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Cognition
Cognition can be defined as the intellectual processes ( such as perception, memory,
consciousness, learning, emotions, thinking, and language ) through which
information is obtained, stored, retrieved, and used.
This definition has three primary features;
1-Cognition processes information. Information is the stuff of cognition: the stuff
is obtained, transformed, kept, and used. Much of this information is dealt with
in the form of categories or concepts.
2-Cognition is active. The information that the world gives us is actively changed,
kept, and used in process of cognition. In cognition, information is:
a- Obtained through the senses.
b- Transformed through the interpretive processes of perception and
thinking.
c- Stored and retrieved through the processes of memory.
d- Used in problem solving and language.
3-Cognition is useful. It serves a purpose. We think because there is something
we do not understand. We use language when we need to communicate something to
others. We create when we need something that does not exist. Humans use
cognition to survive physically and to live in a social world.
Thinking:
It may be defined as the mental processes of problem solving using concepts.
Concepts: They are the basic units of thinking. Concepts are general categories of
things, events, and qualities that are linked by a common feature or features, in
spite of their differences. According to complexity the are divided in to the following
types;
1- Simple concept: It is based on a single common feature, such as the concept
red. If a thing is red, it belongs the concept red regardless of its other
characteristics. e.g. red apple, red balls, and red T- shirt. In spite of the other
ways in which these objects differ.
2- Conjunctive concepts: Are defined by the simultaneous presence of two or
more common characteristics. e.g the concept of aunt as a female and a sister
of one of the parents,
3- Disjunctive concepts: are defined by the presence of one common
characteristic or another one, or both e.g. the concepts delusions or
hallucinations or both, can define the concept schizophrenic person.
Natural concepts:
The have two primary characteristics,
a- Being basic; In that it has a medium degree of inclusiveness. Which refers to
the number of members included in the concept. It is of three levels;
1- superordinate concepts- are very inclusive- e.g. vehicles.
2- Basic concepts are of medium degree of inclusiveness e.g. cars.
3- Subordinate concepts are the least inclusive level of concepts .e.g. sports
car
b- Being good prototype: They represent good examples, or category or a
prototype. e.g. a sofa or a chair is a good prototype of a furniture but not a
carpet. i.e. a good representative.
Problem Solving:
It is the cognitive process through which information is used to reach a goal that is
blocked by some obstacle.
Cognitive Operations in Problem Solving:
There are three major types of cognitive operations involved in problem
solving that apparently must be performed in sequence.
A- Formulating the problem;
Before we begin to solve the problem, we must be able to define it. We have to
perceive and formulate the problem to decide what kind of problem we face.
Sometimes the problem is obvious, other times it is not clear
B- Understanding and Organizing the Elements of the Problem;
After formulating the problem, we must make an inventory of the elements of the
problem- the information and other resources available to us. Often effective
problem solving requires that we flexibly interpret the meaning and utility of these
elements. The limitations most of us experience in evaluating the elements of
problems is that we get stuck in mental sets. This term refers to the habitual way of
approaching or perceiving a problem. Because the problems often require a novel
or flexible use of their elements, a habitual way of looking at the elements of a
problem can interfere with finding solution.
C-Generating and Evaluating Alternative Solutions;
Very often a problem has more than one solution. Our task is to generate a list of
possible solutions, evaluate each one by attempting to foresee what effects or
consequences it would produce, choose the best solution, and then develop an
effective way of implementing it.
Cognitive Strategies in Problem Solving:
The cognitive strategies used to carry out the steps in the problem –solving
operations described above can be of three general types;
1- Trial- and-error approach;
In this approach we approach problems without any cognitive strategy at all,
simply trying one possible solution after another. Although common, this
approach to problem solving can be very time consuming and certainly does
not guarantee that a solution will be discovered.
2- Algorithms;
These are systematic patterns that (if followed) guarantee a correct solution.
