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RESEARCH PAPER
Volume 1/Issue 10/FEB- 2013/ISSN 2320-7620
Brain Tumor Detection Using Neural
Network Using MR Images
KADAM D B1
Dr.R K PRASAD2
1
Research Scholar JJT University Rajasthan India
2
Pune University, Pune Maharashtra
KEYWORDS: ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK, TUMOUR, MRI, NEURAL NETWORK
SUBJECT:
ABSTRACT
This is the review of labor for Bain tumour detection mistreatment adult male pictures. the current paper
urged Neural Network based mostly tumour detection. each hardware and package approach is projected
during this paper. The interdependence of 2 approaches actually makes precise detection of maligns cells.
INTRODUCTION
Brain tumors area unit composed of cells that exhibit unrestrained growth within the brain. tumour naturally is
malignant since it takes up house and invades brain tissue that is needed for very important body functions. as
a result of the invasive nature of the tumour it affects one in every of the foremost vital organs within the
body. Typical treatment for brain tumors is surgical in nature, though radiation can even be prescribed
counting on the actual case. The Brain Tumors may be classified as follows:I. nonmalignant neoplasm i.e. Non
Cancerous tumourIt is a kind of tumour, that is Noncancerous, means that they are doing not unfold or invade
the encompassing tissue.II. tumor i.e. Cancerous tumourIt is a kind of tumour that is cancerous, means that it
spreads and invades the encompassing tissue. it's categorised as Primary and Secondary tumour.a. Primary
tumour They start within the brain. Benign tumors represent half all primary brain tumors Most of them area
unit typically with success treated with techniques like surgery.b. Secondary tumour (Metastatic)
A secondary (Metastatic) tumour happens once cancer cells unfold to the brain from a primary cancer in
another a part of the body. Secondary tumors area unit concerning 3 times additional common than primary
tumors of the brain.One of the principal issues in surgical coming up with is that the precise localization of vital
brain structures. it's troublesome and time intense to notice and localize malignant cells mistreatment second
pictures. 3D views, however, could be a troublesome task and is historically distributed within the clinicians
mind. However, with image process tools, the knowledge within the orthogonal second cross-sections may be
increased and interactively displayed mistreatment 3D models.This image models significantly helps the
sawbones within the mechanical phenomenon improvement method. The spatial info helps in coming up with
of the procedure by permitting him to check and analyze different guidance ways through the physical house.
Pathological knowledge is in terms of CT, MRI, MR-angiography or useful imaging presenting image info in an
exceedingly manner that's additional the same as the surgical read of the patient throughout the operation,
therefore facilitating the comprehension of the whole anatomy. the photographs of interest area unit
obtained by the subsequent techniques.
1.X-Ray
2.ComputedTomography-CT
3.PositronEmissionTomography-PET
4.generatorroentgenography–MEG
5.Biopsy
6Magnetic.resonanceImaging-MRI
1.X-rays
X-Rays of the os were once commonplace diagnostic tools however area unit currently performed only
additional advanced procedures don't seem to be on the market.
2.computerizedtomography (CT).
Computed tomography (CT) uses a classy setup and a pc to make a close image of the body's tissues and
structures. it's not as correct as imaging and doesn't notice concerning half inferior glimmers. it's helpful in
sure situations; but a CT scan facilitates find the tumour and may typically help verify its sort .It can even
facilitate notice swelling, bleeding, and associated conditions. additionally, computerized tomography is
employed to see the effectiveness of treatments and wait for tumour repetition.
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3. ANTILEPTON EMISSION IMAGING.
Positron emission imaging (PET) provides an image of the brain's activity instead of its structure by pursuit
substances that are labeled with a radioactive tracer. PET isn't habitually used for diagnosing, however it
should supplement MRIs to assist verify tumour grade when diagnosing. like resonance spectrographic analysis
(MRS), PET is additionally ready to distinguish between continual tumour cells from dead cells or scar tissues,
though MRS is additional wide on the market.
4. generator roentgenography. (MEG)
These scans live the magnetic fields created by nerve cells as they manufacture electrical currents.
5. Biopsy
A diagnostic test could be a surgical treatment during which alittle sample of tissue is taken from the
suspected tumour and examined below a magnifier for malignancy. The results of the diagnostic test
additionally give info on the neoplastic cell sort.In some cases, like brain stem gliomas, a diagnostic test could
be too venturous as a result of removing any healthy tissue from this space will have an effect on very
important functions. In such case diagnosing should believe less invasive and presumably less correct
measures.
6. resonance Imaging (MRI):
MRI is Associate in Nursing imaging technique supported the activity of flux vectors generated when Associate
in Nursing acceptable excitation with sturdy magnetic fields and radio-frequency pulses within the nuclei of
element atoms gift in water molecules of a patients tissues .Given that the content of water differs for every
tissue, it's doable to quantify the variations of radiated magnetic energy, and have components to spot every
tissue. once specific magnetic vector elements area unit measured below controlled conditions, completely
different pictures may be nonheritable and data associated with tissue distinction is also obtained, revealing
details
that
may
be
uncomprehensible
in
different
measurements.
In MRI, one in every of the principle regions of interests is that the brain. presently in clinical applications, the
boundary of tumour in an exceedingly head image is typically derived by hand. therefore this manual approach
becomes unworkable once used with giant knowledge sets. thus the automated system for the detection of
tumour is critical. Recently many tries have additionally been created to use neural network architectures to
tumour analysis.
AN OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE SURVEY
In 1997,Yan Zhu* and Hong Yan [2]presented the work on processed tumour Boundary Detection employing a
Hopfield Neural Network, that conferred a replacement approach for detection of tumour boundaries in
medical pictures employing a Hopfield neural network. The boundary detection downside is developed as
Associate in Nursing improvement method that seeks the boundary points to attenuate Associate in Nursing
energy useful supported a full of life contour model. A changed Hopfield network is made to resolve the
improvement downside. Taking advantage of the collective procedure ability and energy convergence
capability of the Hopfield network, our methodology produces the results equivalent to those of normal
“snakes”-based algorithms, however it needs less computing time. With the data processing potential of the
Hopfield network, the projected boundary detection may be enforced for real time process. Experiments on
completely different resonance imaging (MRI) knowledge sets show the effectiveness of our approach
In 1997, Wilburn E. Reddick, John O. Glass, Edwin N. Cook,T. David Elkin,[10] and Russell J. Deaton conferred
the work on machine-controlled Segmentation and Classification of Multispectral resonance pictures of Brain
mistreatment Artificial Neural Network,which conferred a completely machine-controlled method for
segmentation and classification of multispectral resonance (MR) pictures. This hybrid neural network
methodology uses a Kohonen self organizing neural network for segmentation and a multilayer back
propagation neural network for classification. To separate completely different tissue sorts, this method uses
the quality T1-, T2-, and PD-weighted adult male pictures nonheritable in clinical examinations. meter
measurements of brain structures, relative to intracranial volume, were calculated for Associate in Nursing
index transversal section in fourteen traditional subjects (median age twenty five years; seven male, seven
female). This index slice was at the extent of the basal ganglia, enclosed each genus and splenium of the
corpus callous, and customarily, showed the place Amon and ventricle. Associate in Nursing infraclass
correlation of this machine-controlled segmentation and classification of tissues with the accepted
commonplace of specialist identification for the index slice within the fourteen volunteers incontestible
coefficients (ri) of zero.91, 0.95, and 0.98 for nervous tissue, nerve tissue, and cavity bodily fluid (CSF),
severally. Associate in Nursing analysis of variance for estimates of brain parenchyma volumes in 5 volunteers
imaged 5 times every incontestible high intra subject duplicability with a significance of a minimum of p<0.05
for nervous tissue, nerve tissue, and white/gray partial volumes. The population variation, across fourteen
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volunteers, incontestible very little deviation from the averages for grey and nervous tissue, whereas partial
volume categories exhibited a rather higher degree of variability. This totally machine-controlled technique
produces reliable and consistent adult male image segmentation and classification whereas eliminating
intraand interobserver variability.
In 1997,Phooi Yee Lau, Frank C. T. Voon, and Shinji Ozawa[46] conferred the work onThe detection and
visualisation of brain tumors on T2-weighted MRIimages mistreatment multiparameter feature block, that
conferred Associate in Nursing analytical methodology to notice lesions or tumors in digitized medical pictures
for 3D visualisation. The authors developed a tumour detection methodology mistreatment 3 parameters;
edge (E), gray(G), and distinction (H) values. the strategy projected here studied the EGH parameters in an
exceedingly supervised block of input pictures. These feature blocks were compared with standardized
parameters (derived from traditional templet block) to notice abnormal occurrences, e.g. image block that
contain lesions or tumour cells. The abnormal blocks were reworked into three-dimension house for
visualisation and studies of hardiness. Experiments were performed on completely different encephalopathy
supported single and multiple slices of the imaging dataset. The experiments results have illustrated that our
projected conceptually straightforward technique is ready to effectively notice tumour blocks whereas being
computationally economical. during this paper, we have a tendency to gift a paradigm system to judge the
performance of the projected strategies, scrutiny detection accuracy and hardiness with 3D visualisation.
