors to the South.
Sharecropper: a person who grew crops on land owned by someone else and gave the landlord (owner of the
land) a share of the crop to pay for expenses. Many of these people were freed slaves who could not afford to buy
their own land. Tenant farmers are similar to sharecroppers, except they may pay their rent in cash.
Solid South: the states of the Southern U.S. that traditionally supported the Democratic Party after the Civil War.
By 1876, only three Southern states (Florida, South Carolina, Louisiana) were under Federal occupation and
Republican rule.
Post-Reconstruction & Industrial Growth
In the years after the end of Reconstruction, the federal government took a laissez-faire approach to the economy,
which became a synonym for free market economics. Railroads were built, linking the Atlantic coast to the Pacific
coast. Labor unions were established to improve conditions for laborers, which included many new immigrants.
Industrialization led to the development and mass production of new inventions, like Thomas Edison’s light bulb.
Laissez-faire Economic Policy
After the Civil War, the movement towards a mixed economy accelerated with even more protectionism and
government regulation. In the 1880s and 1890s, significant tariff increases were enacted. With the enactment of the
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890, the federal government began to
assume an increasing role in regulating and directing the economy. Congress encouraged business expansion in the
United States through import tariffs.
Railroads
Modernizers felt railroads could haul the South out of isolation and poverty. Every Southern state provided
financial support for railroads, and millions of dollars in bonds and subsidies were fraudulently pocketed. High
prices for railroad use contributed to the financial burden for American farmers in the late 19th century. The
Pullman Strike of 1894, in which workers went on strike to protest a wage cut, became widespread when the
American Railway Union, a union of railroad workers, refused to work on any train that had Pullman cars,
resulting in a shutdown of all western railways except the Great Northern line from May until July.
Labor Unions
Long hours, low pay, and unsafe conditions in factories gave rise to labor unions in the United States. The
National Labor Union, created in 1866, was the first national union in the United States. It included many types
of workers but did not achieve any significant gains for labor. After the National Labor Union collapsed in 1872,
the Knights of Labor, founded in 1869, became the leading labor union. The Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago
in 1886 weakened the union’s influence. A striker was killed during a clash between police and strikers. The next
day, during a protest of the striker’s death, a group of anarchists threw a bomb at police, who had come in to break
up the gathering. Seven police officers were killed, and public opinion blamed the labor unions as well as the
anarchists. Immigrants contributed to organized labor, but Chinese workers were denied membership in the
National Labor Union, and blacks and women were partially excluded. The American Federation of Labor,
which represented skilled craftsmen almost exclusively in its early years, had more than 1.4 million members by
1904, and it advocated an approach known as "business" or "pure and simple" unionism, which emphasized
collective bargaining to reach its goals. Samuel Gompers, president of the AFL, believed the goals of better wages,
job security, and benefits could be achieved through strikes and boycotts.
Immigration
Around the turn of the twentieth century, America was a place of economic opportunity, a place for religious
freedom, and a place represented by individual rights. This was extremely appealing to people of other countries.
Immigration into the U.S. began to sore. The New Colossus, written by Emma Lazarus in 1883, represented the
ideals of the United States. One of the main goals of the United States was to embrace those seeking freedom and a
new start. However, that would soon change. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which was passed because it
was believed that Chinese immigrants kept wages down, prevented Chinese workers from coming to the United
States for 10 years; renewals kept the law on the books until it was repealed. Before the Chinese Exclusion Act
was passed, Chinese laborers were brought in to build the Transcontinental Railroad. The Pacific Railway Acts of
1862 granted land to railroad companies to build it. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed after the railroad was
completed. It was the first law to reduce immigration from a specific country. Limited immigration from China
continued until the repeal of the act in 1943. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, “old” immigrants referred to
people from western Europe, and “new” immigrants referred to people from eastern and southern Europe. The
“old” immigrants tended to be Protestant and spoke English, but the “new” immigrants, who began arriving in
America after the Civil War, were often Jewish or Catholic and usually spoke little or no English. As a result, the
“new” immigrants often had trouble blending into society. Many of the “new” immigrants came to the United
States to escape famine and unemployment in their home countries and to take advantage of new industries that
were opening in American cities and needed workers to build them. Photojournalist Jacob Riis’ book (How the
Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York) of photographs, drawings, and written descriptions
exposed the sweatshops, child labor, and overcrowded and unsanitary tenements that immigrants faced in New
York. The dramatic increase in immigrants led the U.S. government to establish immigration stations to receive
most of them. The main entry facility for more than half a century was Ellis Island in New York Harbor.
Opponents of immigration were called “nativists.”
Industry and Philanthropy
“Robber barons” was a term used for wealthy business owners, like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, J.P.
Morgan, and Cornelius Vanderbilt, who often engaged in unfair or anti-competitive business practices.
Rockefeller, president of Standard Oil, created a trust in 1879 to monopolize the oil industry. Rockefeller wanted
to control more of the oil industry, but Standard Oil was an Ohio company and was not allowed, by law, to own
stock in companies in other states. In a trust, shareholders of one company turn over their shares to a board of
trustees. The creation of the trust made it possible for Standard Oil to monopolize the oil refining business. In
addition to establishing the university that bears his name, Leland Stanford co-founded the Central Pacific Railroad
and was governor of California. Congress encouraged business expansion through import tariffs. High tariffs on
imported goods provided protection for American companies. Keeping the cost of foreign goods artificially high
allowed American companies to produce more, make more profit, and expand their operations. Carnegie wrote the
1889 essay ”The Gospel of Wealth,” encouraging wealthy people to use their money to benefit society. Carnegie
followed his own advice. Late in his life, he gave away most of the wealth he had acquired in the steel industry to
establish schools and libraries.
U.S.-Indian Relations
Through the treaties it signed, the United States government acknowledged Indian nations as self-governing. The
United States waged war against the Indians throughout the 19th century because American settlers moving west
needed land, and Indians weren’t always willing to move. Eventually, the Native Americans were forced off their
land and onto reservations, a designated piece of land allotted to certain tribes. The land is designated by the
United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs.
The Progressive Era
The Progressive Movement in the United States went from about 1890 to 1914. It was an important third party
reform movement that hoped to make American society better. Its leaders advocated expanded democracy through
election reform, government regulation of industry and businesses, and the promise of science, among other things.
In the late 1800s, political scandals appeared on both state and federal levels. Below is a timeline of important
events in the Progressive Movement.
Important Events
1871: Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall
Tammany Hall was a political machine that influenced the Democratic Party in New York City from the
1790s to the 1960s. William Tweed, known was Boss Tweed, ran the machine from 1858 to 1871. Boss
Tweed influenced voters and filled government jobs with political supporters. In the 1860s and 1870s,
Thomas Nast, a cartoonist, created political cartoons about Boss Tweed that made the public suspicious. In
1871, the Tweed Ring broke up, and Boss Tweed was no longer the head of Tammany Hall.
1872: Crédit Mobilier Scandal
In 1867, stockholders in the Union Pacific Railroad formed Crédit Mobilier of America, a construction
company, to build the railroad. Shares were sold or given to congressmen who profited themselves by
approving federal spending for the project and ignoring the expenses, ensuring huge profits for the
company. In 1872, a congressional committee was set up to investigate the company. All of the politicians
in the scandal were Republican colleagues of President Grant.
1875: Whiskey Ring Scandal
In 1875, the Whiskey Ring scandal broke. The Whiskey ring involved many high-level government
officials who worked with whiskey distillers to keep what should have been government tax money on the
sale of whiskey. The scandal reached as far as President Grant's private secretary.
1883: Pendleton Act
Passed by Congress in 1883, the Pendleton Act reformed the civil service system. It required that people be
hired for federal jobs based on their qualifications instead of their political ties. The previous practice, the
spoils system, was still in effect at the state and local level.
1884: Presidential Election
In 1884, Grover Cleveland ran against James Blaine for president. Some Republicans did not support
Blaine as the Republican nominee because they thought he was corrupt and was not supportive of civil
service reforms. These people instead backed Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland. The Republican
supporters of Cleveland were known was Mugwumps.
1889: Jane Addams opens Hull House
Jane Addams, a prominent Progressive leader, supported the Prohibition movement and many other social
reforms. Addams opened Hull House in Chicago. Hull House was a settlement house that helped poor
immigrants who lived in the slums of Chicago. Hull House became an important part of the community for
immigrants and the poor.
1890: Sherman Antitrust Act is passed
Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act to prevent monopolies and trusts in American industries,
specifically in the railroad and steel industries. It was the first law to deal with monopolies and trusts and,
along with the Interstate Commerce Act, was one of the first acts to regulate Big Business.
1892: Populist Party
Formed in 1892, the Populist Party, or the People's Party, was mostly backed by farmers and small business
owners. The party was in favor of many government reforms, including shifting to a currency backed by
both gold and silver. By 1896, the Democratic Party had adopted several of the issues on the Populist
platform. The Democratic and the Populist Party supported William Jennings Bryan in the presidential
election of 1896, but Bryan lost to Republican William McKinley.
1895: U.S. v. EC Knight & Co goes to Supreme Court
In 1892, the American Sugar Refining Company acquired the E.C. Knight Company, creating a 98%
monopoly of the American sugar refining industry. The U.S. government sued the E.C. Knight Company,
arguing that this monopoly violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Supreme Court ruled the
manufacturing of sugar could not be regulated by Congress because it was a local activity.
1904: Northern Securities v. U.S. goes to Supreme Court
In 1904, the U.S. sued Northern Securities Company, a holding company made up of several railroad
companies. The U.S. argued that Northern Securities violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Supreme
Court ruled that Northern Securities was in violation of the act and ordered the company to break up. This
marked a change to a more aggressive enforcement of the Sherman Antitrust Act than in earlier court cases.
1906: Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act are passed
The Meat Inspection Act set sanitary standards for the meat-packing industry. It was passed the same year
that Upton Sinclair's book The Jungle was published, as The Jungle had gained the country's attention over
the poor conditions in slaughterhouses. The Pure Food and Drug Act, which required merchants to label
their food and drugs correctly, was passed during the same time.
1910: Mann-Elkins Act is passed
Congress passed this act to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Act, which required railroad rates to be
"reasonable and just." The law did not specify what "reasonable and just" meant, so the act was not
effective in regulating rates. Under the Mann-Elkins Act, railroad companies were required to prove that
their rates were reasonable.
1912: Woodrow Wilson is elected President of the U.S.
In 1912, the Progressive Party entered the presidential race. First, Robert La Follette tried to win the
Republican nomination with his platform of progressivism. La Follette was a Wisconsin governor who
advocated for the direct primary election and for income tax reform. Theodore Roosevelt, former president
and another progressive, received more support than La Follette and also tried to win the Republican
nomination. The Republicans renominated President Taft, and so progressive Republicans who supported
Roosevelt formed the Progressive Party, also known as the Bull Moose Party, and nominated Roosevelt for
president. Because of the split in the Republican Party, Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson won the
presidential election.
1913: 16th, 17th Amendments are passed
In 1913 both the 16th and 17th Amendments were passed by Congress. The 16th Amendment created a
federal income tax. The 17th Amendment changed how senators were elected. It gave the people the power
to elect senators in direct elections, rather than having senators appointed by state legislatures. Both
amendments were part of the Progressive Movement's platform.
1913: Federal Reserve Act is passed
Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act in 1913, which created 12 regional Federal Reserve banks to be
supervised by a Federal Reserve Board. The Federal Reserve System is the central banking system of the
United States and is still in use today, with some alterations.
1914: Clayton Antitrust Act is passed
Congress passed the Clayton Antitrust Act to act as an amendment to the Sherman Antitrust Act. This act
prohibits exclusive sales contracts, local price cutting (to freeze out competitors), and interlocking
directorates in corporations with capital of $1 million or more. This act was used to clarify the Sherman
Antitrust Act.
1919: 18th Amendment (Volstead Act) is passed
In the 1800s, the Temperance Movement began to gain ground in the U.S. The Temperance Movement
called for its members to refrain from drinking alcohol. As the Progressive Movement gained ground in the
1900s, the Temperance Movement caught on as well. Leaders like Carrie Nation protested saloons and
destroyed bar windows. In 1919, the Temperance Movement got a break. The 18th Amendment, also
known as the Volstead Act, was passed by Congress, banning the sale and consumption of alcohol. This
began the Prohibition Era, which lasted until the 21st Amendment was passed in 1933.
1920: 19th Amendment is passed
In 1920, Congress passed the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote. This Amendment
gave all women citizens of the United States the right to vote in local, state, and federal elections in the
U.S.
The Progressive Era included many important people and events which, in many ways, shaped America for years
to come. It was a reform movement designed to make America better. This included better working conditions, a
safer, cleaner society, the rise of numerous civil rights activists, and an improved government that would establish
new laws regarding businesses.
Patronage System - The patronage system, or spoils system, is the practice of giving government jobs
to those people who were the supporters of a political party.
Interstate Commerce Act - The Interstate Commerce Act allowed Congress to attempt to regulate Big
Business, such as the railroad industry. It prevented them from charging unfair rates, forming pools, or
giving rebates.