Computers generally use algorithms. Indeed, computers are especially suited
for them, because they can quickly consider the many alternatives required
by complex algorithms. Computers do not always use algorithms.
3-Heuristic Thinking;
For extremely complex problems, computers sometimes programmed to use
shortcuts known as heuristics. Heuristics are strategies that increase the
probabilities of finding a correct solution. But because they do not systemically
evaluate every possible solution, heuristics, do not guarantee finding the correct one.
Indeed, they often lead to poor solutions.
Kahneman and Tversy- 1982, identified two heuristic that are frequently used in
human problem solving;
a-The Representativeness Heuristic:
It is the strategy of making judgment about the unknown on the
assumption that it is similar to what we know, e.g. in making judgments on
the fitness of someone for a certain job we tend to make the judgments in
such situations on the basis of similarity to our stereotypes about people in
different occupations.
b-The Availability Heuristic:
It is reasoning on the basis of the information that is available in memory, e.g. if a
relative, a graduate of a secondary school, asked you to help her choose a college,
you would probably suggest the college that seems best for her from the ones
available in your memory rather than inquiring or reading a book describing all
colleges, and also on basing your recommendation on what you remember about her
abilities and interests, rather than asking her a lot of questions.
Framing and Emotional Factors in Decision Making:
Framing questions in positive versus negative terms can have dramatic effects on
the decision making of even highly intelligent persons. Emotion and logic are
intimately intertwined and not independent. Moreover, persons in negative moods
were more influenced by differences in the way that decisions were framed (as
opportunities or threats) than persons in positive moods. In other situations,
cognitive and emotional factors work together to determine our perceptions of risk,
e.g. in evaluating the risk in traveling by air in comparison with automobiles travel.
Artificial Intelligence:
In 1956, john McCarthy first used the term artificial intelligence to describe
computers that were programmed to think like human brains. Computers and
human brains share many processes. They encode, store, and retrieve data. They
perform logical functions, and they frequently use heuristics. However, there are
significant differences. Computers perform some functions, such as rapid
computation, much better than human brains but perform others much worse, e.g.
it is difficult to program computers to read handwritten messages (such as dresses
or letters). A focus of research on artificial intelligence is the design of expert systems,
or problem solving computer programs that operate in a very narrow area. MYCIN
was one of the first programs designed to help physicians diagnose and treat blood
diseases and meningitis. In general, the use of computers in problem solving is most
effective when the problem area is well defined.
Experts and expertise:
After reviewing many studies on different types of expertise, Glaser and Chi (1988)
summarized the major characteristics of human experts;
1- Experts excel in a limited number of areas.
2- Experts are fast.
3- Experts spend enough time analyzing a problem.
4- Experts recognize more ''patterns'' than novices.
5- Experts uses their memories more effectively.
6- Experts use a deeper level of analysis.
7- Experts use self-monitoring.
Creative Problem Solving:
Creativity- can be defined as the ability to produce ''products'' (such as plays,
solutions to social problems, poems, sources of energy, symphonies) that are both
novel and socially valued (useful, aesthetically beautiful, informative, and so on).
Guilford has used the concepts of divergent and convergent thinking to evaluate
creative ability.
A- Convergent thinking;
It is logical, factual, conventional, and focused on a problem until a solution is
found. When you asked to solve an algebra problem, you use your convergent
thinking skills to provide the answer. Most formal education emphasizes the
teaching and assessment of convergent thinking.
B- Divergent thinking:
It is unconventional, loosely organized, and only partially directed. It
produces answers that must be evaluated subjectively. Divergent thinkers,
more easily break out of mental sets that limit our thinking.
An individual's creativity might also be a result of intelligence. However, most
researchers believe that creative thinking is to some extent separate from general
intelligence. There is an evidence that people who successfully solve novel problems
are different from unsuccessful problem solvers in the amount of effort they make,
rather thah basic intelligence. Successful problem solvers attempts more solutions to
the problem before giving up, they have the willingness to work hard. It is possible
to be highly creative without being highly intelligent, and vice versa.