In 1998, Karsten control, Elena Rota Kops,Bernd J. Krause, William M. Wells, Bokkos Kikinis, and Hans-Wilhelm
M¨uller-G¨artner[47] conferred work onMarkov Random Field Segmentation of Brain adult male
pictures,which describes a fully-automatic three-dimensional (3-D)-segmentation technique for brain
resonance (MR) pictures. By means that of Markoff random fields (MRF’s) the segmentation algorithmic rule
captures 3 options that area unit of special importance for adult male pictures, i.e., statistic distributions of
tissue intensities, neighborhood correlations, and signal inhomogeneities. careful simulations and real adult
male pictures demonstrate the performance of the segmentation algorithmic rule. above all, the impact of
noise, in homogeneity, smoothing, and structure thickness area unit analyzed quantitatively. Even single-echo
adult male pictures area unit well classified into nerve tissue, nervous tissue, bodily fluid, scalp-bone, and
background. A simulated tempering Associate in Nursingd an iterated conditional modes implementation area
unit conferred.
In 2003, Alan Wee-Chung Liew, Associate in Nursingd Hong Yan[3] mentioned an adaptive spatial Fuzzy
agglomeration algorithmic rule for 3D adult male Image Segmentation.An adaptive spatial fuzzy c-means
agglomeration algorithmic rule is conferred during this paper for the segmentation of three-dimensional (3-D)
resonance (MR) pictures. The input pictures is also corrupted by noise and intensity no uniformity (INU) whole.
The projected algorithmic rule takes under consideration the spatial continuity constraints by employing a
difference index that enables spatial interactions between image voxels. The native spatial continuity
constraint reduces the noise impact and therefore the classification ambiguity. The INU whole is developed as
a increasing bias field poignant actuality adult male imaging signal. By modeling the log bias field as a stack of
smoothing -spline surfaces, with continuity enforced across slices, the computation of the 3D bias field reduces
to it of finding the -spline coefficients, which may be obtained employing a computationally economical twostage algorithmic rule.
In 2005,Dana Cobzas, Neil Birkbeck Mark national leader, Martin Jagersand[45] conferred their work on 3D
Variation tumour Segmentation employing a High Dimensional Feature Set, during which tumour
segmentation from imaging knowledge is a vital however time intense task performed manually by medical
ex¬perts. Automating this method is difficult as a result of the high diversity in look of tumour tissue, among
differ¬ent patients and, in several cases, similarity between tumour and traditional tissue. One different
challenge is a way to build use of previous info concerning the looks of traditional brain. during this paper we
have a tendency to propose a variational tumour seg¬mentation algorithmic rule that extends current
approaches from texture segmentation by employing a high dimensional feature set calculated from imaging
knowledge and registered atlases. Us¬ing manually metameric knowledge we have a tendency to learn a
applied math model for tumour and traditional tissue. we have a tendency to show that employing a
con¬ditional model to discriminate between traditional and abnor¬mal regions considerably improves the
segmentation results compared to ancient generative models. Validation is performed by testing the strategy
on many cancer patient imaging scans.
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In 2009, RajeevRatan, Sanjay Sharma, S. K. Sharma[43] conferred their work on tumour Detection supported
multi-parameter imaging Image Analysis.Which presents,Segment of anatomical regions of the brain is that the
elementary downside in medical image analysis. whereas measure the literature, it's been observed that no
work has been tired segmentation methodology has been developed and valid segmentation second & 3D
imaging knowledge. This methodology will section a tumour providing the required parameters area unit set
properly. This methodology doesn't need Associate in Nursingy low-level formatting whereas the others need
an low-level formatting within the tumour. The visualisation results demonstrate the effectiveness of this
approach. during this study, when manual segmentation procedure the tumour identification, the
investigations has been created for potential use of imaging knowledge for rising {brain tumour|brain
tumour|tumor|tumour|neoplasm} form approximation and second and 3D visualisation for surgical coming
up with and accessing tumor. Surgical coming up with currently uses each second and 3D model that integrate
knowledge from multiple imaging modalities, every highlight one or additional aspects of morphology or
functions. foremost the work has carried over calculate the realm of tumour of single slice of imaging
knowledge set so it absolutely was extended to calculate the degree of the tumour from the multiple image
imaging set network for the detection of tumour boundaries that was supported a full of life contour model.
this can be additional appropriate for real time application. the required detection powerfully depends on
active contour model. thus during this work adaptive active contour model was used. The accuracy and speed
of detection will more changed by modifying model and neural network coaching approach. during this similar
reasonably work Wilburn E. Reddick, John O. Glass enforced hybrid neural network methodology for
segmentation and multilayer back propagation neural network for classification. This was totally automatic
detection system. The work may be changed by mistreatment neural network approach for all stages. On the
opposite facet , Phooi Yee Lau, Frank C. T. Voon, and Shinji Ozawa [46] urged analytical based mostly
approach. This was supported 3 parameters;Edge(E),Gray(G),anContrast(H)values.The 3D visualisation was
additionally developed for the sawbones. This methodology is predicated on analytical computation thus
terribly advanced and troublesome within the construction. The separate synthesizer and model creator is
needed for obtaining the results. Karsten control, Elena Rota Kops, have enforced a fully-automatic threedimensional (3-D)-segmentation technique for brain resonance (MR) pictures supported Markoff random fields
(MRF’s). A simulated tempering Associate in Nursingd an iterated conditional modes implementation were
conferred. This methodology itself isn't possible for giant numbers of datasets on the market thus in such
reasonably work sizable changed algorithmic rule is to be enforced so as to suit for giant form of datasets. Alan
Wee-Chung Liew, and Hong Yan [03] worked with fuzzy c-means agglomeration algorithmic rule. during this
work the sizable quantity of labor was distributed for the clattering surroundings. RajeevRatan, Sanjay Sharma,
S. K. Sharma [43] seen the segmentation issues and in more stage morphological image process was enforced.
The tumour Detection is effective and thus automatic detection is that the demand of latest era. this can be
doable by mistreatment neural network methodology for the detection. The neural network may be trained
with changed algorithms to provide higher results. the matter within the acquisition and quality of image are
going to be increased by mistreatment adaptive filters. The adaptive filters attenuate the noise and thus
appropriate for clattering surroundings. during this work neural network based mostly detection with the
adaptive
6.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
MRI is an imaging technique based on the measurement of magnetic field vectors generated after an
appropriate excitation with strong magnetic fields and radio-frequency pulses in the nuclei of hydrogen atoms
present in water molecules of a patients tissues .Given that the content of water differs for each tissue, it is
possible to quantify the differences of radiated magnetic energy, and have elements to identify each tissue.
When specific magnetic vector components are measured under controlled conditions, different images can
be acquired and information related to tissue contrast may be obtained, revealing details that can be missed in
other measurements.
In MRI, one of the principle regions of interests is the brain. Currently in clinical applications, the boundary of
tumor in a head image is usually traced by hand. Thus this manual approach becomes infeasible when used
with large data sets. Hence the automatic system for the detection of tumor is necessary. Recently several
attempts have also been made to apply neural network architectures to brain tumor analysis.
THE METHODOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH.
A set of eight texture features will be extracted from the tumor and the normal regions.
A gray tone spatial dependence matrix approach, introduced by Haralick which is a well known statistical
method for extracting second order texture information from images, is used for this study. This method is
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based on the estimation of the second order joint conditional probability density function C(ij / d,0) where 0 =
0, 45, 90 and 135 degrees. Each C(i, j/ d,0) is the probability of going from gray level i to gray level j, given that
the inter-sample spacing is d and the direction is given by the angle 0. This is also referred to as co occurrence
matrix. The co occurrence matrix is calculated for the normal and tumor regions (ROI) in the brain images for e
=0 degrees and distance d=l. Eight texture features are calculated from the co occurrence matrix.
Let us denote the co occurrence matrix C and N be the number of distinct gray levels in the quantized image.
(1)
(2)
The following eight texture features are calculated
1.
Angular second moment(ASM)
2.
Contrast(CON)
3.
Inverse Difference Moment (IDM)
4.