Laissez-Faire - Laissez-faire is an economic philosophy in which the government does not interfere in
how companies conduct their business. In the late 19th century, the government did not regulate many
aspects of business, and this policy was favored by many business leaders such as John D. Rockefeller
and Andrew Carnegie.
NAACP - The NAACP was founded in 1909, coinciding with the 100th birthday of Abraham Lincoln. In
its early years, the NAACP focused on using the courts to overturn Jim Crow laws legalizing
discrimination by race. In 1913, the NAACP also organized opposition to Woodrow Wilson's introduction
of racial segregation into federal government policy, offices, and hiring.
Plessy vs. Ferguson - With this case, the Supreme Court upheld the "separate but equal" doctrine.
Under Louisiana law, Homer Plessy, who was one-eighth black, was considered black and was required
to ride in the "colored car" on the East Louisiana Railroad. In 1892, he boarded the "white car," for which
he was arrested and jailed. He argued in court that he had been denied his rights under the 13th and
14th Amendments, but the presiding judge ruled the state had the right to regulate railroad companies
as long as they operated within state boundaries.
America at the Turn of the 20th Century
The United States declared war on Spain in April 1898, which resulted in the United States gaining control over
the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The U.S. lost 379 troops in combat and over 5,000 to disease.
Reasons for the Spanish-American War
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Prior to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, President McKinley had felt the U.S. needed to get
involved in Cuba in order to protect its business interest there.
Americans supported Cuban rebels who wanted to gain independence from Spain.
Tensions rose as a result of the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor; although it was never proven,
America placed responsibility on Spain. “Remember the Maine!” became the war’s most famous slogan.
American newspapers slanted the news with “yellow journalism” to create more public support for the
Cubans.
Before Congress would declare war, they passed the Teller Amendment. It stated that the U.S. would not
annex Cuba after the war.
Wreckage of the Maine
Results of the Spanish-American War
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The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1898.
Cuba gained its independence from Spain, the U.S. obtained the Philippines for $20 million, and Puerto
Rico and Guam were ceded to the U.S.
The United States emerged as a world power.
The Platt Amendment allowed the U.S. to protect Cuba, so the U.S. built a military base at Guantánamo
Bay.
Though Spain had sold the Philippines to the United States, Filipinos wanted to be part of an independent
country. Most Americans, however, believed the people of the Philippines were ignorant natives who could
not take care of themselves. This idea, known as the "white man's burden," was used as justification for
imperialism. In 1899, the Philippine Republic declared war on the U.S. and fought until 1902, though they
were ultimately defeated.
After the Spanish-American War, the United States was viewed across the world as a strong, powerful country.
The presidents that led the United States as a world power had different styles and ideas when it came to
diplomacy and relations to other countries.
Monroe
Doctrine
President Monroe outlined his foreign policy to Congress in 1823. This policy became known as
the Monroe Doctrine. It states European countries would no longer be allowed to create new
colonies or to interfere with the affairs of independent nations in the Western Hemisphere. The
United States would be willing to fight to prevent new colonies from falling into European control.
This doctrine was used as justification for U.S. involvement in the affairs of various countries in
Latin America.
Alfred
Thayer
Mahan
Mahan was the president of the U.S. Naval War College. In 1890, he wrote The Influence of
Seapower Upon History in which he made the argument that a country needed a strong navy in
order to be powerful. He also believed that the U.S. needed overseas bases to support ships
involved in trade and defense. Mahan's ideas influenced the expansionist policies of the time.
Open Door
Policy
Secretary of State John Hay initiated the Open Door Policy in 1899. At that time, several Western
powers had control over trade in China. Each country—including Great Britain, France, and
Germany—controlled trade in a certain section of China. The U.S. did not want to be left out. Hay
convinced the other countries to sign a treaty that would open up trade with China to all countries,
but most countries ignored the policy anyway.
Banana
Republics
"Banana republic" was a name given to developing nations that were virtually controlled by United
States companies. U.S. private companies owned large banana plantations in many nations
throughout Central America. The governments of these nations were influenced by the companies,
whose vast property could be protected by the United States and its military. The most famous of
these was the United Fruit Company, which began running some of Guatemala's government
services in 1901 and continued to influence its government through the Cold War.
Roosevelt
Corollary
President Roosevelt shared his Roosevelt Corollary with Congress in 1904. It was his addition to
the Monroe Doctrine. It said that the U.S. would intervene in the finances of smaller countries in
the Western Hemisphere. The U.S. wanted to help these countries before the Europeans would try
to help out and take over.
Big Stick
Diplomacy
Roosevelt's foreign policy was called “big stick diplomacy.” It came from the saying, “Speak
softly, but carry a big stick.” Roosevelt used a “big stick,” or threat of using military force, to
protect America’s interests. He especially used this policy when dealing with Europe and Latin
America.
Dollar
Diplomacy
President Taft had his own ideas about how to deal with other countries. His “dollar diplomacy”
said that the U.S. should use its financial strength, not its military power, to influence other
countries. He encouraged Americans to invest money in foreign markets.
Missionary
Diplomacy
Missionary Diplomacy was a U.S. foreign policy concerning Latin America during the
administration of President Woodrow Wilson. Under Missionary Diplomacy, the United States
attempted to spread democracy to other nations of the Western Hemisphere. Wilson believed that a
democratic system would bring as much success to Latin American nations as it had to the United
States. Unfortunately, this meant that Wilson often used the U.S. military to forcibly remove Latin
American governments he did not approve of. The U.S. intervened in Mexico, Haiti, Cuba,
Panama, and Nicaragua during Wilson's presidency
After the Spanish-American War, the United States was viewed across the world as a strong, powerful country.
The U.S. began to use its new position in global politics to influence important events in history. Two events
proved America’s dominance on the world stage. The U.S. used its position and resources to secure the Panama
Canal and the territory of Hawaii.
The Panama Canal
The United States had an economic interest in the creation of a canal in Panama. Panama was controlled by
Colombia, but the U.S. hoped a treaty would give them power to build the canal. The Colombian government
would not sign the treaty.
The U.S. did not like Colombia’s response to the situation. It decided to help Panama fight for independence. Once
Panama became an independent country, it signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty. The U.S. paid $10 million
dollars to purchase the land needed to build the canal. The U.S. maintained control of the Panama Canal zone until
1979.
Image courtesy of CIA World Factbook
Hawaii
The Kingdom of Hawaii had good relations with the United States. It exported large amounts of sugar cane to the
U.S. The sugar cane planters, mainly businessmen from America, supported being annexed by the U.S. because
they would get more money when selling their crops.
The American planters formed a militia and forced the Hawaiian government to draft a new constitution that
allowed them more representation. Later, when Queen Liliuokalani attempted to restore more power to the native
Hawaiians, the American militia overthrew the government. Despite some opposition, the sugar cane planters got
the U.S. to annex Hawaii in 1898. In 1900, Hawaii became a U.S. territory, and all Hawaii citizens became U.S.
citizens. It was the first territory the U.S. acquired in the Pacific Ocean. It became a U.S. state in 1959.
World War I & Aftermath
Many of the people in the Balkan region of Europe had strong ideas rooted in nationalism, in which the citizens
desired to be ruled by themselves. In order for this to happen, the Balkan League was formed in 1912 by Serbia,
Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro. Their goal was the removal of the Turks from the Balkan Peninsula. As a
result, tensions developed in the Balkans between 1870 and 1914 leading to the assassination of Austrian
Archduke Ferdinand and his wife by a Serbian nationalist and then to World War I.
World War I Powers
Allied Powers
Central Powers
Great Britain
France
Russia
Italy
Austria-Hungary
Germany
Bulgaria
Turkey
The United States avoided the war as long as possible but eventually joined the war in 1917. The widespread use
of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of World War I. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas, and
phosgene. World War I ran until 1918, when an armistice was declared. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was
signed and the League of Nations was started, ending World War I.
New National Identities After World War I
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Poland reemerged as an independent country.
Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia were entirely new nations.
Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia.
The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.
The dismantling of the Habsburg Dynasty in 1918 led to the creation of the nations of Austria and Hungary.
There were many developments related to World War I leading to the onset of World War II. Below is a list of
these developments.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, is considered one of the most punitive treaties in history. It set
out to humiliate the Germans at the end of WWI by making them:
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take full responsibility for the war
pay reparations
give up land in Europe and all of their overseas territories
It is considered a direct cause of Hitler’s rise to power and, therefore, World War II aggression.
Disappointed victors
Both Japan and Italy had fought alongside the Allies during WWI, but neither was fully satisfied with their rewards
from the Treaty of Versailles. Italy had gained more land from the victory, but the treaty did not grant all of its
claims.
Japan succeeded in gaining control of Germany's former colonies in the Pacific, but Japan's ultimate goal was to
gain control of China, and China did not play a role in World War I. The first military activity in World War II
would involve Japan attacking China to achieve this goal.
Appeasement policy
European nations thought it was better to appease German fascists who broke treaty restrictions than to take action.
After the terrible World War I, Europe wanted to avoid more fighting. Therefore, no action was taken when
Hitler’s forces entered Czechoslovakia.
Depression and poverty
Europe was unstable between the two World Wars, largely due to economic reasons. Great poverty led people to
accept radical change and the promises of fascist dictators like Hitler and Mussolini.
Communism
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 had Europeans worried. People feared the spread of Communism.
Fascist dictators promised to prevent this spread.
Racism and Scapegoats
Impoverished people were quick to look for easy answers and people to blame. Scapegoats were desirable for the
problems they dealt with. Jews, Poles (people from Poland), and Chinese all suffered for this.
U.S. Isolationism
The United States withdrew from European affairs after World War I to focus on domestic growth and colonial
gains. This isolationism left France and Britain vulnerable.
Weak League
The League of Nations was set up according to the Treaty of Versailles. Its purpose was to act as the peacekeeper
of Europe. However, the League of Nations did not have any real power or military strength, and it was very
ineffectual due to the absence of the United States.
The Lost Generation
World War I produced an entire generation of people who had gone into a war of great magnitude. This youth had
no training in peacetime careers. Therefore, the "Lost Generation" of German youth played a role in supporting
Nazi rule and the onset of WWII.
The term "Lost Generation" can also be applied to a set of American writers who came to age in the time during
and after the First World War.
Kellogg-Briand Pact
The Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed in 1928 by 62 countries, including the United States, and it was a general
denouncement of warfare. However, it provided no way to enforce this restriction or to punish those who declared
war anyway.
The 1920s was an era of extreme economic growth, big social and cultural changes, and political conservatism.
From music, film, and literature to religion and society, influential leaders were creating and pushing for change in
the United States. The "roaring" 1920s era came to an end with the stock market crash on October 29, 1929.
Domestic and Social Changes of the 1920s
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accomplishment of some Progressive goals
18th Amendment, passed in 1919, results in the prohibition of alcohol
Prohibition leads to rise in gangster warfare and speakeasies
anti-communist, conservative feelings lead to a Red Scare in 1919 and 1920, in which the Palmer Raids
occur (massive arrest of alleged radicals)
Immigration Act of 1924 greatly reduces the number of individuals allowed to legally enter the United
States coming into America from Asia and Eastern Europe by placing strict quotas on immigration
controversial Sacco and Vanzetti trial (1921), in which two anarchists were convicted of murder, believed
by many be an unfair trial due to anti-immigrant and anti-radical ideals of the era
Entertainment in the 1920s
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Radio and motion pictures become much more popular forms of entertainment and reach a broader
audience.
In 1920, the first commercial broadcasting radio station is established in the United States.
In 1926, the first radio broadcasting network is formed, which brought with it the golden age of radio.
Shows, speeches, and music are played in homes all over the U.S.
Families listen to Westerns and quiz shows on the radio together.
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Jazz music spreads in popularity because of the radio and musicians like Louis Armstrong. Armstrong was
known for his improvisation when he played, and he was a major influence on the development of jazz in
the 1920s.
News and entertainment is readily available in homes across the U.S.
Companies begin advertising new products on the radio according to what kind of people are listening to a
specific program.
Irving Berlin created many famous songs for Broadway musicals. Berlin also wrote patriotic music; his
most famous song was "God Bless America." He composed all of the music for seventeen movies and
twenty-one Broadway musicals.
In the 1900s and into the 1920s, motion pictures without sound, or silent films, are made, and moviegoers
must read the dialogue onscreen.
In 1927, spoken dialogue is introduced in the first talking movie, or "talkie," called The Jazz Singer with Al
Jolson.
The video below is a short piece demonstrating music and dance common in the 1920s.
Clip provided by Education Clip Library with permission from ITN Source
Increasing Equality for Women
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Alice Paul organizes suffragist parades for the sake of women's rights. In 1916, Paul forms the National
Women's Party, which fought hard for a constitutional amendment that would extend suffrage to women.
Carrie Chapman Catt was also a notable leader of the women's suffrage movement in the early 1900s. She
and others won women's right to vote by holding meetings, protests, and speaking before government
leaders. Catt held the position of president for National American Woman Suffrage Association in 19001904 and 1915-1920.
Ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920 grants women the right to vote.
New inventions (washing machines, electric stoves, water pumps) make domestic chores less burdensome.
Professional opportunities increase in the wake of WWI.
Previously all-male universities admit women.
The "flapper" image becomes powerful and popular symbol of the changing role of women.
Great Migration
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Jobs for African Americans in the South are scarce and low-paying.
African Americans move to northern cities in search of better employment opportunities.
African Americans face discrimination and violence in both the South and the North.
Harlem Renaissance
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African American artists, writers, and musicians based in Harlem reveal freshness and variety for the
African American artistic culture.
Painter Jacob Lawrence chronicles the experiences of the Great Migration north through art.
Langston Hughes combines the experiences of African and American cultural roots in his writings.
Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong compose jazz classics.
Economic hardships of the Great Depression and the Harlem Riot of 1935 bring an end to this time of
cultural growth in the Harlem area of New York City.
There were many important people who had a great impact on life in the United States in the early 1900s. From
writers like F. Scott Fitzgerald, to entrepreneurs like Henry Ford, the United States was filled with influential
people. These people were important not only in America, but also throughout the world.
Important Individuals of the 1920s
Louis Armstrong
Louis Armstrong was a famous jazz trumpet player, singer, and bandleader. He was a major influence on the
development of jazz in the 1920s. He was known for his improvisation when he played. He organized several large
jazz bands and appeared in Broadway shows, jazz festivals, and films.
William Jennings Bryan
William Jennings Bryan was an American politician, orator, and lawyer. He was a three-time Democratic Party
nominee for President of the United States and one of the most popular speakers in American history. He was
called "The Great Commoner" because of his total faith in the goodness and rightness of the common people. In
the 1920s, he was a strong supporter of Prohibition but is probably best known today for his crusade against
Darwinism, which culminated in the Scopes Trial in 1925.
Clarence Darrow
Clarence Darrow was an American lawyer and leading member of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).
He was best known for defending John T. Scopes in the so-called "Monkey" Trial in 1925, in which he opposed
the statesman William Jennings Bryan. He also defended teenage thrill killers Leopold and Loeb in their 1924 trial
for murdering 14-year-old Bobby Franks.
William Faulkner
William Faulkner was an American novelist, film screenwriter, and poet whose works featured his native state of
Mississippi. He is regarded as one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century and was awarded the
1949 Nobel Prize for Literature. Along with Mark Twain and Tennessee Williams, Faulkner is considered one of
the most important "Southern writers."
F. Scott Fitzgerald
Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was an American writer of novels and short stories, whose works are suggestive of
the Jazz Age, a term he coined himself. He is widely thought of as one of the twentieth century's great writers.
Fitzgerald is considered a member of the "Lost Generation," Americans born in the 1890s who came of age during
World War I.
Henry Ford
Henry Ford created the Ford Motor Company in 1903. His company cut the costs of production and adapted the
assembly line to automobile production to become the largest automobile producer in the world. One of Ford's first
cars was the Model-T, and it came only in black. This allowed for the mass production of the car. Around 19131914, Henry Ford improved the assembly line in his car factory. He installed the first conveyor belt-based
assembly line. The assembly line decreased production costs for cars by decreasing assembly time. Instead of 728
minutes, Ford could make a car in 93 minutes. For the first time, the average American could afford the
automobile. Almost 17 million cars were produced all over the world from 1908 to 1928.
Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Hemingway was an American novelist, short-story writer, and journalist. Hemingway's unique writing style
is characterized by economy and understatement. His writings had a significant influence on the development of
twentieth-century fiction writing. Many of his works are now considered classics in American literature.
Langston Hughes
Langston Hughes was an African American poet. He was the central figure of the Harlem Renaissance, a
movement that brought about a new black cultural identity in the 1920s and 1930s through music, literature, and
art. Hughes' poems use dialect and jazz rhythms and are mostly concerned with showing African American life in
the city. His collections of poetry include Shakespeare in Harlem and One-Way Ticket.
Charles Lindbergh
Charles Lindbergh is one of the most well-known aviators of the twentieth century. On May 20, 1927, Lindbergh
made the first nonstop airplane flight from New York to Paris. He flew in his plane, the Spirit of St. Louis. It took
him 33 1/2 hours to complete the flight.
Gertrude Stein
Gertrude Stein was an American writer who spent most of her life in France. She became a leader in the
development of modern art and literature. Her judgments in literature and art were highly influential. She was also
Ernest Hemingway's mentor.
The Great Depression & The New Deal
The 1920s seemed like a time of prosperity, but factors were building up that would later lead to the Great
Depression. The Great Depression was a severe economic downturn that began in the United States. The
suffering of the Great Depression was particularly pronounced because the years of 1920s had been a time of
carefree growth. The Stock Market Crash of 1929 was the first signal that tough times were on the horizon.
Three important presidents from the early 20th century, Warren G. Harding, Calvin C. Coolidge, and Herbert
Hoover, all influenced the politics of the 1920s and 1930s.
1920s: Leading to the Bust
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The laissez-faire policy of presidents Warren G. Harding, Calvin C. Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover allowed
businesses to grow without government interference. The automobile industry in particular grew
explosively in the 1920s. However, even though many businesses were successful, not everyone prospered
during the 1920s. Many African Americans, immigrants, and farmers lived in poverty despite the fact that
the overall economy was doing quite well.
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Support for labor unions shrank because the economic prosperity of the 1920s caused people to have few
worries about labor problems. The government also attempted to stop unions from accomplishing their
goals because they believed the unions would hurt businesses.
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Investors bought stock on a margin, meaning they bought shares for less than the stock was worth and
promised to pay the rest as the price went up. Prices stopped going up, however, causing investors to sell
all their shares, which in turn caused a panic.
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Speculators bought stocks hoping to sell them for high profits in the future. This action drove up the stock
prices.
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Farms began producing more crops than were needed. The price of the crops went down, and farmers lost
money.
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People used credit to buy items they could not afford to purchase all at once. For example, they used
installment plans to buy consumer goods. When the depression hit, they could not afford to pay off their
purchases.
1930s: The Depression Hits
On October 29, 1929, the Great Depression hit the country hard. Work was hard to find, and many people lived in
poverty.
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Hoovervilles were groups of shacks made from materials usually found in the trash. People could not afford
homes when they could not find work. These shantytowns were named after President Hoover. Many
people were angry that he did not help them when they needed him.
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Hoover did not give direct aid to help the needy people. Instead, he gave good loans to businesses and
banks. He thought that helping businesses would help create jobs.
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A severe drought in the Midwest and Great Plains region put many farmers out of work. Farms were
foreclosed, and the farmers left the "Dust Bowl" area to find new work in California.
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A group called the Bonus Army marched on Washington, D.C., to demand payment of veteran’s bonuses.
They were scheduled to get the bonuses in 1945, but they needed the money sooner to survive the Great
Depression.
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The Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 increased taxes on imported goods. The idea behind the tariff was to
stimulate the economy by encouraging consumers to buy goods produced within the United States. The
tariff backfired, however, because other countries decided to retaliate by placing tariffs on American goods.
As a result, trade around the world slowed to a virtual standstill.
The New Deal was a series of programs started between 1933 and 1937 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to help
the economy of the United States recover from the Great Depression. Though they were not as successful as many
hoped they would be, they did help the economy slowly start to recover. The United States economy did not
completely recover, however, until the beginning of World War II. The United States had passed the Neutrality
Acts in 1937 and 1939, which stated that the U.S. would not give aid to belligerent nations. Through efforts of men
like Franklin D. Roosevelt, these policies slowly changed so that the U.S. eventually offered help to countries who
would pay in cash and transport their own goods. These measures directly helped the U.S. economy because of the
sudden boom in war industries.
Through the years of the New Deal, the country gained many new programs, laws, and federal agencies. Here are
some important ones to remember.
Agricultural
Adjustment
Administration
This agency paid farmers to grow fewer crops in an attempt to keep the prices of crops
higher. The plan would help the farms make more money, but some people were angry
that there was less food and cotton. The agency was dissolved after the U.S. Supreme
Court declared that it was unconstitutional.
Civilian
Conservation Corps
This program hired young men from needy families to work on conservation projects.
They planted trees and built parks and dams. It gave many young men a job in a time of
high unemployment.
In March 1933, the Emergency Banking Relief Act declared a four-day "banking holiday"
Emergency Banking
during which all banks were closed. This was done to stop the banking crisis that was
Relief Act
taking place and to prevent more banks from failing.
Fair Labor
Standards Act
This was a law that helped workers get fair treatment at work. It created a minimum wage
and forty-hour work week. It also made child labor illegal in the U.S.
Public Works
Administration
This program gave jobs to a large number of unemployed people. Workers built thousands
of schools, courthouses, bridges, and other public works.
Tennessee Valley
Authority
Wagner Act
Securities and
Exchange
Commission
Social Security Act
Federal Deposit
Insurance
Corporation
This program built dams to help the poor residents of the Tennessee River Valley. The
dams helped residents by providing flood control and electric power.
This law, also called the National Labor Relations Act, allowed workers to form unions.
Unions can help workers band together and request better working conditions or better
pay.
This commission was made to regulate the stock market and restrict margin buying so that
the stock market would not have another crash like the one that started the Depression. It
still operates today.
This act provides government pensions to elderly, retired Americans and to disabled
citizens who are unable to work. Social Security is also still part of American life.
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was created to provide insurance to
people who deposit money in a bank. After the stock market crash of 1929, many
Americans hurried to take their money out of the bank. So many people withdrew their
money that the banks went broke before everyone else could get their money out. With the
FDIC, a person's money is insured in case a bank runs out of money.
The New Deal Era had some key people who worked to make changes. Many people had to work together to
create a better future for Americans. Two key leaders from the time are President Franklin Roosevelt and Frances
Perkins.
Franklin Roosevelt
The people of the United States were feeling hopeless in 1933 when Roosevelt became president. He told
Americans that they did not have to be afraid because things would change. At his inauguration, he said, “The only
thing we have to fear is fear itself.” He called Congress into a special session to work on passing laws to help ease
the Great Depression. This session lasted from March 9 to June 16. It is known as “The First Hundred Days.”
During this time, Roosevelt attempted to create several New Deal programs with the help of Congress. The
Supreme Court, however, ruled many of these programs unconstitutional. Roosevelt tried to remedy this in 1937
by proposing a bill that would expand the number of justices in the Supreme Court. The bill would allow the
president to appoint a new justice for every justice that was at least 70 years old. Instead of nine justices, the bill
would have allowed up to fifteen. Many Americans reacted harshly to the proposal, calling it the "court packing
bill," and it was never passed.
Frances Perkins
Frances Perkins was Roosevelt’s Secretary of Labor. She was the first woman to serve in a Cabinet position. She
helped create several of the New Deal reforms, especially those that improved working conditions.
Huey Long
Huey Long was the governor of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932 and a U.S. Senator for Louisiana from 1932 to 1935.
His support for Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal wavered on and off during his time in office. He claimed the
program was not doing enough to aid the economy of the United States, and he felt a re-distribution of the wealth
in society was the only way to actually solve the country's problems. To this end, Long decided to create the Share
Our Wealth Society, which called for a massive restructuring of the tax system
World War II
World War II
Political and economic conditions in Europe following World War I led to the rise of fascism and to World War
II, which took place between 1939-1945.
Taking Sides
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France had a treaty with Poland, and was therefore obliged to become involved when Germany invaded in
1939. This is considered the official start to World War II in Europe.
World War II didn't only brew in Europe. Stability was also threatened in the East. The Japanese were
possible allies, but the Americans ignored their advances and denied them the same colonial gains America
sought. America had infringed on their territory by taking the Philippines, Hawaii, and Guam.
On August 23, 1939, the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact was signed in Moscow. Germany and the Soviet
Union agreed not to go to war against each other. The Soviet Union changed its policy when Hitler
invaded, thereby breaking the pact.
The attack on Pearl Harbor caused the U.S. to declare war on Japan the next day, which caused the
American people to rally support behind the war.
The breakdown of countries that took sides in World War II looked like this:
Allies
Great Britain
the United States
Canada
Soviet Union
Axis Powers
Germany
Italy
Japan
Before the War
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Jews, Poles (people from Poland), and Chinese were blamed by small groups for the war and much of the
suffering. This began a trend of intolerance and bigotry.
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The 1930s brought increasing tariffs and restrictions on oil trade with the Japanese due to their increasing
aggression in Asia. The Japanese began to consider an invasion of an American territory, laying the
groundwork for Pearl Harbor.
During World War I, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, creating a communist state. Germans and
Eastern Europeans greatly feared their expansion. Hitler was able to play on this fear and rise to power with
the promise that he would prevent the spread of communism.
Holocaust
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The Nazis believed Germans were a superior race and that the Jews were a threat toward building up a pure
Aryan race, referring to people of northern European descent.