Steps of the creative process:
Wallas (1926) suggested that creative problem solving typically proceeds in four
steps;
1- Preparation: Includes initial attempts to formulate the problem, recall
relevant facts, and think about possible solutions.
2- Incubation: It is a period of rest. Wallas used the term- incubation- to
compare the creative solution to an egg that needed to be incubated for a
while before it is ''hatched''. People trying to solve difficult problems that
require creative solutions generally feel the need to set the problem aside for
a while after the initial preparation period. Wallas believed that creative
solution needed this time to ''incubate''.
3- Illumination: Refers to the sudden insight pertaining the solution.
4- Verification: Involves the necessary but sometimes anticlimactic step of
testing the solution.
A creative solution to important human problems does not always emerge in this
way, but many anecdotes in history show how difficult problems have been
creatively solved in bursts of insight following periods of preparation and
incubation, e.g. the story of the ancient Greek scientist Archimedes when he was
challenged by the king, on his ability to determine the gold content of his crown.
Hayes (1978) proposes three ways of making creative thinking more likely;
a- Individuals must have a knowledge base. Most creative geniuses appear to
build their best work on a firm foundation of knowledge of their field.
Learning as much as you can about your problem will increase your chances
of solving it creativity.
b- They require the right atmosphere for creativity. People require time to let
their ideas incubate. Working with a group of people (brainstorming)
provides an effective atmosphere for developing creative solutions.
c- People can develop creative solutions to problems by considering analogies, or
similarities to other problems that have been solved in the past.
Language
Language is a symbolic code used in communication. Language is one of the most
significant cognitive achievements of the human species. Without language, human
beings and human civilization would be a pale shadow of what they are.
Semantics:
It is the meaning of what is said. The function of language is to say something to
someone. The ''something'' is the meaning (the semantic content) that is
communicated through language.
Two language structures can be identified, a- surface structure- referred to
superficial spoken or written structure of a statement. And b- deep structurereferred to the underlying structure of a statement that holds its meaning.
Generative Property of Language- Elements and Rules:
Here we generate language from a set of elements and a set of rules for combining
them in to speech. When we say that language is generative we mean we mean that
an infinite set of utterances can be made using a finite set of elements and rules.
The following are the elements and rules;
A- Phonemes:
These are elements and are the smallest units of sounds in language. English
languish is made up of only 44 phonemes (there are more phonemes than letters
of the alphabet in English, because some letters combinations such as ch and th
stand for separates phonemes). Different languages have different numbers of
phonemes, but the principle is the same in every language: Every utterance is
generated from a surprisingly small numbers of sounds.
B- Morphemes:
They are the other elements, and the smallest units of meaning in language.
Morphemes are closely related to but are not the same as words. Some
morphemes stand alone as words. Word, stand, and fast are each single
freestanding morphemes. Other morphemes can exist only if they are bound
to other morphemes. Examples are the morphemes for past tense in pushed,
the plural in cars. And the prefix morphemes anti meaning ''against'' in the
word antibiotic. The average person knows thousands of morphemes but can
speak an infinite number of utterances using a finite set of morphemes and
rules for combining them.
C- Syntax:
The rules of a language that allow an infinite number of understandable
utterances to be generated are called syntax. There are rules for the ways in
which phonemic sounds can be combined in morphemes and rules for how
morphemes can be combined in utterances , e.g. in English, we learn that the
suffix-ed communicates past tense and that the –s suffix denotes a plural.
These rules of syntax are the heart of generative language, for, without them,
only a finite number of things could be said with the finite set of morphemes.
These rules, allow us to make new sentences that will immediately and
effortlessly be understood by all speakers who speak normally in the same
language.