Sum Variance (SVAR)
5.
Sum Entropy (SENT)
6.
Entropy (ENT)
7.
Difference Entropy (DENT)
8.
Information Measure of correlation (IMC)
Probable methods of Data Analysis: After implementation of the proposed algorithms on MR Brain images,the
results will be compared and tallied with the actual results in consultation with the specialist doctors in this
field.
SCHEME OF PROPOSED RESEARCH WORK.
The Process of detection of Brain Tumor using MR image analysis can be broadly divided into following
steps(Ref.fig 1)
I.
1.
2.
Preprocessing of MR images.
Image acquisition
Adaptive filter
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II.
1.
2.
3.
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Image Analysis of MR images
Segmentation
Feature Extraction
Enhancement
The resizing of the Image is performed to convenient size in order that process and analyzing may be
distributed effectively. The adaptive Filter is applied to get rid of the spurious signals gift within the image.
Then the segmentation and therefore the feature extraction of region of interest(ROI) is obtained in order that
sweetening of needed section may be done through package. following block of the system is neural network
management. The neural network is trained for the detection of tumour gift in human brain.
After testing and productive implementation of the projected theme with ANN mistreatment Mathlab, the
$64000 time operation may be performed on the adult male Brain pictures for the detection of tumour.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Sasikala and N. Kumaravel :”Comparison of Feature Selection Techniques for Detection of Malignai
Tumor in Brain Images”, IEEE Indicon 20C Conference India,Dec.20O5.
[2]Yan Zhu and Hong Yan : “Computerized Tumor Boundary Detection Using a Hopfield Neural Netwok” , IEEE
Transactions on Medical Imaging, Vol.l6,No.l,Februaryl997.
[3] Alan Wee-Chung Liewand Hong Yan : “An Adaptive Spatial Fuzzy Clustering Algorithm for 3-D MR Imaj
Segmentation”, IEEE Transactions C Medical Imaging, Vol. 22, No. 9, September 2003
[4]Nicolae Duta and Milan Sonka: “ Segmentation and Interpretation of MR Brain Images: An Improved Acth
Shape Model”, IEEE Transactions On Medici Tmaeine. Vol. 17, No. 6, December 1998.
[5]Yong Fan, Tianzi Jiang and David J. Evans: “Volumetric Segmentation of Brain Images Using Parallel Genetic
Algorithms”, IEEE Transactions On Medical Imaging, Vol. 21, No. 8, August 2000.
[6]Aleksandra Mojsilovic , Bernice Rogowitz , Jose Gomes, and Thomas S.: ”Analysis, Reconstruction and
Visualization of Malignant Brain Tumors: .A Case Study in Data Synthesis”, IBM TJ Watson IResearch Center,
2Massachusetts General Hospital and 3 Harvard Medical School
[7]Su Ruan, Cyril Jaggi, Jinghao Xue, Jalal Fadili, and Daniel Bloyet: “Brain Tissue Classification of Magnetic
Resonance Images Using Partial Volume Modeling” ,IEEE Transactions On Medical Imaging, Vol. 19, No. 12,
December 2000.
[8] Koen Van Leemput,Fregerik Maes,Dirk Vanermeulen and Paul Suetens: “Automated Model Based Tissue
Classification of MR Images of the Brain”, IEEE Teans on Medical Imaging, Vol 18,NolQ,Qctober 1999.
[9]Alain Pitiot,Arthor W.Toga,Nicholas Ayache,Paul Thompson : “Texture Based MRI Segmentation with a Two
stage Hybrid Neural Classifier.
[10]Wilburn E.Reddick,John O.Glass,Edwin N. Cook,T.David Elkin and Russel J.Deaton : “Automated
Segmentation and Classification of Multispectral Magnetic Resonance Images of Brain using Artificial Neural
Networks”, IEEE Trans on Medical Imging, Vol.16 No.6 Dec 1997.
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Rice miRNAs Regulation under
Temperature Stress
DIVYA KUMARI
M.SC BIOINFORMATICS
KEYWORDS: miRNA, Temperature stress, Rice, Regulation
SUBJECT: BIOINFORMATICS
ABSTRACT
microRNAs are identified as small non-coding RNAs that regulate the expression of target gene by
posttranscriptional regulation or translational repression. miRNAs responds to extreme temperatures (such as
low and high) by modulating their expression level thereby regulating their target gene expression level too,
necessary to adapt the stress environment. Temperature stress-regulated miRNAs have been recognized as
conserved, non-conserved as well as species-specific miRNA in rice. Recent studies have evidenced the
connection between the roles of microRNA in regulation of rice genes under temperature stress via complex
and dynamic regulatory mechanism where cross-talk between networks exists. Investigating the further role of
miRNAs and targets during temperature stress can help in raising the tolerance to temperature stress, quality,
and yield. As, the information on rice miRNAs associated with temperature stress response is very limited, in
the present study, the current knowledge on rice miRNA-mediated responses to temperature stress conditions
has been discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The microRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs about 21 nucleotides in length and play
important role in the regulation of gene expression (Bartel, 2004; Jones-Rhoades and Bartel, 2004). miRNAs
come from the hairpin precursors (pre-miRNA) after two sequential cleavages by DICER-LIKE1 (DCL1) in plants
(Bartel, 2004; Jones-Rhoades, D. P. Bartel, and B. Bartel, 2006; Reinhart, Weinstein, Rhoades, B. Bartel, and D.
P. Bartel, 2002). Then mature miRNAs incorporates into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and
negatively regulate the expression of specific mRNA targets through mRNA cleavage or translational repression
(Jones-Rhoades and Bartel, 2006; Reinhart et al., 2002). Further, plants miRNAs generally interact with their
targets through perfect or near-perfect complementarity and cause target mRNA cleavage (Reinhart et al.,
2002; Schwab et al., 2005; Sunkar and Zhu, 2004).
Plant miRNAs play important role in regulation of various process, such as development, stress response and
signal transduction (Liu, Tian, Li, Wu, and Zheng, 2008; Liu et al., 2009; Sunkar, Chinnusamy, J. Zhu, and JianKang Zhu, 2007; Zhao et al., 2009).
Rice (Oryza sativa) is one most important class of the most important food crops grown across the world. It
represents a model plant to study monocot because of its available complete genome sequence, along with it
small genome and genomic resources. The growth and development of the different rice cultivars requires
different optimum temperatures range (Ziska, Manalo, and Ordonez, 1996). If they fail to achieve the
optimum range of temperature at specific growth period such as germination, tillering, sterility (Yoshida, 1973)
and anthesis, then it ultimately affect the grain-filling stage of rice. Therefore, extremes temperatures (such as
high and low) are decisive abiotic stresses that have severe impact on the productivity of the rice crop.
Evidence suggests that plant miRNAs are involved in different abiotic stresses (Jones-Rhoades and Bartel,
2004; Jeong et al., 2011; Li et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2008; Lu et al., 2005; Sunkar and Zhu, 2004).
Direct cloning and sequencing, microarray-based analysis, transcriptome-based approach, deep-sequencing,
high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics analysis are some of the approaches used to investigate the
relationship between abiotic stress and responsive miRNAs in plants. The following section discussed the role
of rice miRNAs in response to heat and cold stress.
IMPACT OF COLD STRESS ON RICE MIRNAS
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It is evidenced by the previous studies that miRNAs of different plant species gets stimulated under cold stress.
For instance, using deep sequencing, 28 cold responsive miRNAs were identified in Brachypodium that were
inducing or suppressing (Zhang et al., 2009).
Cold stress is identified to be one of the most influential abiotic stresses under which the rice miRNAs also
responds. For example, microarray analysis reported18 differentially expressed cold-responsive miRNAs in rice
also (Lv et al., 2010). Although some were up-regulated, but most of them were reported to be downregulated and thus inducing their target on (Lv et al., 2010). Another example is rice miR812q that was
demonstrated to be extremely up-regulated by cold stress at the booting stage (Jeong et al., 2011). These
studies indicate that the miRNAs of rice also respond to cold stress. Many rice miRNAs including miR394,
miR529, miR1866, miR2275 and miR2871 and were demonstrated to be regulated by cold stress (BarreraFigueroa et al., 2012). miR319c, miR393, miR397b, miR402 expression were reported to be up-regulated
during cold stress (Sunkar and Zhou, 2004). miR169, miR172 and miR393 were reported to be up-regulated
under cold stress (Zhou et al., 2008).
The response is mainly shown via change in the expression level of miRNAs as well as their target genes.The
cold responsive miRNAs-target genes, SPL, SCL, MADS box or TCP families belongs to important components of
developmental process that are induced, cleaved or suppressed (Lu and Huang, 2008; Lv et al., 2010).