To the Hitler, this justified the introduction of laws denying "non-Aryans" of citizenship and employment
rights. This belief eventually led the Nazis to kill millions of Jews, known in history as the Holocaust.
Economic, Domestic, and Military Impacts of World War II
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Entry of the U.S. into the war in 1941 ultimately pulled the country out of the Great Depression.
Americans rationed supplies in order to make sure the military had all the materials it needed in order to
effectively fight the war. Rationing caused increased demands for materials like gasoline, nylon, food, and
rubber.
In order to ensure that America had the military resources (weapons, ammunition, and vehicles) necessary
to fight World War II, factories had to switch their lines from production of consumer goods to production
of military goods and increased output. Factories also began to hire females and African Americans.
“Rosie the Riveter” (pictured below) is a World War II era icon who symbolizes the millions of American
women who worked in heavy industry during this time.
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, many Americans feared that Japan might launch another attack
on the West Coast of the United States. As a result, the United States government placed many Japanese
Americans into internment camps.
Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act and amended the Neutrality Acts in 1941. This allowed the U.S. to
lend military equipment and supplies to any nation the president said was vital to the defense of the U.S.
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Japan rejected the terms of surrender in the Potsdam Declaration. This led to the United States dropping
two atomic bombs on Japan, one on Hiroshima and the other on Nagasaki, in early August 1945. Japan
surrendered as a result of the bombings.
Recovering After the War
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The Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, was proposed by George C. Marshall, a general in the
U.S. Army. The plan helped economic recovery in Europe after World War II.
General Douglas MacArthur was in charge of helping rebuild Japan after the war.
The United Nations formed in 1945 to intervene in conflicts between governments in hopes of avoiding
future wars.
Major Allied Conferences during World War II
The Allies met together in a series of meetings to create plans for ending the war.
Tehran Conference: November 28, 1943 - December 1, 1943
This was the first World War II conference among the Big Three (the Soviet Union, the United States, and Britain)
in which Stalin was present.
Participants
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Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
Winston Churchill (Britain)
Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States)
From left to right: Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill
Purpose
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opening of a second front in Western Europe
organizing the final arrangements for the war against Nazi Germany and its allies.
Main Points:
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Operation Overlord was scheduled to begin in May 1944. This later became known as "D-Day,"
the series of battles that decided the war's end.
Roosevelt promised that the Anglo Americans would open a second front in France in the spring
of 1944.
The Soviet Union requested backup troops in Western Europe to arrive in the spring of 1944.
The Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Nazi Germany was defeated.
The Axis powers would face unconditional terms of surrender.
The nations in association with the Axis powers would be divided into territories to be controlled
by the Soviet Union, the United States, and Britain.
Economic support would be given to Iran's government since weighty demands were made on
them because of worldwide military operations.
Turkey would enter the war on the Allies' side before the year was out.
Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to Stalin's stipulation for an area in the Eastern part of Poland to
be added to the Soviet Union.
Churchill and Roosevelt granted free reign to Stalin in the Soviet Union.
Yalta Conference: February 4, 1945 - February 11, 1945
Participants
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Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
Winston Churchill (Britain)
Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States)
Main Points:
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The United Nations was formed.
Germany would be split into zones managed by the Soviet Union, Britain, and the United States.
Stalin agreed that France might have a fourth occupation zone in Germany and Austria. However,
he wanted the fourth zone to be carved out of the British and American zones.
Poland's independence would be given back to them.
The Polish eastern border along the Curzon Line was defined.
It was acknowledged that Poland should receive additional territories in the north and west at the
expense of German lands.
Stalin agreed that within three months of the defeat of Germany that the Soviet Union would enter
the attack against Japan. In return, the Soviet Union would be given the southern part of Sakhalin
and the Kurile islands after Japan's defeat.
Potsdam Conference: July 17, 1945 - August 2, 1945
Germany had agreed to unconditional surrender a few months earlier. The leaders met to decide how to oversee the
defeated Nazi Germany. The purpose of the conference also included the establishing of order after the war,
addressing peace treaty concerns, and offsetting the effects of war.
Participants
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Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
Winston Churchill (Britain's Former Prime Minister)
Clement Attlee (Britain's New Prime Minister)
Harry S. Truman (United States)
Main Points:
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Germany and Austria would be divided into four occupation zones.
Certain industries in Germany would need to be disabled to prevent the country from regaining
power.
A new German government would need to be set up.
The migration of the German people who were still living beyond Germany's new eastern borders
was discussed.
Poland's western border would be redistributed so that it would stretch along the Oder-Neisse
line.
The Potsdam Declaration was issued to describe Japan's terms for surrender.
The Cold War
The Cold War was an era from the end of World War II in 1945 until 1990 in which the world was split in two.
On one side was the capitalist United States, Western Europe and its allies in NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization). On the other side was the communist Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and its allies in the Warsaw
Pact.
The United Nations (UN) was formed after WWII to be a more effective international organization than the
League of Nations had been. As former colonies of the world went through decolonization, the UN deployed
peacekeeping forces to keep conflicts from spreading. The United States and the Soviet Union were both founding
members.
The Marshall Plan was a program of economic assistance to Western Europe in which massive financial aid was
extended by the United States. This was offered in order to create a strong, democratic Western Europe, therefore
the Soviet Bloc nations did not receive any economic help.
The Truman Doctrine was a policy that stated the United States would aid all free nations struggling against
communism.
In response to Soviet expansionism, the United States:
 conducted the Berlin airlift when the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin from the rest of West Germany.
 formed NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
 built up arms, including nuclear devices
 Went to war in Southeast Asia in accordance with the Truman Doctrine and domino theory, the idea that once
one country fell to communism, others would inevitably follow
 adopted the principle of containment, an idea presented by George Kennan, to prevent the spread of communism
Changes for Europe during the Cold War:
 An "Iron Curtain" descended upon the continent, as Eastern Europe was ruled by communism and Western
Europe remained mostly democratic.
 The Warsaw Pact was created as the counter to NATO.
 The Berlin Wall was constructed to prevent East Berliners from crossing into West Berlin to escape their new
form of government.
Effects communism had around the world:
 By 1949, the communists had rallied millions of peasants in northern China against the Kuomintang (KMT)
ruling party and pushed it south, out of mainland China and onto the island of Taiwan. There, the KMT established
the Republic of China. Taiwan was recognized as the one true China until 1973 when the UN and the U.S. declared
the communist People's Republic of China to be the true China.
 The arms race, which included nuclear weapons, led to Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Both the U.S. and the
U.S.S.R. negotiated because of their mutual fear of nuclear destruction.
 Ghana was the first democratic country in sub-Saharan Africa to gain independence when Britain gave up
control in 1957. In 1966, President Kwame Nkrumah was overthrown by a military coup. The citizens began
demanding a more democratic form of government. The National Democratic Congress (NDC) was established to
help transition to a multi-party political system and government. Free and fair presidential elections were held in
1992.
The launch of Sputnik by the Soviets in 1957 marked the beginning of the Space Race, a time of accelerated
military, technological, and scientific developments.
McCarthyism was the name given to a red scare (fear of communist infiltration of the United States) led by
Senator Joseph McCarthy during the 1950s. Many people were accused of being communists, including some
working in the film industry who were famously "blacklisted." Those who were blacklisted would not be hired.
Careers and lives were ruined before McCarthy was stopped. McCarthyism stopped when the Senator started
accusing the U.S. Army of communist leanings, going too far.
The Cuban Missile Crisis began after the Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962. Since Cuba is
only ninety miles from the United States, the U.S. government was very concerned that these weapons were so
close to the U.S. The U.S. government feared that a nuclear war would break out between the U.S. and the Soviet
Union. In response to the placement of the missiles, President John F. Kennedy ordered a blockade of Cuba and
demanded the removal of the missiles. Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the weapons, and
President Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba in the future.
Civil Rights Movement & Social Change
The civil rights movement in the United States was a political, legal, and social battle. African Americans fought
to gain citizenship rights and racial equality. African Americans participated in protest marches and boycotts. They
also refused to abide by segregation laws.
Civil Rights Timeline
Groups like the Student Non-Violent Coordination Committee (SNCC) and the Southern Christian Leadership
Committee (SCLC) were instrumental in organizing nonviolent protests. They tried to achieve racial equality for
African Americans.
1948 - President Truman issued Executive Order 9981. This order stated that "there shall be equality of
treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or
national origin."
1954 - The Supreme Court ruled that segregation in the public school system was unconstitutional in the
case of Brown v. Board of Education.
1955-1956 - Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama. She had refused to give up her bus
seat to a white person. Black civil rights leaders in Montgomery responded by telling blacks to not use
the bus system. The boycott was organized by Martin Luther King, Jr., and came to be known as the
Montgomery Bus Boycott. The boycott ended in 1956, when a federal district court and the Supreme
Court both ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional. The city of Montgomery then changed its
busing laws.
1956 - The Southern Manifesto was a document written by legislators in the United States Congress.
The document opposed to racial integration in public places. It was signed by 101 politicians. The
manifesto's goal to counter the landmark Supreme Court 1954 ruling Brown v. Board of Education,
which integrated public schools.
1962 - Cesar Chavez founded the National Farm Workers Association. He fought to improve working
conditions for agricultural workers. In 1966, the National Farm Workers Association merged with the
Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee. They formed the United Farm Workers.
1963 - Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote his famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail" on April 16, 1963. His
letter was a response to white ministers who urged him to stop causing disturbances. In the letter, King
defended the nonviolent protests that he participated in for the fight against racial injustice.
1963 - A surge of demonstrations, sit-ins, and boycotts erupted throughout many southern cities in the
spring and summer of 1963. This resulted in over 14,000 arrests. The series of violent demonstrations
prompted John F. Kennedy to push for a strong civil rights bill in Congress.
1963 - About 250,000 people marched on Washington, D.C. on August 28th. The March on Washington
was organized by several different civil rights groups. They were demonstrating for equal rights.
Different leaders spoke, including Martin Luther King, Jr. This is when King delivered his famous “I Have
a Dream” speech. He motivated others in regard to the need for change. King also sent encouragement
to many toward working for federal legislation to help end racial discrimination.
1964 - Barry Goldwater was the Republican candidate for the presidency during the 1964 election. He
was a strong conservative who argued that the federal government needed to stay out of most aspects
of American life. In 1960, he had written a book titled The Conscience of a Conservative. Goldwater
focused on advancing the conservative movement and defending conservative politics.
1964 - The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made segregation illegal in all schools and public places. It was
partially motivated by the March on Washington. The act also outlawed private businesses from
discriminating in employment.
1965 - The Voting Rights Act of 1965 made it illegal to have unequal voter registration requirements.
However, states were still able to use literacy tests and poll taxes to prevent minority voting. The Voting
Rights Act made literacy tests illegal. It also gave the Department of Justice power to monitor voting
registration in some states.
1968 - Republican Richard Nixon won the presidential election of 1968. The Vietnam War had been a
major issue in the election. Both Nixon and Democratic candidate Hubert Humphrey promised to end the
Vietnam War if elected. Because Humphrey was Lyndon Johnson's vice president, many people linked
him with Johnson's war policies and did not support him.
In the years after the Korean War, social movements gained momentum. Social leaders worked hard to make
America a better place to live. The most recognized social movement was the civil rights movement, but other
movements changed the way certain groups were treated in this country.
Women’s Rights
Women continued their fight for equality in society. The court case Roe v. Wade was considered to be a success,
while the Equal Rights Amendment did not work as well as many had hoped.
Equal Rights
Amendment
The National Organization for Women (NOW) supported an Equal Rights Amendment, or ERA.
This amendment was brought to Congress in 1972. It was never passed despite NOW’s efforts.
There were never enough votes to ratify the amendment. Some people opposed the amendment
because they thought it would require women to sign up for the draft. They also claimed that
women’s rights were protected by the Constitution already.
Roe v. Wade
The 1973 Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade made abortions legal in the U.S. The court ruled that
women have a right to privacy that is protected by the Bill of Rights and Fourteenth Amendment.
Before this case, many states did not allow abortions. After the case, the number of abortions
rose, and the ruling has been hotly debated for more than thirty years.
Workers’ Rights
César Chávez fought to help workers in the agricultural field. He was concerned with the working conditions for
his fellow farm workers, especially Mexican Americans. In 1962, he helped form the National Farm Workers
Association in California. Over several years, his group merged with other similar groups, and they eventually
became a powerful union. With the ability to strike and boycott, they were able to negotiate better hours, better
pay, and better working conditions.
Native Americans’ Rights
The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a group that works to help American Indians living in the United States
and Canada. This group works to alleviate the suffering caused by widespread poverty in the Indian communities.
It has also fought to protect Native American land rights that are protected by old treaties. In the 1970s, the
government hoped to break the treaties and reclaim the land, but the AIM staged protests that gathered public
support on their side.
Environmental Concerns
After the growth and development of the 1960s, pollution of the earth became a concern for many people.
Americans wanted to see a change in the amount of air pollution, water pollution, and toxic wastes. In 1970, the
government established the Environmental Protection Agency, an independent agency that works to protect the
environment. The agency enforces the environmental laws and researches the effects of pollution.