Language and Thought:
Language and thinking are closely related phenomena. Although we often think in
visual images, sounds, and images of movements- and some thought may involve no
conscious images at all- much of our thinking takes place in the form of silent
conversations with ourselves. If this is true, does language exert any influence on
our thinking? If so, it is possible that people who speak different languages might
think somewhat differently. This hypothesis was stated by Benjamin Whorf (1956)
and is known as the Whorfian hypothesis, or linguistic relativity hypothesis, e.g. each
language contains terms referring to ''personality types'' that are important in each
culture, as in using the term artistic type which may have different meaning in
different languages and this can affect thinking in each language user. In the same
way, the language usage, as in using the term chairperson instead of chairman might
affect the way we think about the capabilities of females to serve leadership roles.
Animal Languages:
Although humans have the most flexible and symbolic language for communicating
propositions, we are not the only species that can communicate. Animals can use
different movements, rituals or gestures in communications, e.g. bees, use a simple
but elegant system to communicate messages such as discovering flowers containing
a nectar supply, the bee who discovers the nectar tells the other bees about it
through a symbolic dance, which is of different pattern according to the distance of
the nectar. Using these dances, bees can communicate rather complex messages very
efficiently. Unlike humans, however, they have a limited vocabulary and can only
communicate in a way that is firmly limited by inheritance. Human language, in
contrast, must be learned through interactions with fluent speakers. In addition,
human languages are more flexible. Animal communication can varied little,
whereas humans can generate an infinite number of unique and novel utterances.
These differences between human and animal languages have some psychologists to
assume that only humans can ever acquire a human language because we alone have
the mental abilities needed for generative language. This assumption appears to be
true, however, in some experiments it was possible to teach chimpanzees human
language on a limited basis. The linguistic accomplishments of even the most
advanced adult chimpanzees and apes is limited compared with that of human 3year-olds.
Intelligence
Intelligence is the some total of cognition. It refers to the cognitive abilities of an
individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope effectively with the
demands of daily living. In short, intelligence has to do with how well a person is
able to use cognition in coping with the world.
The term intelligence was not in widespread use until it was popularized in the late
1800s by the writings of Sir Francis Galton. Galton was the cousin of Charles
Darwin, the scientist credited for developing the theory of evolution. Galton believed
that intellectual ability was inherited, and he tried unsuccessfully to develop an
intelligence test to use in his research, Although he was unsuccessful in his own
research, Galton gave psychology the concept of intelligence.
Basic components of intelligence:
A- General factor intelligence,
In Galton's view, intelligence is a single general factor that provides the basis
for the more specific abilities that each of us possesses. According to this
conception, if we are generally intelligent, we are more likely to develop strong
mechanical, musical, artistic, and other kinds of abilities. This view that a
general factor of intelligence underlies each of our more specific abilities has
been advocated in more modern times by psychologist Charles Spearman, who
used the term- g – to refer to the general factor of intelligence. Spearman based
his opinion on complex mathematical analyses of intelligence test scores that
support, but do not prove, his theory of general intelligence. This concept of a g
factor of intelligence is held by David Wechsler, who is the author of the most
widely used intelligence tests for children and adults in the United States today.
B- Specific abilities- intelligence,
Other psychologists have argued that intelligence is not a single general
factor but a collection of many separate specific abilities. These psychologists
make a great deal of the fact most of us are much better in some cognitive
skills than others, rather than being generally good at everything. Louis
Thurstone (1938), for example, developed an alternative to tests of general
intelligence, called the Primary Mental Abilities Tests, that measures seven
intellectual abilities. J.P. Guilford (1982), taking an even more extreme
position than Thurstone, suggested that some 150 different abilities make up
what we call intelligence.
Theories of Intelligence:
Until the 1960s, research on intelligence was dominated by the factorial
approach. However, with the development of cognitive psychology and its
emphasis on information-processing models, a new approach emerged, the
basic idea is to try to understand intelligence in terms of cognitive processes
that operate when we engage in intellectual activities.
A- Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence:
Howard Gardner (1983) also argued that there are multiple types of
intelligence. Gardner became convinced that there are many separate kinds
of intelligence partly by studying patients who had suffered brain damage to
only some parts of the cerebral cortex. He found that these individuals lost
some kinds of intellectual abilities while other kinds of intelligence were left
intact. This suggested to him that different types of intelligence are mediated
by different parts of the brain. Gardner also studied the fascinating abilities
of rare individuals with savant syndromes. These individuals have low general
intelligence but show extraordinary splinter skills in arts, music or
arithmetic computation. As a result of his investigations, Gardner has
suggested that there are seven independent types of intelligence;
1- Linguistic (verbal).
2- Logical- mathematical.
3- Musical.
4- Spatial (artistic).
5- Kinesthetic (athletic).
6- Interpersonal (social skills).
7- Intrapersonal (personal adjustment).
Gardner's definition of intelligence is much broader than the traditional one,
Gardner believes that great skills in music and good emotional adjustment should
be said to reflect intelligence just as much as skill in mathematics. Most tests of
intelligence focus on just verbal and logical-mathematical areas of intelligence.
The issue of one versus many types of intelligence remains unsettled today, but most
authorities believed that there is truth to both approaches. That is, it is probably
correct that a general factor underlies all intelligence, but people can be strong in
one specific area of intelligence and weak in another. Interestingly, people with
higher than average intelligence show more peaks and valleys in specific facets of
their intelligence than people with below average intelligence.
B-Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (of Cognitive Components):
The theory stresses on the Cognitive Components of Intelligent Behavior.
This approach suggests that the basic nature of intelligence can be illuminated by
applying what we have learned in research on cognition. Sternberg has proposed a
tentative theory of intelligence that specifies the cognitive steps that a person must
use in reasoning and solving some kinds of problem, i.e. the cognitive components of
intelligence, using ,mainly, an information-processing model of cognition as the use
of encoding all the relevant information about the problem, organizing the elements
of the problem and finding alternative solutions.
Sternberg suggests that this way of looking at intelligence gives us a framework for
discovering which components are most important in determining whether one
person is ''more intelligent'' than another, e.g. there is an evidence that better
reasoners take more time to complete the encoding component than poor reasoners,
but they are faster at all of the other stages.
Sternberg has identified three types of components;
1- Metacomponents- which deal with thought processes. And used to
plan, control, monitor, and evaluate processes during problem
solving.
2- Performance components- which deal with the effects of
experience on intelligence, and carry out problem-solving
strategies. These are creative abilities.
3- Knowledge- acquisition components- which consider the effects of
the individual's environment and culture. They encode, combine
and compare information during the course of problem solving.
These are practical abilities.
These components are intertwined. Each comes into play during problem-solving
process, and non of them can operate independently. Sternberg illustrates the
functioning of these components with analogy problems of the following kind:
Lawyer is to client as doctor is to ------------- a- medicine
b- patient
C-Anderson's Theory of Intelligence And Cognitive Development:
This theory holds that individual differences in intelligence and developmental
changes in intellectual competence are explained by different mechanisms.
Differences in intelligence result from differences in the ''basic processing
mechanism'' that implements thinking, which in turn yields knowledge. Individuals
vary in the speed at which basic processing occurs. A person with a slower basic
processing mechanism is likely to have more difficulty acquiring knowledge than a
person with a faster processing mechanism. This is to saying that low –speed
processing mechanism produces low general intelligence.
D-Ceci's Bioechological Theory:
This theory proposes that there are ''multiple cognitive potentials,' 'rather than a
single underlying general intelligence or g. These multiple abilities, or intelligences,
are biologically based and place limits on mental processes. Their emergence,
however, is shaped by the challenges and opportunities in the individual's
environment, or context. In Ceci's view, context is essential to the demonstration of
cognitive abilities. By ''context,'' he means domains of knowledge as well as factors
such as personality, motivation, and education. Context can be mental, social, or
physical. A particular individual or population may appear to lack certain mental
abilities, but if given a more interesting and motivating context, the same individual
or population can demonstrate a higher level pf performance.