Further, different miRNAs responding to cold-stress condition identified showed different degree of
expression. For instance, using transcriptome-based analyses miR165/166, miR169, miR172, miR393, miR396,
miR397, miR408 were reported to significantly up-regulated while miR156/157, miR159/319, miR164, miR394,
miR398 were only transiently or mildly regulated under cold stress conditions (Zhou et al., 2008).
Cold stress has impact on miRNAs of different plant tissues.
Evidence suggests that miRNAs in both the vegetative as well as reproductive tissues of plants are regulated by
the cold stress. For instance, in rice inflorescence, three miRNAs, miR394, miR530-3p and miR2275d reported
to be up-regulated by cold stress (Barrera-Figueroa et al., 2012). Deep sequencing of Brachypodium revealed
that different members in one miRNA family show different expression levels, for example, the expression of
miR172a was three times induced under cold stress as compared to miR172b (Zhang et al., 2009). It can be
due to developmental-or tissue-specific characteristics of miRNAs.
Species-specific Rice cold-responsive miRNAs have been suggested.
Some miRNAs (miR-1435, miR-1876, miR-1320, and miR-1884) responding to cold were specific to rice and not
in Arabidopsis (Lv et al, 2010). Further, miR1425, a rice-specific miRNA, down-regulated (Lu et al. 2008);
miR528, miR812, miR818, miR820, miR827 miR530 and miR535 found in rice and not in other species like
Arabidopsis (Zhang, 2009); rice miR-167a and miR-319a were significantly down-regulated (Lv, 2010) while upregulated in Arabidopsis (Sunkar and Zhu, 2004) under cold stress condition. Further, sequence analysis
showed that some of the conserved cold-responsive Brachypodium miRNAs (miR911T, miR912T, miR913T,
miR917T and miR918T) are more similar to their homologs in rice as compared to Arabidopsis or Populus
genome (Zhang, 2009). Furthermore, miR2019 was reported to be conserved in monocots such as wheat,
Brachypodium distachyon, rice and maize only (Xin et al, 2010). These findings such as miRNAs, expressing
differently among plants species (such as rice and Arabidopsis), expressing in rice only or moncot only,
suggests that some monocot-specific or species-specific miRNAs and related mechanism to be present in the
plants.
Connection of many (miRNAs)-to-single (target genes) and single (miRNAs)--to-many (target genes)
Interestingly, many (miRNAs)-to-single (target genes) and single (miRNAs)--to-many (target genes) relationship
have been observed. This suggests that the existence of a very complex coordinated and shared network
across in rice plants and across different plant species. For example, miR1425, is a rice-specific miRNA,
demonstrated to be down-regulated under cold stress in panicle tissues of rice and known to target a set of
genes that encodes Pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins (RNA-binding proteins involved in various posttranscriptional processes ) (Lu et al., 2008). miRNAs families such as miR161 and miR400 are also known to
target the PPR genes (Rhoades et al., 2002; Sunkar and Zhu, 2004). The study on cold-responsive miRNAs and
their target genes suggest that their further detailed investigation can help in developing cold-stress tolerant
rice. For instance, the target of miR1425, Fertility restorer (Rf-1), a PPR protein encoding gene is known to
cause an increased tolerance to cold in hybrid rice. The tolerance is demonstrated at the booting stage by
increased number of potentially fertile pollen grains (Komori and Imaseki, 2005). In addition to this, as miRNAs
known to usually down-regulate their target, the negative correlation has been reported between the
miRNA1425and its target Rf-1. For example, while miRNA1425 was down-regulated as a result of cold stress,
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its target Rf-1 gets up-regulated (Jeong et al., 2011). However, the up-regulation of miRNAs and suppressing
the respective target has also been observed. miR812q is unique in sense as its sequence is quite different
from other family members and only member to respond s to cold stress (Jeong et al., 2011). miRNAs such as
miR812q which is different from its family might be a new evolving miRNA in rice plant. So, cold put great
impact on the activity of many miRNA and respective components of the different metabolic network.
Impact of high temperature stress on Rice miRNA
The study of heat stress-modulated rice miRNAs has gain importance in recent years, as it helps in identifying
the response and adaptation made by plants system under high temperature stress. However, heat-responsive
miRNAs have not been studied well in plants as compared to other stress related miRNAs. Some of them are
demonstrated in wheat, Populus, Brassica rapa, and rice (Lu et al., 2008; Xin et al., 2010; Jeong et al., 2011; Yu
et al., 2012).
In rice, miR397b.2 is induced by heat stress. A target of miR397b.2, which encodes an L-ascorbate oxidase, is
down-regulated during the heat stress while miR397b.2 is induced also induced by salt stress in rice (Jeong et
al., 2011). This indicates that the rice miR397 family has evolved to modulate the expression of L-ascorbate
oxidase under heat stress.
Species-specific Rice heat-responsive miRNAs have been suggested.
The heat stress has been demonstrated to be involved in the up- and down-regulation of miRNA across many
plant species. For example, wheat miRNAs such as miR156, miR159, miR160, miR166, miR168, miR169 and
miR827 (Xin et al., 2010) and members of miR156 family of Brassica rapa were showed to be induced by heat
stress (Yu et al, 2012).
Tissue-specific, conserved and non-conserved nature of miRNAs is present.
The same miRNAs in rice seedlings under heat stress demonstrated to have different expression patterns in
roots and shoot tissues (Shaileja et al, 2014). For instance, a recent study showed that miR160, miR1884 and
miR169 have different expression in roots and shoots tissue of rice under heat stress. These miRNAs were upregulated in shoots and down regulated in roots. Along with this, some miRNAs such as miR156, miR162,
miR168, miR167, miR397 demonstrated to be down-regulated in rice seedling under heat stress (Shaileja et al,
2014). In addition to responding differently in different tissues, the same miRNA also respond differently under
different stress conditions. For example, the miR1884 in rice shoots showed to be down-regulated under cold
stress (Lv et al., 2010), and down-regulated in root tissues, whereas up-regulated in the rice shoot under heat
stress (Shaileja et al., 2014). Some of the heat-responsive miRNA target genes demonstrated to have role in
thermo-tolerance. For example, the miR398-target gene, BracCSD1 reported to play an important role in
thermo-tolerance through protection from oxidative damage (Yu et al, 2012). In addition to this, the same
miR156was demonstrated to be down-regulated in rice during drought stress (Zhou et al, 2010) and heat
stress (Shaileja et al, 2014).The differential expression of miRNAs suggests they might be involved in complex
coordinated network by functioning in up- or down-regulation of specific target genes in shoot and root tissues
of rice under specific condition.
DISCUSSION
The miRNAs are a class of small non-coding RNAs that play an important role in various developmental and
stress response processes via negatively- and sometimes positively- controlled gene expression. They are
present across different plant species, but large-scale miRNA analysis in monocots has mainly been performed
in rice with experimental approaches. Here, miRNA showed to be conserved across different species, but they
are also noticed to show different expressions patterns in different tissues (such as shoot and root) of the rice
plant and also differently across different rice species. Moreover, the study of such heat-responsive miRNAtarget genes (miR398-target- BracCSD1) in rice plants indicate that it will help in understanding and developing
heat-tolerant rice plants. Therefore, discovery of miRNAs and its targets response in rice and other plants
under cold- and heat- stress are still in the dynamic phase and are continuously evolving, thus present great
area of research that needs to be further investigated. Further it will help in developing the rice crop that will
be more tolerant to temperature stress and would help in better rice yield.
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A study on relation between work
culture and employee turnover
A special reference to real estate sector
Bhubaneswar city
DR. KISHORE KUMAR DAS*
Mrs. PRAJNA MOHAPATRA**
Head & Associate Professor,SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES,RAVENSHAW UNIVERSITY, CUTTACK*
Ph.D. Research Scholar,Ravenshaw University**
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
ABSTRACT
Just as an organization needs the right talent to drive its business objectives, people need the right
environment to grow and achieve their career goals. As the company grows and becomes successful, it usually
develops a culture that distinguishes it from other companies and that is one of the reasons for its success.
This culture provides an option for the employees, either to like their organization or dislike their organization.