Throughout history, people have affected and been affected by the environment. Many human actions have had a
negative impact on the environment. At the same time, other human actions have also helped to preserve and
protect the environment.
The Environment and Society
Earth Day
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Created to raise awareness on environmental issues
First held on April 22, 1970
Silent Spring - A book by Rachel Carson
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Credited with helping launch the environmental movement
Raised public awareness of the harmful effects of pesticides on the environment
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
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Influenced by the feelings of the late 1960s
After his election in 1968, the EPA was created by President Richard Nixon in 1970
Protects land, air, water, and human health
Physical & Cultural Aspects of Geography
Geographic places can be described by their physical and cultural characteristics. A location’s mountains,
rivers, or animals can become its most defining factor. A region’s human activities, such as agriculture, industry,
and culture, can also set it apart from other places. In turn, the human societies of a place develop unique
relationships with their geographic surroundings so that a location’s physical characteristics interact with its people
to produce a distinct culture.
Landforms
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Mountains decrease the amount of human settlement in an area, but they have a large influence over the
people who live near them.
The Appalachian Mountains and Rocky Mountains have been important to American history. These
mountains slowed westward expansion of European and U.S. settlers across the North American continent.
The Himalayas are a mountain system that has some of the highest peaks in the world, including Mount
Everest. The mountains have had a significant impact on the culture of the Sherpa people in Nepal, who
live along them. The Sherpas are so skilled at climbing mountains that they are often hired as guides for
other mountaineers. Today, the word Sherpa itself is sometimes used to mean mountain guide.
Bodies of Water
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In ancient times, every major civilization developed along rivers, coastlines, or other bodies of water.
Today, many major cities still flourish near coastlines and waterways.
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The Nile River shows the impact a body of water can have on a society. The Nile
allowed Ancient Egypt to exist, providing its people drinking water and fertile farmland.
Egyptian culture and identity were tied to the Nile River.
Coastal societies such as Ancient Greece, the Vikings, and Great Britain were more
inclined to have powerful navies than their neighbors were. These people were located
on peninsulas or islands, so shipbuilding and sailing became a defining part of their
cultures.
Because traveling long distances was easier by sea than by land for much of history,
people built canals to make trade routes shorter by extending bodies of water. Some
examples are the Erie Canal, Suez Canal, and Panama Canal.
Climate and Soils
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Humans tend to inhabit climates that are mild and fertile.
Locations like Greenland and Antarctica have extremely cold climates because they are so far north or
south. Greenland has a very small population because of its climate. Antarctica has even less, with no
governments or population other than the few researchers on the continent.
Climate and soils affect the way that regions develop. Because the Caribbean islands could grow sugar and
the southern United States could grow cotton, both regions developed a dependence on slavery. Slavery did
not take as strong a hold in climates that could not support these labor intensive crops.
Major deserts such as the Sahara have climate and soils that are unfavorable for farming. As a result, the
few people who do live in desert environments are often nomads.
Animal Life and Natural Vegetation
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Some locations have animal and plant life so unique that it defines them as a place. Locations like
Madagascar—with its ring-tailed lemur and Madagascar hissing cockroach—and the Galapagos Islands—
with its Galapagos tortoise—are known more for their endangered animal and plant life than any other
factors.
Nomadic people have relied more on native animal and plant life than any other factor. This is because
nomads are hunters and gatherers. Unlike farmers, nomads traveled from place to place because they
needed to follow animal packs for survival.
When the people of an area farm a certain type of plant life, they can quickly become dependent on it. This
occurred when potatoes were introduced to Ireland. The Irish Potato Famine that began in 1845 devastated
Ireland’s crops, leading to starvation and causing many Irish to emigrate to elsewhere.
Culture
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The culture of a place is related to how its people interact with their physical environment.
History, geography, industries, beliefs, language, and many other aspects form the culture of a group of
people. Often, locations are known for certain aspects of their culture. An example of this is Georgia, which
is called "The Peach State" for its large peach industry.
Landforms, bodies of water, and other physical features can separate different cultures from each other. An
example of this is the Pyrenees Mountains, which divides France from Spain. The mountains result in
distinct cultural identities that separate the people living in France, the people living in Spain, and even the
people living in the Pyrenees themselves.
Customs and traditions help to define a culture and its people. The New Year celebrations in different
cultures are an example of this. Many cultures eat specific foods during New Year for luck or wealth; this
is a part of their cultural identity.
Africa and Southwest Asia
The Middle East is a region in the southwestern part of Asia. Much of the Middle East is covered in deserts.
Black Sea - The Black Sea borders Europe and Turkey.
Caspian Sea - The Caspian Sea is to the north of Iran. Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan are three
other countries that border this sea.
Persian Gulf - The Persian Gulf lies to the north of Saudi Arabia and to the south of Iran.
Arabian Sea - The Arabian Sea is part of the Indian Ocean. It is located between the Arabian Peninsula
and India.
Red Sea - The Red Sea separates the Arabian Peninsula from Africa.
Strait of Hormuz - The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow body of water that connects the Persian Gulf with the
Gulf of Oman.
Suez Canal - The Suez Canal is in Egypt. It connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea.
Jordan River - The Jordan River starts in Syria and then flows through the Sea of Galilee in Israel to the
Dead Sea.
Tigris River - The Tigris River has its source in Turkey. It flows east through Iraq where it joins the
Euphrates River to form the Shatt-al-Arab, which then flows into the Persian Gulf.
Euphrates River - The Tigris River has its source in Turkey. It flows east through Iraq where it joins the
Tigris River to form the Shatt-al-Arab, which then flows into the Persian Gulf.
The Dead Sea - The Dead Sea is located between Israel and Jordan. Due to an inadequate supply of
water from the Jordan River, the Dead Sea is rapidly shrinking.
West Bank - The West Bank is an area on the west bank of the Jordan River.
Gaza Strip - The Gaza Strip is a coastal strip of land along the Mediterranean that borders Egypt.
Arabian Desert - The Arabian Desert covers most of the Arabian Peninsula
Africa, the world's second largest continent, has a varied geography. From the
Sahara Desert, which covers most of the northern part of the continent, to the rain
forests near the Equator, Africa's landforms have many contrasts.
Lakes and Rivers
Nile River—The Nile River is the longest river in the world. It flows north from Lake Victoria through
Uganda, Sudan, and Egypt into the Mediterranean Sea.
Congo River—The Congo River is the second longest river in Africa. Its source is in the eastern part of the
Democratic Republic of Congo, and it forms part of the border between the Democratic
Republic of Congo and Congo. It flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
Niger River—The Niger River flows through the western part of Africa. Its source is in Guinea, and it flows
through Mali, Niger, and Nigeria before emptying into the Gulf of Guinea, which is part of
the Atlantic Ocean.
Zambezi River—This river in southern Africa flows into the Mozambique Channel of the Indian Ocean. It
forms the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Victoria Falls, the largest waterfall in
Africa, is located on the Zambezi River.
Lake Victoria—Located in eastern Africa, Lake Victoria is the largest lake on the continent. Uganda,
Tanzania, and Kenya all border this lake.
Lake Tanganyika—Lake Tanganyika is the longest freshwater lake in the world. It is located between the
Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania in eastern Africa. Burundi and Zambia also
border this lake.
Mountains
Atlas Mountains—The Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in northwest Africa in the countries of
Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.
Drakensberg Mountains—The Drakensberg Mountains are found in the country of South Africa.
East African Mountains—The East African Mountains are a mountain range in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi. Mount Kilimanjaro, the
highest peak in Africa, is located in this range.
Other Physical Features
Sahara Desert—Covering most of northern Africa, the Sahara Desert is the largest desert in the world.
Kalahari Desert—The Kalahari Desert is located in southwest Africa in the countries of Botswana, South
Africa, and Namibia.
Sahel—Located at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert, the Sahel is an arid region made up of
grassland and savanna.
Savanna—A large part of Africa is made up of savannas. Savannas are areas in tropical or subtropical
regions covered with grasses and scattered trees. Africa has savannas in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
Tropic Rain Forest—To the south of the Sahel, much of western Africa near the Equator is covered by rain
forests.
Asia
Asia is the largest continent in the world. The Himalayas, the world's highest mountain system, are one of the
significant physical features found in Asia.
Indian Ocean - The Indian Ocean is located to the east of Africa, south of Asia, and west of
Australia.
Pacific Ocean - The world's largest ocean, the Pacific Ocean is located between Asia and North
America.
Bay of Bengal - Part of the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal is located between India and the
Malay Peninsula.
South China Sea - The South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. China, Vietnam, Malaysia, and
the Philippines border the South China Sea.
Yellow Sea - The Yellow Sea is located between China and the Korean Peninsula.
Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) - The Yangtze River is the longest river in Asia. It flows through China to the East
China Sea near Shanghai.
Yellow River (Huang He) - The Yellow River flows east through China to the Yellow Sea.
Sea of Japan - The Sea of Japan is part of the Pacific Ocean and separates Japan from mainland
China.
Honshu - Honshu is the largest of the islands that make up Japan. Tokyo is located on
Honshu.
Korean Peninsula - Bordered by the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan, the Korean Peninsula is where
North Korea and South Korea are located.
Bering Strait - The Bering Strait is located between the easternmost point of Asia, which is in
Russia, and the westernmost point of North America, which is in Alaska.
Himalayas - The Himalayas are the world's highest mountain range. Mount Everest, the
world's highest mountain is in this mountain range.
Indus River - The Indus River flows from China through India and Pakistan before it reaches
the Arabian Sea.
Ganges River - A sacred river in India, the Ganges starts in the Himalayas, flows through India,
and is joined by the Brahmaputra River before emptying into the Bay of Bengal
in Bangladesh.
Brahmaputra River - Also starting in the Himalayas, the Brahmaputra River flows through India to
Bangladesh where it joins the Ganges River.
Mekong River - The Mekong River forms much of the border between Laos and Thailand. It also
flows through Cambodia and Vietnam before flowing into the South China Sea.
Gobi Desert - The Gobi Desert is a large desert in Mongolia and northern China.
Monsoons - Monsoons are wind systems from the Indian Ocean, bringing rains to southern
and southeastern Asia during the summer and leaving the area dry during the
winter.
Europe
Europe is the world's second smallest continent. It is located north of Africa and west of Asia. Its various physical
features have contributed to its important influence with the rest of the world. One of the most important of these
features has been its coastal location. Europeans tended to settle by the sea, making it easier to be in contact with
other people.
Mediterranean Sea - The Mediterranean Sea is surrounded by Europe, Africa, and Asia. Spain, France, Italy,
and Greece are several of the European countries that are on the Mediterranean Sea.
Norwegian Sea - Located between Norway and Iceland, the Norwegian Sea is part of the Atlantic Ocean.
North Sea - The North Sea is located to the east of Great Britain and the west of Denmark. It is part
of the Atlantic Ocean.
Baltic Sea - The Baltic Sea is to the north of Poland and to the west of Estonia, Latvia, and
Lithuania.
Arctic Ocean - Located near the North Pole, the Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean in the world.
English Channel - The English Channel is in between Great Britain and France. It links the North Sea
with the Atlantic Ocean.
Strait of Gibraltar - The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow body of water in between Spain and Morocco. It
links the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean.
Volga River - The Volga River is the longest river in Europe. It flows through Russia to the Caspian
Sea.
Danube River - The source of the Danube is in the Alps. The Danube flows through central and eastern
Europe. It empties into the Black Sea in Romania.
Rhine River - The Rhine River also has its source in the Alps. It flows north through Germany and
the Netherlands to the North Sea.
Elbe River - The Elbe River starts in the Czech Republic. It then flows through Germany to the
North Sea.
Seine River - The Seine River starts in the Alps and flows west across France through Paris to the
English Channel.
Po River - The Po River is the longest river in Italy. Its source is in the Alps, and it flows west
across Italy to the Adriatic Sea.
Thames River - The Thames River flows east across Great Britain through London to the North Sea.
Alps - The Alps are a mountain range in central Europe. Mont Blanc is the highest mountain
in this range.
Pyrenees Mountains - The Pyrenees Mountains are a mountain range located on the border between France
and Spain.
Balkan Mountains - The Balkan Mountains stretch east from Serbia to Bulgaria.
Ural Mountains - Located in Russia, the Ural Mountains are considered to be the east-west divide of
Europe and Asia.
Iberian Peninsula - Located south of the Pyrenees Mountains, the countries of Spain and Portugal are on
the Iberian Peninsula.
Scandinavian Peninsula - The Scandinavian Peninsula contains the countries of Norway and Sweden. It borders
the Norwegian Sea and the Baltic Sea.
Europe's climate can vary depending on the location.
Southern Europe
Southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate because it is most affected by the Mediterranean Sea. Despite its
name, the Mediterranean climate can exist in other parts of the world, such as the west coast of the United States.
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe has a cold continental climate. Unlike western Europe, this part of the continent is too far from the
ocean to benefit from warm currents, so its climate is more affected by the region's northern latitude.