Varieties of Intelligence:
A- Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence;
Fluid intelligence: Is the ability to learn or invent new strategies for dealing
with new kinds of problems.
Crystallized intelligence: Is the ability to use previously learned skills to solve
familiar problems.
The distinction between fluid and crystallized intelligence is supported by
research on how intelligence changes with age. Crystallized intelligence- the
ability to use familiar skills- improves throughout the years that adults work.
That is one reason that most leadership jobs are held by persons over 40. In
contrast, fluid intelligence- the ability to learn new skills for new problemsdeclines from middle age on.
B- Tacit intelligence;
Tacit intelligence is the practical knowledge and skills needed to deal with
everyday problems that are usually not taught in school including skills in
fishing, growing vegetables, maintaining cars, talking photographs, painting
with water colors, shopping for food within a budget and so on. General
intelligence tests are not useful in predicting competence in these specific
areas that are generally not taught at school. A useful test of tacit intelligence
must assess practical knowledge and skills in getting things done. Sternberg
and Wagner(1993) developed a measure of tacit intelligence consisting of
scenarios describing work-related situations in particular areas of
employment. Persons taking the test are asked to rate the quality of a
number of different solutions to the problems. Because different areas of
employment- from plumbing to selling insurance- pose different kinds of
problems, tests of tacit intelligence that are specific to a given area are most
useful in predicting who will perform well in that domain.
Measures of Intelligence { Intelligence Tests }:
A- Stanford-Binet Intelligent Scale:
The first person who developed a useful measure of intelligence was Alfred
Binet. In 1903, he began working on developing a test that he hoped would
distinguished intellectually normal from subnormal Parisian schoolchildren.
In the United States, the test was refined by Lewis Terman of Stanford
University, as the still widely used Stanford-Binet Scale. Terman retained
Binet's concept of mental age. Each test item was age- graded at the level at
which a substantial majority of children pass it. A child's mental age could be
obtained by summing the number of items passed at each level. In addition,
Terman adopted a convenient index of intelligence suggested by the German
psychologist William Stern. This index is the-Intelligence Quotient ( IQ ),
which expresses intelligence as a ratio of mental age to chronological age:
IQ = MA / CA x 100. The number 100 is used as a multiplier so that the IQ
will have a value of 100 when MA is equal to CA.If MA is lower than CA, the
IQ will be less than 100; If MA is higher than CA, the IQ is more than 100.
The most recent revision of the Stanford-Binet uses standard age scores
instead of IQ scores. These can be interpreted in terms of percentiles, which show
the percentage of individuals in the standardization group falling above or below a
given score. IQ scores tend to fall in the form of a bell-shaped curve, with the most
people's scores hovering around 100. It represents a Normal Distribution Curve.
This means that most people will obtain the average score , or scores that are close
to the average, on the test. As the scores deviate from the average in either direction
( either higher or lower than average), the scores become progressively less common.
Most people have a IQ range between 90 to 110. Intelligence testing provides one of
the main criteria for diagnosing mental retardation. The usual line of demarcation
is an IQ of 70 or below, degrees of retardation range from mild to profound:
individuals with IQs from 50 to 70 are said to be mildly retarded: 35 to 49,
moderately retarded; 20 to 34, severely retarded; and under 20, profoundly
retarded. People with IQ above 120 are considered to be of high intelligence.
Approximately 90 percent of people who have retardation fall in the mild range, the
vast majority of people with retardation can lead satisfying and productive lives.
In line with the current view of intelligence as a composite of different abilities, the
1986 revision of the Stanford-Binet groups its tests into four broad areas: verbal
reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term
memory. A separate score is obtained for each area.