In this concern it has been found that, irrespective of high salary, company brand name, good location, people
sometimes leave the organization for its negative or annoying culture. Especially in a country like India, people
are bound by their family values and even in their choice of careers and its perusal, they cannot neglect the
same. Though we can’t ignore the fact of presence of corruptions, politics, superior subordinate feeling etc in
industrial sector in India, but still there are employees who never hesitate to leave their organization, if it’s not
suitable as per their values. In general, though sometimes the employees are bound to go with the system,
but most of the time employees prefer a proper environment where they can work and shape their future. In
an organization the work environment or the work culture actually plays a very important role. As discussed
earlier, employee’s decision regarding leaving the organization or continuing job in the place, is largely
affected by the work culture of the organization. In this study focus is given on the effect of work culture on
employee turnover, particularly in Real-Estate sector in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
INTRODUCTION
It has long been known that employee’s behavior and attitude are affected by the nature of the work and the
environment they do it in and the corporate or work culture is part of this environment. Corporate culture is a
blend of ideas, customs, traditional practices, companies values, and shared meaning that help define normal
behavior for everyone who works in a company. Every organization has a culture which exercises considerable
influence on employee behavior. It is essentially a learned and shared set of responses of constituent
individuals and groups to the organization environment, task and problem. Stated another way, it consists of
what people believe about how things work in their organization and the behavioral and physical outcomes of
such beliefs. It thus a combination of attitude, relationships, developed abilities, habits and other behavioral
patterns of the individuals who belong to the organization. So one can easily imagine the importance of a
positive work culture, and its effect on employees’ behavior. Ethical code of conduct, employee friendly
attitude from management, flexible work schedule, appropriate communication, quality consciousness, group
dynamics are part of a healthy and positive work culture whereas unnecessary corporate politics, corruption,
centralized management system, undisciplined working environment etc are considered as negative. In this
concern if sometimes the work culture of the organization fails to influence or motivate the employees in a
positive way or the employees feel the negativity of the work culture on their career, it results different types
of problems like increase absenteeism, employee turnover, decrease reputation of the organization etc.
though we all know these problems like employee absenteeism, employee turnover etc are the outcomes of
some other reasons too, but the turnover rate due to an inappropriate work culture can’t be ignored. On this
ground, here in this study an attempt has been to made to find out, to what extent a wrong or not so accepted
work culture by employees, resulting the biggest problem for the organizations i.e. employee turnover. In this
concern focus is given on the Real-Estate sector at Bhubaneswar, which is now growing remarkably.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
In this study an attempt has been made to put some light on the concept of an organizations work culture and
what is its effect on the employees’ behavior? Apart from this, through this study we also try to establish a
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cause-and-effect relationship between organization’s work culture and employee turnover particularly in case
of Real-Estate sector, Bhubaneswar. Along with this it has also been tried to find out whether the employees
do like the culture or they want some change on it. Similarly from the organization’s side what measures has
been taken to bring the changes on work culture as per the employee’s demand. As we all know employee
turnover is one of the biggest problems in every industrial sector. So here we also try to find in what the
organizations try to handle the problem of employee turnover, especially when it happens due to wrong and
inappropriate work culture.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
When employees join the organization they step in premises with lots of expectations. So it really important
for an organization to understand what employees expects and in what way those can be fulfilled. Among the
expectations, one of the important one, is the image of the organization. It happens with of all of us, that
during the initial days of our new job and new company, we all posses a very positive attitude and expect
positive things. But sometimes this positivity fades away as the time pass. What is reason for this? May be the
organization fails to fullfil those expectation or the employees can’t find anything as per their expectation.
These dissatisfactions sometimes create problems for the organizations in terms of employee turnover,
employee absenteeism etc as discuss earlier. In order to remove theses dissatisfaction the work culture of the
organization really plays an important role in order to make the employees feel secure, disciplined and
systematic inside the organization. So this study is an attempt to find out the importance of a good working
culture for an organization and how it is related to employee turnover, particularly in the Real-Estate industry
in Bhubaneswar.
STUDY OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
Organizational work culture is defined as “A pattern of shared basic assumptions invented, discovered, or
developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration" that have worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new
members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems” Schein. It has also been
defined as "the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization
and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. Ravasi
and Schultz (2006) state that, organizational culture is a set of shared mental assumptions that guide
interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations. Example of
such culture is Hewlett-Packard (HP), which is well known for its culture that stress on values and ethics. For
them confidence in and respect for people, open communication, sharing of benefits and responsibilities are
part of their culture. Similarly the TATA people are known for their employee friendly attitude where they
provide a sense of security to their employees in terms of their jobs. To an outside observer a company’s
culture reveals itself in several ways. One can see it in employees’ pattern of behavior, such as ceremonial
events and written and spoken commands or one can see it in the physical manifestation of a company’s
behavior such as written rules, office layout, organizational structure and dress code. In turn these cultural
symbols and behaviors tend to reflect the firm’s shared values.
So from this we can say that organization’s work culture plays a very important role not only for the
organization but also for shaping the employees behavior towards it. The extent to which the organizations’
follow their culture and philosophy, it is easy for them to gain the confidence, loyalty and commitment from
the employee side. Because a good and effective work culture always welcome by the employees as they know
its benefits. In the absence of it, employees lost their faith and confidence from the organization and they
decide other alternatives for them. One of them is employee turnover. As we all know it is the biggest problem
in every industrial sector, where employees are getting lots of options due to globalization. Every organization
is ready toprovide attractive pay packages, various benefits and facilities for employees to attract them. So in
this competitive world, now it is challenge for organization to maintain a better work culture and a corporate
philosophy, due to which they can create a good image in the market and attract the employees.
In this study we have taken the real estate sector, in Bhubaneswar to conduct our survey. Bhubaneswar known
as the temple city, in case of real estate business is taking giant leaps today, it's because investment is coming
with IT gaining firm footing in the capital to lay the foundation for growth in the near future. apart from this
the city is also preparing to welcome other projects like IIT, Bhubaneswar, POSCO etc which is going create a
huge opportunities for the real estate investors to invest money. At present in Bhubaneswar there are more
than 30 real estate companies working in their projects, in the different parts of the city. As a result, people
working in this sector are getting lots of option to enhance their career. So with this study an attempt has been
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made to make a survey on the employees of this sector, to find out their organizations’ work culture, its effect
on their behavior, the employees’ opinion on that and whether the organization face the problem of employee
turnover due to this or not?
METHODOLOGY
This methodology followed in the selection of sample, scope of the study, sources of data, collection of data,
tools and techniques used for the study, hypothesis of study etc
SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE
Generally, it is not possible to include the entire universe in the sample for the purpose of a study. Hence,
keeping in view of the scope of the present study, it has been decided to choose the sample units on the basis
of representative sampling. For the purpose, it was decided to take employees opinions in terms of sample size
from the employees working in the real estate sector, in Bhubaneswar city. So the present study is based on
the sample size of 80 employees of real estate business having different years of experience. The sample
includes both male and female employees.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present study aims at analyzing the concept of organizations work culture and its effect in employee
behavior, in the real estate sector of Bhubaneswar city. For this we have taken our sample size (opinion of
employees) having various years of experience and having different designations. The study includes opinion
of both male and female employees. Apart from it also include the work culture impact on employees’
turnover. Similarly the study focuses on to find out the extent to which the organizations are stick to their
culture and philosophy,
SOURCES OF DATA
The data used for study is of both primary and secondary in nature. For collecting employee’s opinion a
questionnaire has been developed under primary source. Here the employees are asked to give their opinion
by selecting the appropriate options. The questionnaire also has got provision where the employees can
provide their additional valuable opinion if they have. Under secondary sources help of books, journals and the
materials published in internet have been taken into consideration.
TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS
The data collected for the survey are analyzed on basis of calculating the percentage of employee’s opinion.
After that their opinions calculated in percentage are represented in various cylindrical graphs for better
understanding.
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
The followings are the hypotheses taken for our study.

The employees are treated with respect by their superiors.

All organizations have their own grievance settlement system.

All organizations follow a definite culture and philosophy.

Organizations have an attractive salary and reward system

The management of the organization appreciates the efficiency of the employees.

There is freedom of expression for every employee.
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The major limitation of the study is time constraint of the employees. As it is completely based on employee’s
opinions, for this reason it is difficult to obtain their views as they were very busy in their work. Similarly the
study is limited to employees working the real estate sector in Bhubaneswar only. Due to this it was difficult to
gather information from other organizations, belong to other cities of the state. Further, the significance of the
tests would not be made to generalize the findings of the study for the entire population. So, one should
carefully and judiciously use the findings of the study, only after taking the various limitations into
consideration.
TOTAL SAMPLE ANALYSIS
As discussed earlier the aim of the study was to find out the importance of work culture in an organization and
how it helps in influencing the employees’ behavior. Similarly we also tried to find out whether the impact of
work culture of the organization put any significant effect on employee turnover or not. In this concern we
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have taken the real estate sector of Bhubaneswar city and made a survey among 90 employees to know their
opinion.