Western Europe
Western Europe has maritime and Mediterranean climates, keeping the region warmer than other areas at the same
latitude are. The North Atlantic Drift causes this favorable climate by bringing warm air and rain to western
Europe.
Latin America
Below is a political map showing the countries which are on the continent of South America.
Latin America is home to many different geographical features. It is made up of islands, mountains, rivers, and
rain forests. Air and oil pollution and deforestation threaten the natural resources. They also affect the quality of
health of the people. Below are some of the geographical features and environmental issues of Latin America and
the Caribbean.
Pollution in Latin America
Air pollution is a problem in both Mexico City, Mexico and Santiago, Chile. Both cities are located in areas
surrounded by mountains. The mountains affect the air currents. They keep the polluted air trapped above the
cities. In 2000, Mexico City had a population of over 18 million. This made it the second largest city in the world.
To combat the pollution, Mexico City has started a program called Hoy No Circula, or One Day Without a Car.
The program keeps certain cars from being driven on certain days based on the last number of a car's license plate.
The program also places restrictions on older cars. Many older cars do not have the same emissions requirements
that new cars have.
Oil is an important natural resource in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Mexico. The oil industry, however, often
causes environmental changes in a region. In Venezuela, for example, oil fields are located around Lake
Maracaibo. It is the largest lake in South America. The lake has suffered from oil spills and pollution. Oil wells
have caused most of the damage to the lake. Today, the lake has sunk due to the amount of oil that has been
removed.
Problems in the Amazon
The Amazon River Basin is home to the rain forest. It has the greatest biodiversity in the entire world. The
Amazon, however, has been greatly affected by deforestation. People have cut down trees to use for building
materials. The land has been cleared to raise livestock and grow crops. The result of deforestation is that much of
the rain forest has been destroyed. It has left many animals and plants without a home.
In 2006, the governor of the state of Pará in Brazil signed a law. It established protected areas in the Amazon.
The areas are the world's largest conservation area. They are also about the size of England. Unsustainable logging
(cutting down trees without replanting anything) and slash-and-burn agriculture are banned. Access to other parts
of the rain forest that can be hurt by human interaction has been restricted. Only native people and scientific
researchers can enter those areas. The government hopes to effectively manage the natural resources of the
Amazon and protect endangered species.
In December 2007, Eduardo Braga, the governor of Amazonas, Brazil, signed the Forests Now Declaration to
help preserve tropical forests. In an effort to slow down global warming, the plan requests imbursement for the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions due to deforestation and for the protection of existing forest areas. Actions
taken to reduce the loss of trees in the Amazon will help to moderate climate change caused by deforestation.
The Caribbean
The Caribbean is a group of island nations, including Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic. These
countries have very little land. Most farmland is used for the major crops of these islands. Some of the crops
include tobacco, sugarcane, and coffee. These small countries also trade with other, larger nations. Some of the
common trading countries include the United States, Mexico, Venezuela, and Canada. These countries also trade
with each other for various goods.
Other Important Geographical Locations
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Rio de la Plata- the second largest river system in South America.
It is located between Uruguay and Argentina. The river is very important to southeastern South America. It
is the primary channel for that region of South America. It also helps trade in the area.
Mexican Plateau- a plateau that covers much of north-central Mexico.
This feature lies between two mountain ranges, Sierra Madre Oriental to the east and Sierra Madre
Occidental to the west.
Andes Mountains- a mountain system in western South America.
It runs mostly parallel to the Pacific Ocean. The Andes go through seven South American countries (from
north to south)—Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The Inca empire was
located near and in the Andes in Peru.
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Amazon River- the largest river in the world in terms of the volume of the river flow.
It begins on the eastern side of the Andes Mountains and stretches about 4,000 miles toward the Atlantic
Ocean.
Paraná River- the 13th-longest river in the world.
Flowing over 2,000 miles across southeastern South America, it has the second largest drainage system on
the continent. Flooding is common through the river's southern region.
Orinoco River- a river that flows northward through Venezuela, and the Paraná River flows through
Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina.
The Orinoco and its tributaries are a major transportation route for parts of Venezuela and the llanos of
Colombia.
South American Climate
Rio de Janeiro is located on the east coast of Brazil. The moisture from the Atlantic Ocean creates a tropical,
humid climate for the city. However, not all parts of South America have a tropical climate. The northern part of
Chile houses the Atacama Desert, which is located in the Andes Mountains. This is one of the driest regions on
Earth. The western slopes of the Andes Mountains do not receive moisture from the east, causing the land and air
to be drier. View the map below to see what types of climates are found in South America.
Population Distribution
More people settle in areas near bodies of water for several reasons. Humans, as well as plants and animals,
need water to survive. Typically, where there is water, you will find food. Finding fish in the desert would be more
difficult than finding fish along the coast. Water is also used for waste disposal, although not necessarily a sanitary
solution. Also, water allows for goods to be transported by boat, which expands commerce.
Most of South America is in the Southern Hemisphere. It is located between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The
Amazon River and the Andes Mountains are two of the notable physical features found on this continent.
Amazon River - Starting in the Andes Mountains in Peru, the Amazon River flows east across South America
through Brazil to the Atlantic Ocean. The world's largest tropical rain forest is located in the
Amazon River Basin.
Andes Mountains - The Andes Mountains are the longest mountain range in South America. Located in the
western part of the continent, the mountains extend through the countries of Colombia,
Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.
Atacama Desert - The Atacama Desert is located between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains in
northern Chile. It is the driest part of South America.
Río de la Plata - Located between Argentina and Uruguay, the Río de la Plata is an estuary formed by the
Uruguay and Paraná rivers.
Patagonia - Patagonia is a region in southern Chile and southern Argentina between the Andes Mountains
and the Atlantic Ocean. It is made up of dry plains and plateaus.
Panama Canal - Located on the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
North America
North America extends from the Arctic Circle to the Tropics. It is located entirely within the Northern
Hemisphere, and it is located between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Rocky Mountains - The Rocky Mountains, located in the western part of North America, extend from
Alaska, through Canada to the southern part of the United States.
Appalachian Mountains - The Appalachian Mountains are located in the eastern part of North America. They
extend from Alabama to Quebec.
Sierra Madre Mountains - The Sierra Madre Mountains are made up of three mountain ranges in Mexico. The
ranges are the Sierra Madre Oriental in the eastern part of Mexico, the Sierra Madre
Occidental in the western part of Mexico, and the Sierra Madre del Sur in the southern
part of Mexico.
Gulf of Mexico - Part of the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico is bordered by the United States,
Mexico, and Cuba.
Caribbean Sea - Located to the north of South America and to the east of Central America, the
Caribbean Sea is part of the Atlantic Ocean and contains the islands of the West
Indies.
Great Lakes - Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, and Michigan are the five lakes that are called the
Great Lakes. All of the lakes except Michigan serve as the border between the United
States and Canada.
Gulf of Alaska - The Gulf of Alaska is located off of the southern coast of Alaska in the northern
Pacific Ocean.
Hudson Bay - Located in northern Canada, the Hudson Bay is a large inland sea. The Hudson Strait
connects the Hudson Bay to the Atlantic Ocean.
St. Lawrence River - The St. Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean. It also serves as
the border between Ontario and New York.
Oceania
Oceania refers to the region in the Pacific Ocean that includes Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and the island
groups of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.
Antarctica
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Coldest climate on Earth
The South Pole is located here
No permanent population
Very little vegetation and animal life
Australia
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Largest land mass in Oceania
Great tourist attraction, partly due to the Great Barrier Reef
Weather from ocean currents influences the weather
New Zealand
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Made up of two large islands and numerous small islands
Geographically isolated from other countries
Both a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy
Oceania is divided into the sub-regions of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia
Melanesia - Melanesia is a group of islands northeast of Australia. Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Papua New
Guinea, and Fiji are in this region.
Micronesia - Micronesia is a group of islands north of Melanesia. The Federated States of Micronesia, Guam,
and Palau are located in this region.
Polynesia - Polynesia is a group of islands in the South Pacific. Tonga, Samoa, and Tahiti are located in this
region.
Australia is the world's smallest continent. It is located between the Indian
Ocean and the Pacific Ocean in the Southern Hemisphere.
Great Barrier Reef - The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef. It is located off of the northeast
coast of Australia in the Coral Sea.
Great Sandy Desert - The Great Sandy Desert is located in northwestern Australia.
Great Victoria Desert - The Great Victoria Desert is located in southern Australia.
Coral Sea - The Coral Sea is located to the northeast of Australia. It is part of the Pacific Ocean.
Tasman Sea - The Tasman Sea is in between Australia and New Zealand. It is part of the Pacific Ocean.
Renaissance and Reformation
The Renaissance was a time period after the Middle Ages that emphasized learning, culture, the arts, and
exploration in all fields. It began in Florence, Italy, and quickly spread throughout Europe.
The Start of the Renaissance
The Renaissance began in the Italian city-state of Florence in the 15th century, when people had a renewed
interest in the classical culture of Greece and Rome. This mostly presented itself in the revival of sculpture and
paintings, which used the Roman style to paint biblical scenes. It coincided with an economic boom that allowed
the upper class the ability to finance works of art and scholarship.
Changes in Learning
The Renaissance was a time of reconnection with classical culture, an interest in knowledge and experimenting,
and the importance of living well in the present. Renaissance humanism, a movement that focused on human
potential and place in mankind, came into being. It valued the witnesses of reason and sense in reaching the truth
over the Christian values of humility and passivity. People began to look for a way to balance religion and their
faith with philosophy and Greek and Roman ideals. The individual was stressed over the community, as society
switched from a strictly religious culture to an educated, scientific, artistic culture. However, women were still
considered the legal the property of men. Neoplatonism is one example of a philosophy based on the teachings of
ancient philosophers that was blended with the ideas of the Catholic Church. Neoplatonism was a revival of the
ideas of Plato, and many Renaissance philosophers believed his ideas complimented teachings of the Catholic
Church.
Exploration
Exploration was encouraged during the Renaissance, as many explorers searched for the Silk Roads and other
ways to reach China and southeast Asia again. Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk
Road again back to China. He documented his travels in a journal and was followed by many Christian
missionaries. He traveled back and forth many times, and began to trade goods like silk and spices. The re-opening
of the Silk Road brought inventions like gunpowder, the compass, printing, and the manufacture of paper.
Spread of Information
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Paper: the manufacture of paper using wood pulp was first brought to Italy in the 13th century from China.
It was an easier way to manufacture paper and allowed printers to use paper in the printing press more
often.
The Bible: during the Renaissance, the Bible was printed in languages other than Latin for the first time.
This allowed common people to own and read a Bible printed in their own language, instead of only the
nobility owning and reading Bibles written in Latin.
Printing Press: invented by Johann Gutenberg in the 1450s, the press allowed printers to create several
copies of books and other printed works without having to copy them by hand. Information was much more
easily spread and less expensive.
During the Renaissance, there were many advances in the fields of literature, the arts, science, mathematics,
astronomy, engineering, cartography, and human anatomy. Several of these pioneers include Dante Alighieri,
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo di Buonarroti Simoni, and Johann Gutenberg.
Dante Alighieri
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Italian poet
most famous work, The Divine Comedy, known as greatest literary statement in Europe in the Middle Ages
and basis of modern Italian language
Leonardo da Vinci
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Italian architect, anatomist, sculptor, engineer, inventor, musician, and painter
considered to be the best example of the "Renaissance Man" due to his extraordinary achievements and
diverse talents
recorded ideas and inventions in his notebooks
studied the anatomy of the human body by dissecting male and female corpses of different ages and
drawing what he saw
designed many objects ahead of his time including the helicopter, tank, calculator, use of solar power
famous works: Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, Vitruvian Man
Vitruvian Man depicts a male body in two positions and shows the blending of both science and art
Michelangelo di Buonarroti Simoni
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Italian artist, sculptor, architect, and poet
very arrogant and often unsatisfied with his own work, left many works undone
most famous work is the Sistine Chapel ceiling, which took four years to complete (1508-1512)
other famous works: The Last Judgment, sculpture of David, La Pietà, the dome of St. Peter's Basilica
Botticelli
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Italian painter who lived in Florence
famous works include: The Birth of Venus, Primavera, and the Adoration of the Magi
Niccolò Machiavelli
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Italian writer and political philosopher who lived in Florence
famous work: The Prince in which he commented on the political environment in Florence and argued that
a ruler should do whatever is necessary in order to maintain control of the state
Johann Gutenberg
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German metalworker and inventor
famous invention: the printing press, movable type that allows faster printing
The Reformation was a movement during the 16th century that tried to reform the Roman Catholic Church.
Martin Luther was a major figure in starting the Reformation by writing 95 Theses and posting them on the door of
a church. It led to the establishment of Protestant religions in Western Europe.
Trouble in the Catholic Church
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Tax policies: the Catholic Church collected taxes from subjects and sent a large portion of those revenues
to the Pope in Italy. Churches did not pay taxes to the nation that the church was in, frustrating monarchs.