B- Wechsler Intelligence Scales:
In 1939, David Wechsler developed a new test because he thought the
Stanford-Binet depended too heavily on language ability and not appropriate
for adults. The Wechsler Adult intelligence Scale, or WAIS, is divided into two
parts- a verbal scale and a performance scale- that yield separate scores as
well as a full-scale IQ. Wechsler later developed a similar test for children,
the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).
Items on the performance scale require the manipulation or arrangement of
blocks, pictures, or other materials. The Wechsler scales also provide scores
for each subtest, so the examiner has a clearer picture of the individual's
intellectual strengths and weaknesses. For example, a discrepancy between
verbal and performance scores prompts the examiner to look for specific
learning problems such as reading disabilities or language handicaps.
Both the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler scales are fairly valid predictors of
achievement in school.
C- Group Ability Tests:
The Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler scales are individual ability tests. They
are administered to a single individual by a specially trained tester. Group
ability tests, in contrast, can be administered to a large number of people by
a single examiner and are usually in pencil-and-paper form.
The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and the American College Test (ACT)
are examples of group- administer general-ability tests that are familiar to
most college students in the United States. Virtually all 4-year colleges
require applicants to take one of these tests as a way of setting a common
standard for students from high schools with different curricula and grading
standards
D- Raven Progressive Matrices – (RPM)- Test:
This test provides a trusted, non-verbal assessment if intelligence. Because
these scales minimize the impact of language, skills and culture bias, they are
particularly well suited to measuring the intelligence of individuals with
reading problems or hearing impairment as those whose native language is
not English. RPM test is appropriate for both children and adults. It
measures two complimentary components of general intelligence: The
capacity to think clearly and makes sense of complex data (educative ability)
and the capacity to store and reproduce information (reproductive ability).
The test offers three progressive, more difficult forms intended for different
problems. Items on all forms ask the examinee to identify the missing
component in a series of figural patterns. Grouped in sets, the items require
increasingly greater skills and analyzing information.
The three forms are summarized below:
1- Colored Progressive Matrices (CPM);
For use with children 5 through 11 year age, elderly people, and
individuals of any age who are mentally impaired. Easiest of the three
forms CPM is used to assess the degree to which examinee can think
clearly, or in the case of older or impaired individuals, the extent to which
the intellectual abilities have deteriorated.
2- Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM);
It is the most widely used of the three forms, was designed to assess nonverbal reasoning in general population. In educational setting, used as a
language free measures of Intelligence. In organized setting, it is used to
determine potentials for success in technical or mid-level managerial
position.
3- Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM);
Used for individuals from 12 year and up whose intellectual abilities
above average. The most difficult of the three versions, APM can be used
to assess professional placement and assessment of intellectual efficiency:
- of speed and accuracy of higher level cognitive work.
Each of these forms can be group or individually administered.
Are people Becoming More Intelligent?
There is a clear evidence supported by psychological tests particularly the
progressive matrices, that in many countries around the world, there is strong
evidence that intelligence scores have risen dramatically over the past few
generations. When tested at the same age using the same test, people born in earlier
years answered fewer questions correctly than persons born more recently and
having higher average IQs . The rate of increase in scores on tests of general adult
intelligence (that measure both fluid and crystallized intelligence) like the Stanford –
Binet and Wechsler intelligence scales are surprisingly large, but data on tests that
measure only fluid intelligence show even larger gains of about 20 points per
generation (every 30 years). The strongest evidence of changes in fluid intelligence
come from the Raven progressive matrices test.
There are many explanations for this dramatic increase including:
1-Improvement in nutrition and health particularly obstetric care.
2-Increases in level of education. 3- Decrease in number of children per
family. 4- Stimulation and challenges of children born in the latter part of
the twenties century by a degree of environmental complexity that was
unknown in 1930, as educational TV, computers learning toys and so on.
However we should be cautious in concluding that genuine increases in
intelligence have occurred.