A good organization culture always encourages equal treatment to all its employees with proper respect. It is
not at all necessary that the person working in the organization is posted on which post. No matter whether he
belongs to top management or lower management, he an executive or just an office assistant, treat them with
respect is symbol of a good culture. In this concern it has been found that 57.14% of employees agreed that
the organization treat them with respect while 42.87% employees did not agree on that.
Figure 1 treated respectfully by the organization
Every organization should believe in equality. That is the employee should give equal emphasis while doing any
of their task or assigning task to them. It is part of good organization culture that there should not be any kind
of favoritism from the top management. As all the employees do their part of work, their handwork should be
recognized equally. In this concern it has been found that 71.42% of employees told that they found superiors
practice favoritism to some candidates to some extent while 28.57% employees said they don’t found this
problem in their organization at all.
Figure 2 Favoritism practiced by superior
A good work culture always facilitates and welcomes the employees to disclose their dissatisfaction, complains
if any, in front of the management. So every organization must have a systematic grievance redressal
procedure, so that the employees will get the opportunity to disclose any of their complaints or
dissatisfactions in front of the management. During the survey it has been found that only 14.28% employees
said that their organizations have the grievance settlement system whereas 85.71% employees said, they don’t
have such sective manner by system.
Figure 3 the organizations have grievance redressal system
Surprisingly it has been found that, though the organizations don’t have the grievance settlement procedure in
systematic manner, but the employee complaints are dealt with very effective manner by the management.
Here we got very mix kind of opinion i.e. according to 57.14% employees, the organizations deal with their
complaints effectively, while 42.87% employees said, their complaints are overlooked by the organizations.
Figure 4 complaints are dealt with effectively or not?
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For the development of every organization, it is very much important that the organization should follow a
definite culture and philosophy. Because, by doing this, the organization can incorporate those culture and
philosophy within the employees to modify their behavior. It also helps in increasing the employee loyalty,
commitment towards the organization. Regarding this it has been found that 57.14% employees said that their
organizations follow a definite culture and philosophy while 42.87% employees said, their organizations don’t
follow any definite culture and philosophy.
Figure 5 organizations follow a definite culture and philosophy
One of the reasons behind the organization’s employee turnover problem is salary or pay package offered by
the organization. Every time the employees’ expect an attractive salary package from organization in return of
their work and if the organization fails to fulfill this demand, they prefer to switch to other organization. Under
a good work culture, in order to motivate employees, the organization offers attractive salary and reward
system to the employees. Though expectation of employees in case of salary can’t be completely fulfilled, but
the organizations should try their best to meet the employees demand. Regarding this we found that 57.14%
employees are satisfied with salary and reward system of organization while the rest are not satisfied.
Figure 6 organization provides attractive salary and rewards
In order to increase the motivation of the employees and to increase their commitment towards the
organization, it is important that the organization should recognize the employees’ effort and efficiency.
Through this the organization can boost their confidence level and employees will show their loyalty towards
the organization. In this concern we found a very mix kind of reaction i.e. 42.87% employees said that their
organization recognizes their efficiency and similar percentage employees said that their organization don’t
recognize their efficiency.
Figure 7 organization recognizes employees' efficiency
Freedom of expression is one of the important factors for developing a good work culture for an organization.
if the employees will get a chance to express their views, it will enhance their analytical and decision making
ability. In this regard we found that 57.14% employees said that, they find that space to express their views
while 28.57% employees said, they don’t find any space for open communication. Apart from these, 14.28%
employees are found confused about the question.
Figure 8 Regarding freedom of expression
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A good organization work culture does not differentiate between employees of different gender. For the
organization all its employees should be given equal importance irrespective of their gender. In this concern it
has been found that 42.87% employees said there is gender disparity in their organization while 28.57% said
there is no such problem.
Figure 9 gender disparity is there or not?
As we all know a proper work condition is also part of a good work culture. An organization should provide a
better working environment so that the employees can give their best. So data we obtained under this is
71.42% employees said that the working condition is good while 28.57% said, the working condition is not
appropriate.
Figure 10 regarding working condition
While asking the employees whether there organization is better than the competitor organizations, we found
that 42.87% employees said their organization is better than the competitor organization and 57.14%
employees said the competitor organizations are better.
Figure 11 better than the competitor organizations
Similarly while asking them if they have given a chance, whether the employees want to leave the organization
or not, surprisingly it has been found that only 14.28% employees said they want to leave. But the majority of
employees said they don’t want to leave their organization.
Figure 12 regarding leaving the organization
SUMMERY OF THE FINDINGS &CONCLUSION
An appropriate work culture plays a very vital role for an organizational development. As discussed earlier
equal treatment to the employees, giving respect to them, recognizing their efficiency, open communication,
an attractive pay offer by the organization are important ingredients, helps the organization for developing a
good work culture which can influence the employees behavior. It also helps the organization to create
goodwill in front of the employees as well as in the market which increase the employee commitment and
loyalty towards the organization. This factor results in decrease in employee turnover to a certain extent too.
Through this study an attempt has been made to establish a cause and effect relationship between
organization’s work culture and employee turnover in case of real estate sector, in Bhubaneswar city. The
outcome of the result is quite interesting. In the beginning we found that majority of employees said that their
organization treat them with respect, which is good for the organization and indicates a good work culture. But
surprisingly, during the study we found that most employees have complained regarding favoritism practiced
by the superiors in the organization. So proper steps should be taken regarding this by the organizations.
Similarly a very interesting fact we found that most of the organizations don’t have any grievance settlement
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system for the employees but surprisingly majority of the employees said that their complaints are dealt in a
proper manner by the organization. So if it is possible the organizations should try to establish separate
grievance settlement system, so that the employees will be more open in disclosing their complaints. During
the study it has been found that majority of employees said that their organizations don’t follow any definite
work culture and philosophy which is bit sad because employee should know why does their organization
exist, what the organizations believe and in what way they should work there? As discussed earlier regarding
salary and offerings, it has been found that majority of employees are satisfied with the pay package made by
the organizations, which is a nice thing. Apart from this, we found a similar response both in positive and
negative way regarding employees’ opinion towards recognitions of their efficiency by the management. So
the organization should take necessary steps on this matter. Same time it has been also found the similar kind
response i.e. majority of employees gave their opinion regarding freedom expression and proper working
condition in a positive manner. During the surprisingly it has been found that gender disparity actually prevails
in the sector. The reason behind this may be the sector demands and prefers male candidate for the marketing
work. But for the job if the organizations give equal importance to both male and female candidates, it will be
good for the sector. Last but the not the least, a nice we got to know that almost every employee don’t want
to leave their organization as of then, as they like their organization very much.
So from this study over all we found that, though this sector does not follow a definite culture, gender
disparity is there, still employees are quite satisfied and they are not that serious about theses issues,
particularly while they think about leaving the organizations.
FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE STUDY
In spite of our every attempt to make this study a more intensive one, a number of gapes remained
owing to time and resource constraint. Hence further work may be undertaken to bridge gape and to enhance
the scope of the study. The coverage of the study is limited to the opinion of only 70 employees; belong to
various organizations. This can be further extended. Data for the purpose of analysis have been collected
primary and secondary sources, which have their own limitations. Under primary source only questionnaire
method was used for collecting data. If some other method like interview method was taken this will enhance
the scope of the study and will have a better insight into the study. However, we hope, the analysis presented
in this study will act as a base for further scrutiny of this important investigation.
Reference:
BOOKS



reprint



Human Resource management, Desler Gary, PHI publication, 10th edition
Human Resource Management, Mondy R. wayne & Noe Robert M., PHI Publication
Human Resource Management and Personnel Management (Text & Cases), Aswathapa K. , TMH Publication, 5th
Human Resource management(Text & Cases), Rao V.S.P, Excel Book publication, 2nd Edition
Personnel management, Michel V.P. Himalaya Publishing House, 5th edition 2002
Human Resource Management (Text and Cases), Khanka S.S., S. Chand Publishing House, 1st editition,2003
REPORT & ARTICLES







Asian journal of economics and social studies
Australian journal of management
Business standard magazine of management
Economic and political weekly
Indian journal of behavioral science
Indian management study journal
International journal of organization study
WEBS








www.indianmba.com/article-on-mgt.com
www.icmrindia.org
www.zenhrm.com
www.mbaarticles.com/compensation-managemnt
www.dheorissa.in/DHE/pdf/FinalTaskforceReport.pdf
http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/may/19spec.htm
http://chillibreeze.in/rate-articles-get-your-writing-rated/miscellaneous/work-culture-in-india/
http://www.chillibreeze.com/articles/work-culture-India.asp
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Volume 1/Issue 10/FEB- 2013/ISSN 2320-7620
Menstrual hygiene among adolescent school
students: An in-depth cross-sectional study in
rural area of Kurukshetra district, Haryana
SAROJ RANI*
GULSHANMEHRA**
*Assistant Professor in Women Studies Research Centre, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana.