Indulgences: an indulgence is the forgiveness of the punishment a person owes to God for committing a
sin. During the Middle Ages, a person could earn indulgences from the Catholic Church by giving money
to it. This helped the Church earn more money, but some people saw this as "buying" one's way into
heaven.
Reformation Figures
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Martin Luther: primary figure in the Reformation. He printed and posted 95 Theses on the door of a
Catholic church. The Theses challenged the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and sparked a debate
that led to the development of the Protestants.
Desiderius Erasmus: a Dutch philosopher and theologian who influenced Martin Luther. He was a Roman
Catholic who believed that faith in the atonement of Christ was the only guarantee of eternal life, instead of
in the sacraments and rituals of the church.
John Calvin: French theologian and namesake of Calvinism. Taught that people are all at the mercy of god
and that God accomplishes the salvation of sinners through their obedience of faith.
William Tyndale: English scholar who translated the Bible into the English of his day. It was the first
translation to be made from the original Hebrew and Greek, and was the first translation to take advantage
of print. He was also a chief promoter of the Reformation in England.
Protestantism Spreads throughout Europe
Martin Luther and his followers believed that the Pope had too much authority. The recent invention of the
printing press helped Luther spread his message across Europe. The division of the Catholic church was one result;
another was the idea that faith was individual to each person. This idea of individualism spread from religion into
other aspects of society, like economics, politics, and societal relations. European nations became Protestant with
the government as the authority in the land, and the church subordinate to civil authority. This idea allowed the
church its own form of governing, usually as a group of church officials, but required the church to follow
government rules and laws.
English Reformation The English Reformation began after the pope denied Henry VIII's request for an annulment
of his first marriage. Angered by the pope's decision, Henry VIII decided to pull England away from the Catholic
Church to form the Church of England. Henry VIII's second daughter Elizabeth I eventually acquired the throne
and helped to further establish the Protestant religion in England and to break ties with the Catholic Church.
Europe's Split:
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Catholic: Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Poland and parts of France remained Catholic countries after the
Reformation.
Protestant: Germany, England, Switzerland, Scotland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark became Protestant
countries.
After the Reformation, the Catholics launched a Counter-Reformation. Catholic missionaries were sent to the
Americas and Asia to convert indigenous cultures. In Spain, Muslim and Jewish cultures promoted creativity and
invention in the arts and sciences until the Spanish Inquisition forced the Jews out of Spain.
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church to stop the spread of
Protestantism. The first step in this direction was the Council of Trent. The Council of Trent was a commission of
cardinals who dealt with institutional reform. They addressed issues like corrupt bishops and priests, indulgences,
and financial abuses by the Catholic Church. The Council tightened the organization of religious institutions,
improved the discipline, and emphasized the parish in their reform.
Another change in the Catholic church was the start of new religious orders. The Jesuits, founded by Spaniard
Ignatius of Loyola, were the most effective. The Jesuits organized their order along military lines, showing careful
selection, hard training, and iron discipline. They took strong monastic vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty
that set an example that improved the effectiveness of the Catholic Church. They strongly participated in the
expansion of the church into the Americas and Asia, as exploration increased. Ignatius of Loyola was later named
a saint.
Christian Missionaries
As exploration increased, the Roman Catholic Church began to send missionaries with the explorers.
Missionaries are people who represent a religious community and work with those outside that community. The
missionaries that went to the New World and Asia were to convert the natives to Catholicism. The missionaries set
up a mission for the natives to come into and learn about the Bible and the Catholic faith. The natives learned to
read and write, as well as a trade or craft to help bring them into the missionaries' society. Some of the natives
converted, while others took aspects of Catholicism and brought it to their own indigenous religions. Sometimes
settlers would form their colonies around the mission for protection, as well as a familiar place of worship in a new
world.
Religious Diversity in Spain
In Medieval Spain, Jewish and Muslim culture existed side by side. At the height of this cooperation, creativity
was encouraged in literature, art, architecture, and science. Mosques, palaces, and other architectural monuments
have Arabic influences, as does painting and sculpture. Arab Muslims brought their irrigation practices to Spain, as
well as their knowledge of math and science. They also helped to revive the Greek philosophy in all of Europe.
Most of the population used Arabic for speaking and writing, giving Spain a rich and diverse culture. This culture
was threatened, as Catholic monarchs took over in Spain and forced conversions of their subjects.
In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella founded the Spanish Inquisition to suppress heresies within the Catholic
church. The Inquisition was a court operated by Church authorities as a way to identify and punish the Catholic
"converts" who had remained loyal to Islam and Judaism in secret. Those who were discovered were released to
government authorities, who tortured the heretics. Torture included public humiliation, burning at the stake, and
other often deadly penalties. In 1492, the Inquisition required the expulsion of all Jews from Spain. It forced Jews
to leave Spain, taking property only if it was not in gold, silver, or money. Thousands of Jews died during the
expulsion, and many fled to Turkey and North Africa. Others went to other Christian countries, including Rome,
where the Pope provided protection.
Discovery and Expansion
The Age of Exploration was a time of discovery of new lands, innovations in cartography and trade, and the
exchange of cultures and ideas from distant lands.
Voyages and Their Influence
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Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer and trader, he crossed the Atlantic Ocean and reached the
Americas in 1492 and claimed the land in the name of Spain. His voyage marked the beginning of
European exploration and the colonization of the Americas.
Vasco da Gama: Portuguese explorer, and one of the most successful explorers of his time, he was the first
person to sail directly from Europe to India by going around Africa. It was the first sea route that would
allow trade with the Far East without the Silk Road caravan routes.
John Cabot: Italian navigator and explorer, he is known as the first European to land on North American
mainland since the Vikings. He was looking for the Northwest Passage to Asia on behalf of England.
Juan Ponce de León: Spanish conquistador, he accompanied Columbus on his second voyage to the New
World and became the first governor of Puerto Rico. He was also the first European to have visited what is
now the U.S. by landing in Florida in 1513.
Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer, he led the first successful attempt to circumnavigate, or travel
all the way around, the globe. He did not complete his journey because he was killed in the Philippines. 18
members of his crew completed the circumnavigation. Magellan was also the first person to lead an
expedition sailing west from Europe to Asia and the first to cross the Pacific Ocean.
Improvements in Navigation: Cartography, or the plotting of lands on a map, became more important as
more lands were discovered. Accurate maps were needed to lay claim to an area and defend it from other
explorers and countries. The mariner's astrolabe was developed, and it allowed navigators to more precisely
determine their location. Sailors used the astrolabe to determine the latitude of a ship by measuring the
position of the sun.
The Columbian Exchange
The term "Columbian Exchange" is used to describe the exchange of crops, animals, people, diseases, and
technology which occurred after Columbus' discovery of the New World. As a result of the contact between the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres, people in both places were introduced to a variety of things. Europeans brought
to the New World horses, which gave the Native Americans a new form of transportation, and disease, which
nearly wiped out certain native communities which had no immunity to the diseases. Crops from the Western
Hemisphere such as potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco had previously been unknown to the Europeans. People began
planting potatoes and tomatoes in Europe, which contributed to an increase in food production in Europe. The
arrival of the Europeans also had a great impact on the people living in the Americas. Europeans spread
Christianity throughout North and South America.
Changing Economy
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Commercial Revolution: a period of European economic expansion, which lasted from approximately the
sixteenth century until the early eighteenth century. As the Crusades brought more Europeans in contact
with silk, spices, and other goods rare in Europe, the desire for trade and further exploration increased. As
European nations discovered new lands, they established overseas colonies and found new trade routes.
This contributed to an increase in trade and an increase in the wealth of European nations. There were also
many changes in the way business was conducted. Joint-stock companies were established in which
companies sold shares to investors who would earn money if the companies were profitable.
Colonialism: a system in which one country extends its control over foreign dependencies, especially for
economic benefit. After Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492, European countries such as Spain,
France, Portugal, England, and the Netherlands began establishing colonies in North and South America,
Africa, and Asia. As European nations established colonies around the world, they had new sources of raw
materials and other resources that could be exported back to Europe. Raw materials sent to Europe were
then used to make manufactured goods.
Mercantilism: the idea that the wealth of a nation depends on its supply of capital, or financial wealth, and
the global volume of trade does not change. This became more important as the New World was
discovered, because there was a limited amount of gold, silver, and other demanded goods there.
Imperialism: a policy used by countries in order to gain social, political, and economic control over
foreign territories.
Capitalism and Market Economies : Capitalism describes an economy in which the means of production
are usually privately owned and operated for profit through employed labor. An important aspect of
capitalist economies is the idea of a free market. A market economy is a system in which prices of goods
and services are set by competition and the rules of supply and demand. A true free market has very little
government regulation of production and distribution. Market economies became more important as trade
increased because the price of goods could be set based on competition in the market rather than being
controlled by the government. The economic changes that took place in Europe from the 16th century until
the early 18th century led to the growth of capitalism and market economies. Capitalism started to appear in
the Netherlands to finance building large ships and to make trade more extensive.
Reasons for European Exploration
In the late 1400s, the early explorers sailed to look for new routes to find gold, silver, spices, and silk. While at sea,
they would find both new trade routes to Asia and new places to claim for their countries. European explorers
wanted to claim the lands they found so that their home countries would have more power and more money. Some
of the places they discovered were Greenland, Vinland, Iceland, and the Americas.
In 1492, supported by Isabella of Castile, Queen of Spain, Italian explorer Christopher Columbus embarked on an
expedition to find a western route to India. In the course of this journey, and others in 1493, 1498, and 1502,
Columbus explored the West Indies and Central America.
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI signed the bulla Inter caetera, in which the crowns of Spain and Portugal were given
ownership of the New World.
In 1602, The Dutch chartered the Dutch East India Company to control trade with Asia and Africa.
In 1606, King James I of England granted a charter to a group of London businessmen, the Virginia Company, to
establish an English settlement in the Chesapeake region of North America. In 1607, the Virginia Company started
the Jamestown colony, the first permanent settlement in the English colonies.
In 1619, a Dutch ship brought the first Africans to Jamestown as indentured servants. In the following years, many
more Africans were brought to the English colonies as slaves to work on plantations.
In 1620, because of religious differences, a group of people left England to come to North America. After crossing
the Atlantic Ocean on the Mayflower, they founded a colony at Plymouth, thus beginning the occupation and
colonization of New England.
Age of Revolution and Rebellions
Political revolutions and the rise of nationalism have been taking place throughout the world for centuries. Major
figures, such as Napoleon, contributed to these changes.
The Glorious Revolution—The English "Glorious Revolution" took place after the English Civil War and after a
king had been restored to the throne. The English feared that King James II was trying to bring absolute monarchy
and Catholicism to England, so they invited the Dutch leaders William of Orange and Mary to invade England and
become the new monarchs. Before William and Mary took the throne, they had to sign the English Bill of Rights,
which took away many powers of the monarchy.
The American Revolution—The American Revolution involved the thirteen colonies becoming the United States
of America and gaining independence from the British Empire. The American Revolution was the first time in
which a European colony gained its independence.
The French Revolution—The French overthrew their monarchy and established a republic. However, success did
not follow. The French created a Reign of Terror in which enemies of the political regime were executed, and
turmoil lasted for years to come.
The Haitian Revolution—The Haitian Revolution was a slave rebellion against the island's white leadership. Haiti
was a French colony in 1789, when the French Revolution occurred. France's revolutionary government wrote the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, claiming that all men were free and equal, and this inspired the
black Haitians to fight for their freedom. Only later, when Napoleon's government tried to retake Haiti, did the
Haitians fight against France directly.
Latin American Revolutions—In 1808, during the course of the Napoleonic Wars, France invaded Spain and
kidnapped the Spanish royal family. This caused a period of chaos in Spain and throughout the Spanish Empire,
and revolutions began in most of Spain's American colonies. Leaders like Miguel Hidalgo of Mexico and Simón
Bolívar of South America fought to bring independence to their countries.
The Chinese Revolution—The year 1911 brought the collapse of the Qing Dynasty and the rise of the Republic of
China. The Chinese Revolution created a weak, divided government that could not control its entire country.
Napoleon
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The Louisiana Purchase is just one example of how the Napoleonic Wars changed the geography of the
world. The Louisiana territory was under Spanish control before the Napoleonic Wars; it was given to
France in 1800 after the invasion of Spain. In 1803, Napoleon realized that he could not defend Louisiana
from a British invasion, so he sold it to the United States.
Napoleon's military victories against the European monarchies gained him popularity in France. In 1799,
Napoleon led a coup d'état, which means he overthrew the French Republic. He established the Empire of
France in 1804, crowning himself emperor.
The invasion of Russia is generally considered his largest failure. In 1807, Napoleon forced Russia to sign a
treaty against trading with Britain. When Russia refused to continue this treaty in 1812, France invaded.
French soldiers suffered from freezing, starvation, and Russian attacks during the invasion. The Russians
burned their own cities instead of allowing the French to control them, and Napoleon was forced to end the
invasion.