**Research Scholar of Geography Department, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana.
KEYWORDS: ADOLESCENT GIRL, MENSTRUAL HYGIENE, RTI, SANITARY PAD, MENARCHE
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
ABSTRACT
According to UNICEF report Twenty-five per cent of the population of India were adolescents in 2011.
Menstruation is a normal physiological process but the onset of menstruation is a unique phenomenon for
adolescent girls. Menstrual practices are still taboos in our society and socio-cultural restrictions resulting in
adolescent girls remaining ignorant of the scientific facts and hygienic health practices, which sometimes result
into adverse health outcomes on adolescent girls. The present study was designed to assess the knowledge,
beliefs, and source of information regarding menstruation among the adolescent school girls of the secondary
school and also to identify the status of menstrual hygiene among them. A descriptive, cross-sectional based
study was conducted among 376 adolescent girls of thirteen different secondary school situated in rural areas
of six blocks of Kurukshetra district, Haryana.The study concludes that unsatisfactory menstruation hygiene
practice among rural adolescent girls. There is significant relationship between hygienic practices followed and
mother’s education.The results of the present study highlights the fact that more efforts should be made to
create awareness about hygienic practices during menstruation, especially in rural areas.
INTRODUCTION:
In India, adolescents account for a little more than one-fifth of the population (21.4%). Adolescent girls in India
are: of the total population, 10-14 age groups (12.1%) and 15 to 19 age groups (10.5%) girls (GOI, 2001).In girls,
adolescence is recognized as a period of rapid transition in life from “childhood” to “adulthood.”Menstruation
is the monthly vaginal bleeding at an interval of about 28 days from the uterine endometrium (Padubidriand
Daftary, 2004).The menarche or time of onset of menstruation varies with race and family, but the first
menarche occurs between 11 and 15 years with mean of13 years across well‑nourished populations in
developed countries (Diaz et al., 2006; Banerjee et al., 2007 and Garget al., 2012).Menstruation is a normal
and most important physiological process but the onset of menstruation is a unique phenomenon for girls
during the adolescent years (Garg et al., 2012 and Shah et al., 2013).
Most of the girls are ignorant about the physiology of menstruation and therefore the first experience of
menstruation is of fear, shame and disgust. A fear inculcates in the adolescent girls that they will sin if they
breaks these taboos (Bheenaveni, 2010). Isolation of the menstruating girls and restrictions being imposed on
them in the family, have reinforced a negative attitude towards this phenomenon (Dhingraet al.,
2009).Although menstruation is a natural process, it is linked with several misconceptions and practices, which
sometimes result into adverse health outcomes (Dasguptaand Sarkar, 2008).
Several studies have reported restrictions during menstruation that limit daily activities and routine are widely
practiced. These manifest from beliefs that a girl during her menstruation is ritually dangerous, which can
result in them spoiling food and plants, biological and social processes (Chawla, 1992; Puri and Kapoor,
2006;Singh, 2006 and Garg et al., 2012).
In India, menstrual practices are still regarded as something unclean or dirty in the society and socio-cultural
restrictionswith a long list of “do’s” and “don’ts” resulting in adolescent girls remaining ignorant of the
scientific facts and hygienic health practices, which sometimes result into adverse health outcomes on
adolescent girls and it may increase vulnerability to (RTI’s) Reproductive Tract Infection (Thakre et al., 2011;
Garg et al., 2012 and El-Lassyand El-Aziz Madian, 2013).Alarge proportion of adolescent girls suffer from
various gynaecological problems,particularly menstrual irregularitiessuch as hypermenorrhoea,
hypomenorrhoea, menorrhagia and dysmenorrhoea (Khanna et al., 2005).
Majority of the girls lack scientific knowledge about menstruation and usage of sanitary napkins is virtually
absent in rural areas of India (Garg et al., 2012). Adolescent girls often are reluctant to discuss this topicwith
their parents and they have not received adequate attention in the reproductive health in developing
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countries. This leads to lack of knowledge at accurate time regarding her physiological maturation and onset of
menarche further that makes misunderstanding of the need of the teenage girls.
The profile of the woman's reproductive health is greatly influenced by the girl's reaction to menarche, her
beliefs and attitude towards menstruation, and more important her behaviour during it (El-Lassyand El-Aziz
Madian, 2013). The reaction to menstruation depends upon awareness and knowledge about the subject. The
manner in which a girl learns about menstruation and its associated changes may have an impact on her
response to the event of menarche (Rao et al., 1998).
Good hygienic practices such as the use of sanitary pads and adequate washing of the genital area are
essential during menstruation. Reproductive health of women can be improved by increasing the accessibility,
availability, affordability and acceptability of sanitary napkins and other protection materials for menstrual
hygiene, as a result of which different Millennium Development Goals (2, 3, 5, 7 and 8) can be achieved
(Bhattacherjee et al., 2013).
A key priority for adolescent girls is to have the necessary knowledge, facilities, regular supply of sanitary
napkins, water supply, disposal of napkins, reproductive health education and the cultural environment to
manage menstruation hygienically. Conscious efforts need to be made to address lack of privacy, which is an
important determinant for proper practice of menstrual hygiene and also school attendance.Thus, realizing the
importance of the issue of menstrual hygiene, The Union Health and Family welfare Ministry, Government of
India launched a scheme on June 15, 2010 for the provision of subsidized sanitary napkins to rural areas at the
cost of ₨ 01 for BPL and ₨ 05 for APL per pack of six napkins and in June 2011, the Government of India
launched a new scheme to make sanitary pads available in selected rural areas at a subsidized cost of Rs 6 per
pack of six sanitary pads by accredited social health activists (ASHAs) who are village based frontline health
workers.Finally, this initiative by the Government of India is a welcomed step towards menstrual hygiene for
rural adolescent girls. But the issue of menstrual hygiene promotion needs to be more attention from
Government side like fund realised by government regularly and more subsidies provide to SMS
(SakhsarMahilaSamuh) and other all working manufacturing and marketing agencies (WSRC, 2011).
Hence the present study was conducted among rural adolescent girls in Kurukshetra District with the following
objective:
OBJECTIVE
1.
2.
To assess the practices of menstrual hygiene among school going adolescent girls.
To assess restrictions which were practiced by school going adolescent girls during menstruation.
STUDY AREA AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS:
Kurukshetra district falls in the north-east part of the Haryana State and is bounded by North latitudes
29°53’00” and 30°15’02” and East longitudes 76°26’27” and 77°07’57 and covering an area of 1530 sq.km. The
district is bordered by Karnal district in the south, Kaithal district in the south and south-west, Ambala in the
north and Patiala in the north-west. The district is well connected by roads and railways. The SherShah Sri
Marg (NH No.1) runs through the entire length of the district. A broad gauge railway line connecting Delhi with
Ambala runs almost parallel to the NH No.1. Kurukshetra is the districts headquarter. It has six blocks namely
Ladwa, Pehowa, Shahabad, Thanesar, Babain and Ismilabad.The district is one of the most densely populated
districts of the state. The total population of the district as per 2011 census is 964,655. The population density
is 630 persons per sq.km against the state average of 570 persons per sq.km. The study was conducted among
376 adolescent girls from thirteen different secondary schools which are situated in rural area of above saidsix
blocks (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Study area of sample village school of Kurukshetra district of Haryana.
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DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY
A descriptive, cross-sectional based study was conducted among 376 adolescent girls from thirteen different
secondary schoolswhich are situated in rural areas of six blocks of Kurukshetra district with the help of a predesigned and structured questionnaire in which mixed methods (quantitative as well qualitative) were
applied.The selections of sample school are based on random sampling methods. A self-administered
structured close-ended questionnaire survey (quantitative), and focus group discussions, and semi-structured
in-depth interviews (qualitative) were applied to collect the information.
Data collection was carried out at the school site during school hours with verbal consent from respective
school Principals.The self-administered survey was carried out in a classroom without the presence of male
students or teachers.Female members from the research team explained the purpose of the study andmethod
of completing the questionnaire and took verbal affirmation from the respondents to participate in the study.