Nationalism
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Nationalism is devotion and pride in one's country. In some cases, nationalism can be excessive and place
the nation's goals over the needs of its people.
The Napoleonic Wars strengthened the sense of nationalism in Italy and Germany though neither of the
regions was a country at the time. For centuries, areas that are now Italy and Germany once were several
tiny countries. As Italian nationalism grew, its main focus was to unite every Italian state into a single
nation with the help of the Prime Minister of Sardinia, Camillo Cavour. German nationalism also spread
and by 1862, Otto von Bismarck was elected prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck later became the first
Chancellor of the German Empire when the independent German states (including Prussia) unified in 1871.
After a series of wars, Italy became a nation in 1861; Germany became a nation in 1871 after its own series
of wars.
In eastern Asian nations such as Japan and China, nationalism was most related to making a country
modern and strong. After the United States forced Japan to sign an unequal treaty, the Japanese decided
that they would need to modernize and industrialize their nation if it was to be powerful. They began this
process in 1867, replacing the feudal shogun with an emperor and a constitutional government.
World Societies Between WWI and WWII
Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution resulted from a chain of economic and social disturbances in the early 1900s. The
revolution led to the establishment of government control under the Bolshevik party and to the founding of the
Soviet Union (the U.S.S.R.) in 1922. The Soviet Union lasted until its eventual fall in 1991.
The Russian Revolution
Czar Nicholas II Steps Down from the Throne (1917)
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Russians felt that their involvement in World War I was draining the country's resources and causing
inflation. The people then protested Nicholas II's leadership regarding Russia's involvement in World War
I.
The Bolsheviks
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The Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government that was set up after Czar Nicholas II abdicated his
position and set up a socialist government to replace it.
Vladimir Lenin led the group, whose political beliefs were strongly influenced by Karl Marx. Marx was a
19th century German philosopher who tried to end class divisions.
Five Year Plan
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Introduced in 1928, the Five Year Plan was meant to spur rapid industrialization in the Soviet Union and
implement government control of agricultural and industrial production.
Great Purge of the 1930s
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The Great Purge, also known as the Great Terror, occurred when thousands of Soviets who were believed
to be threats to Stalin were arrested and executed.
Fascism was a 20th-century form of dictatorship. It tried to create a successful society by giving the dictator strict
control of everything, including individual lives. It flourished between 1919 and 1945 in several countries such as
Italy and Germany.
Fascism Leading to World War II
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Fascism is a political philosophy in which total power is given to a dictator and individual freedoms are
denied.
People who opposed the dictator were jailed or killed.
Some people felt that a stronger government could improve the weakened economies during the Great
Depression. Fascist and communist movements promised to improve the economy of their countries. This
was appealing to many people.
The Nazi Party was allowed to come to power in Germany because many people believed they would be
good for the country. These people felt Germany had been mistreated by the Treaty of Versailles which
ended World War I. These same people also believed that Germany did not actually lose World War I, but
were betrayed by Jews and politicians.
Like absolutist states of the past such as the 18th-century Kingdom of France, the Nazi regime exercised
complete control over its country's activities.
Imperialism means trying to control other countries and take them over, in order to make one’s own country more
powerful.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, China suffered under imperialism from many different foreign
nations. Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and others fought against the Qing Empire (China’s
government), forcing it to give up land and to sign trade agreements that benefited the foreign empires.
The Western empires and Japan wanted to control China’s valuable resources. The Chinese people blamed their
own government for allowing foreign influence to destroy their country; there were revolutions and civil wars
against both the Qing leadership and the foreign powers.
China's Interwar Years
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The Qing Dynasty fell in 1912, and it was replaced by the Republic of China. This new government did not
have total control of the country, though.
The May Fourth Movement of 1919 was a response to China's neglect in the Versailles Treaty ending
World War I, and it caused a growth in Chinese nationalism and communism.
In 1927, the Chinese Civil War began between China's Nationalists and Communists, both of which had
dictatorship governments.
The Japanese Empire
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Unlike Germany and Italy, the Japanese Empire did not become a fascist dictatorship in the 20th century; it
remained imperialistic.
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Japan's military felt it had not benefited much from winning World War I.
The military gradually gained more influence over Japan between the wars, overshadowing the nation's
democratic government.
The Japanese army occupied Manchuria (northern China) in 1931, and it began invading the rest of China
in 1936.
Political and economic conditions in Europe following World War I led to the rise of fascism and to World War
II, which took place between 1939 and 1945. In fact, many people see World War II as a continuation of World
War I. Below is a list of causes for World War II.
Re-armament of Germany
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When Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, he immediately began to re-arm Germany, a blatant violation of
the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
On March 7, 1936, Hitler further violated the treaty by sending the German Army into the Rhineland.
According to the treaty, the Rhineland was to remain a de-militarized zone.
Invasion of Ethiopia (1935)
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Benito Mussolini ordered the Italian invasion of Ethiopia.
Ethiopia's military technology was no match for Italy, allowing Italy to conquer Ethiopia in 1936.
Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
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It was fought between democratic Republicans and fascist Nationalists.
Italy and Germany sent soldiers and weapons to help the Nationalists. This allowed the two countries to test
their soldiers and weapons in battle prior to World War II.
The Soviet Union and international volunteers gave aid to the Republicans.
The Nationalists eventually won.
Rape of Nanjing (1937)
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Japan attacked the Chinese city of Nanjing and killed not only Chinese soldiers, but also civilian men,
women, and children.
This incident resulted in increased tensions between Japan and the United States.
Munich Agreement (September 30, 1938)
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Czechoslovakia did not take part in the negotiations.
Representatives from Britain, France, and Italy met with Hitler in the city of Munich. They agreed
Germany could annex the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia.
Six months later, Hitler invaded and took over the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (August 24, 1939)
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Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union agreed that neither country would attack the other. Both countries also
pledged to remain neutral in the case that they were attacked by a third party.
According to the agreement, the countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were to be awarded to the
Soviets. Germany, on the other hand, would be allowed to conquer the rest of Eastern Europe without
Soviet interference.
Germany invaded Poland on Sept 1, 1939, one week after the pact was signed. Hitler felt confident that he
had secured his eastern border and attacked without fear of Soviet interference.
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On June 22, 1941, Germany violated the terms of the pact and attacked the Soviet Union in Operation
Barbarossa.
Globalization in the Contemporary World
As countries of the world have become more interdependent, various governmental and non-governmental
organizations have played a role in the production, distribution, and consumption of natural resources.
United Nations (UN)
An international organization of nation-states based on the sovereign equality of its members. Members are
pledged to settle international disputes by peaceful means, to refrain from the threat or use of force, to assist the
UN in actions ordered under the charter, to refrain from assisting any country against which such UN action is
being taken, and to act according to the charter's principles. The UN developed the strategy of deploying
peacekeeping forces to separate antagonists, providing time and opportunity for negotiation, and to keep local
conflicts from spreading over an entire region.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed by the United States, Canada, and many western
Europe countries in 1949 as a response to the spread of communism through much of Eastern Europe. The
territorial demands of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and their support of guerrilla warfare in
Greece, as well as regional separatism in Iran seemed like a threat to world peace and stability to many world
leaders. The Berlin blockade that began in 1948 led to negotiations between the countries mentioned above and
resulted in the formation of NATO.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Founded in 1960, OPEC has twelve members—Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. In the late 1950s, the amount of oil produced
worldwide was greater than demand, causing the price of oil to drop. OPEC was formed in reaction to this drop in
income. In the 1970s, as oil supplies in non-OPEC countries were reduced, the organization raised the price of oil.
Another price-control tactic used by OPEC is to set production ceilings that specify how much oil may be
produced by each member country.
The European Union (EU)
The European Union was established on November 1, 1993, when the Maastricht Treaty, or Treaty on European
Union, was ratified by the 12 members of the European Community (EC; created in 1957)—Belgium, Denmark,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Upon
ratification of the treaty, the countries of the EC became members of the EU, and the EC became the policymaking body of the EU.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
The IMF is a specialized agency of the United Nations. The IMF oversees the national economies and interactions
of its member nations. In particular, the IMF follows the nations which influence the exchange rate, as well as the
balance of payments. Balance of payments refers to payments which flow from any individual country and all
other countries. The IMF also gives financial support to its members.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The World Trade Organization was created in 1995 as a way to supervise international trade. The WTO has the
authority to negotiate and enforce free trade agreements, oversee world trade practices, and settle trade disputes
among members.
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact was an organization of communist states created in 1955 in Warsaw, Poland, by the countries of
Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia), East Germany (now part of the united
Federal Republic of Germany), Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
The alliance was created in response to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which stood against the Soviet
Union and its allies. The ensuing conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact is known as the Cold War. The
Warsaw Pact is no longer in existence having been dissolved in 1991.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
NAFTA is a trade agreement between the United States, Mexico, and Canada that became effective in 1994. The
agreement states that tariffs are to be reduced or eliminated over the course of fifteen years. The industries affected
under NAFTA are vehicles, computers, textiles, and agriculture.
The Red Cross and the Red Crescent
The Red Cross and the Red Crescent are a non-profit humanitarian organizations that send supplies and volunteers
to communities in need all over the world. They usually send people to areas that have experienced natural
disasters or have been affected by war.
Terrorism is the use of violence to intimidate others. It is often used to promote political ideologies. Because
terrorism often hurts or kills innocent civilians, it is not tolerated in the United States. The United States has been
the victim of terrorism and has tried to find ways to stop terrorists before they strike.
September 11, 2001
The worst terrorist attack on American soil took place on September 11, 2001. Terrorists hijacked airplanes and
crashed them into the World Trade Center's twin towers in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The
U.S. lost about 3,000 people, and the World Trade Center's towers were completely destroyed.
The U.S. believed that a group called Al Qaeda was responsible. It was especially certain that Al Qaeda’s
billionaire leader, Osama bin Laden, had planned and organized the attacks. The U.S. thought bin Laden was
hiding in Afghanistan. When the U.S. asked the leaders in Afghanistan, the Taliban, to hand over bin Laden, they
refused to help. Then, the U.S. invaded Afghanistan and overthrew the Taliban.
Terrorism in the World
After the 9/11 attacks, the United States promised to fight terrorism. The U.S. became concerned about countries
with dangerous leaders. President George W. Bush named a group of these countries the "axis of evil." He named
Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as members because he believed they possessed weapons of mass destruction and
promoted acts of terrorism across the world.
The United States also invaded Afghanistan and uprooted the Taliban government. The Taliban was an Islamic
fundamentalist group that ruled Afghanistan for five years. They were known for denying human rights and
mistreating women.
Fighting Terrorism in the United States
After the terrorist attacks on American soil in 2001, the U.S. tried to find ways to prevent another attack.
Department of
Homeland Security
DHS is a Cabinet-level department created by President Bush in 2002 to prevent future
terrorist attacks. It has the authority to raise and lower the "threat level," which is a
color-coded representation of threats to the U.S.
Transportation
Security
Administration
TSA is a Department of Homeland Security agency that works to protect America’s
transportation systems. It is best known for its strict security screenings at airports.
Patriot Act
The Patriot Act is a set of laws that are meant to help law enforcement officers stop and
catch terrorists. They are given wide powers to conduct surveillance and to detain
suspects without charging them for a crime. Some groups like the ACLU believe this act
denies citizens of rights guaranteed in the Bill of Rights.
Operation Iraqi
Freedom
This military operation was an invasion of Iraq meant to overthrow the dictator Saddam
Hussein. It began in 2003 and is also known as the Second Gulf War. The U.S. believed
that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction. Colin Powell, the former Secretary of
State, told the UN about Iraq’s weapons and the need to stop Hussein from using them.
The operation is still ongoing with the goal of stabilizing the country’s political, social,
and economic structure.
The international community is a stage for both cooperation and conflict. Below are a few examples of ethnic
conflicts in different countries.
Nationalism Since the 1960s
Nationalistic Movements
Nationalism is the belief that a person's primary loyalty and duty is to his or her country. Movements such as
Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism have called for members of their ethnic groups to feel a greater loyalty to each
other than to their individual governments. Pan-Arabism seeks unity among the nations of North Africa and the
Middle East, who are predominantly Arab. Pan-Africanism seeks unity among both the nations of Africa and
among black people living in other parts of the world.
Genocide and War
Genocide occurs when one ethnic group attempts to kill off members of another ethnic group. In recent years,
two cases of war incorporating genocide have been fought in both Rwanda and in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The two
main ethnic groups in Rwanda are the Hutu and the Tutsi. In 1994, tensions between the two ethnic groups led to
the killing of between 500,000 and one million people by the Hutus. Most of the people killed were Tutsis.
In 1991, Muslims and ethnic Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina voted to become independent of
Yugoslavia, which was controlled by Serbs. Ethnic Serbs living in Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to remain
under the control of the Serbs and began fighting against the other ethnic groups, resulting in a civil war that took
place from 1992 to 1995. The war was ended at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio in
November 1995 when an agreement was reached in the Dayton Peace Accords. The agreement divided the country
into a Muslim-Croat region and a Serbian region.