A Focus Group Discussion and Semi-structured in-depth interviews were carried out in each of the thirteen
schools. Quantitative data from the survey was analysed using SPSS 20.0 software. Descriptive statistics were
generated to show the socio-demographic characteristics as well as the distribution of knowledge and
practices regarding menstrual hygiene. Cross-tabulation was run to see the association between restrictions
followed with mother’s education. Qualitative data were gathered through in depth interviews and focus
group discussions in order to gain an understanding of the patterns and practices around menstruation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 presents the socio-demographic details of the study subjects. It was evident that age of the
respondents (N= 376) varied from 10-20 years. The students of class 9th were mostly 13 to 15 years (55.3%)
and the students of class 11th mostly 16 to 20 years (44.1%) withmean age 15 years.The mean age of menarche
as perceived by the girls in this study was 13 year that is 39.4% of respondent.The study population were
mainly schedule caste (41%), while (38.6%) were backward class and only 20.5% of respondent were from
general class.Among 376 respondents in the present study, 335 (89.1%) were Hindus, whereas 31 (8.2%) girls
were Sikh and only 10 (2.7%) girls were Muslims.
The education of parents especially mothers matters a lot. The mother is a major source of information about
menstruation (Thérès and Maria, 2010). Table1 reveals thatnear about one third of mothers (71.0%) were
illiterate or below matric education, while (27.9%) had matric to higher secondary education and only (1.1%)
had graduate or more education.
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of adolescent girls.
Attributes
Frequencies
Percentage
Age group (Years)
Early adolescence (10-12)
02
0.6
Mid adolescence (13-15)
208
55.3
Late adolescence (16-20)
166
44.1
Age of Menarche (Years)
< 11
09
2.4
12
59
15.7
13
148
39.4
14
110
29.3
> 15
50
13.2
Religion
Hindu
335
89.1
Sikh
31
8.2
Muslim
10
2.7
Caste Group
General
77
20.5
Backward Class
145
38.6
Schedule Caste
154
41.0
Mother’s Education
Illiterate and below Metric
267
71.0
Metric to Higher Secondary
105
27.9
Degree and above
4
1.1
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Father’s Occupation
Agriculture
Labour
Job(Pvt./ Govt.)
Self-Occupation
Other (Disable or Expired)
House Type
Kucha
Pucca
Mixed
Family Type
Nuclear
Joint
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65
235
24
49
03
17.3
62.5
6.4
13
0.8
91
172
113
24.2
45.7
30.1
278
98
73.9
26.1
Fathers of most of the girls were labours (62.5%), followed by farmers (17.3%), self-occupation (13%) and
service holders (6.4%). Mothers of most of the respondents were housewives. This picture shows the low level
of economic status of the respondents.Less than half of respondents (45.7%) have had Pucca house, while
24.2% of the respondents have had Kucha house and (30.1%) have Mixed house type. Mostly respondents
were from Nuclear family (73.9%) and only (26.1%) were from joint family. We tried to assess the socioeconomic status but non-response was from students, the school students were unable to tell their family
income.
Table 2 shows that nearly half (43.6%) of girls were aware about menstruation prior to attainment of
menarche and a big number (56.4%) of girls did not know about the menstrual cycle before their menarche.It
was observed that (76.6%) girls believed it as a physiological process, (9.5%) girls believed it as a curse of God,
(8.6%) girls believed it be result of sin and, (5.3%) girls believed that it was a disease.
Table 2: Information about menarche and perception about menstruation
Attributes
Frequencies
Percentage
Awareness about menstruation before menarche
Yes
164
43.6
No
212
56.4
Cause of menstruation
Physiological process
288
76.6
Curse of God
36
9.5
Caused by sin
32
8.6
Caused by disease
20
5.3
Source of information
Mother
286
76.1
Father
01
0.3
Sister
59
15.7
Friend
28
7.4
Other
02
0.5
Parents reaction at menarche
Cooperative
331
88.0
Non Cooperative
45
12.0
Perception of cost using sanitary pad
Expensive
190
50.5
Too Expensive
54
14.4
Shy to purchase
32
8.5
Lack to Awareness
83
22.1
Feel Uncomfortable
17
4.5
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Mothers (76.1%) were the most common source of information about menstruation, followed by elder
sisters (15.7%), friends (7.4%), father (0.3%), and others (0.5%). (88%) of respondent girls reported that their
parents had co-operative nature during menarche and (12%) had non-cooperative nature during menarche. In
this study (64.9%) of the respondents reported expensive cost of sanitary pad and (22.1%) girls perceived that
many may not know about the sanitary pad, while (8.5%) of girls felt shy or embarrassed to buy the sanitary
pad at village shop. So that poor demand for sanitary napkins discourages rural vendors from maintaining
stock of napkins.
Table 3 depicting the practices during menstruation shows that 49.5% of the respondent adolescent girls
used sanitary pads during menstruation, (44.7%) girls used old cloth pieces and less than (6%) girls used
tampon for their sanitary hygiene during menstruation.
Table-3: Practice of menstrual hygiene.
Attributes
Frequencies
Percentage
Absorbent material used in last menstruation
Sanitary Pad
186
49.5
Clothes
168
44.7
Tampon
22
5.8
Cleaning of external genitalia
Regular
240
63.9
Irregular
136
36.1
Wear undergarments before starting menstruation
Yes
235
62.5
No
141
37.5
How many times you change your pad in a day
One times/day
29
7.7
Two times/day
219
58.2
Three and more times/day
128
34.0
What you do with used pad
Wash and Re-use
48
12.8
Throw in routine waste or open space
04
1.1
Put into dustbin
324
86.2
Toilet facility at home
Yes
343
91.3
No
33
8.7
Proper dustbin facility at school toilets
Yes
267
71.0
No
109
29.0
Most respondents (63.9 %) told that they wash their genitals regular with water only when they go to toilet,
while (36.1%) told they wash their genitals two or three times a day during menstruation. In the survey (37.5%)
did not wear the undergarments before starting menstruation. The mean of the total number of absorbents
which were used during the last menstrual period was two times in a day but literature suggests during the
menstrual period, sanitary napkins should be changed about every 4 hours, possibly more often during the
first days of the period when the menstrual flow is usually heavier (El-Lassy and El-Aziz Madian 2013). In
(86.2%) of the adolescent girls, the method of disposal of the used sanitary pad/ clothes/ Tampons was to
dump in dustbin. (12.8%) of the girls were washed and reused the cloth. This is also an unsatisfactory hygiene
practices conducted by girls. A majority of the girls (91.3%) had toilets at home. But if we see in the school
premises there is lack of dustbin facility in the toilets therefore so many girls felt shy to disposed used pad.
Disposal of used cloth pieces and napkins was a challenge at school hours.
“In our school there is no specific place to dump the cloth so that we don’t change the cloth even if I wanted
to.”
“In our school there is only one tap. I have to carry water to the toilet.”
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Table 4: Routine during menstruation.
Attributes
Frequencies
Percentage
How did you feel when start menses
Normal
87
23.1
Physical problem
202
53.8
Mental problem
87
23.1
Bath during a menstrual cycle
Yes
263
70.0
No
113
30.0
Ever absent due to menstruation
Yes
214
56.9
No
162
43.1
What treatment did you take during problem
Meet to doctor
81
21.5
Domestic treatment
39
10.4
No treatment
169
45.0
What routine did you follow during menses
As usual activities
211
56.1
Rest
61
16.2
Only lift light weight
104
27.7
If you face any problem during menses at school hours than do you share with lady teacher
Yes
360
95.7
No
16
4.3
About (53.8%) of girls mentioned experiencing some kind of abnormal physical condition (abdominal pain or
discomfort) during the last menses.Near about one fourth of girls shared that in addition to these physical
symptoms they feel mentally stressed during menstruation.In the study, only near about two third of the
respondents (70.0%) mentioned having taken bath everyday and about (30.0%) on alternate days, during their
last mensuration. Half of the respondents (56.9) mentioned being ever absent due to menstruation. Near
about half of the respondents never take any action if they had problem during menses. Whereas only (21.5 %)
girls meet to doctor if they had problem during menses. During menstruation (16.2%) girls take rest at their
home and (27.7%) girls don’t lift heavy weight. Mostly girls reported that they share their problem to lady
teacher during menses at school hours.
“I am trying a piece of black thread on our feet to reduce pain.”
Table 5: Distribution of respondents according to the restriction followed during menstruation with their
mother’s education.
Types of restrictions
Mother’s education (Number of respondents)
No restriction
All others
Gods worship
Household work
Kitchen work
From school
Total
Illiterate
Primary
Middle
Matric
Secondary
14
85
41
21
8
1
170
4
55
40
16
6
1
122
2
28
8
8
1
1
48
5
13
7
4
2
0
31
0
4
0
1
0
0
5
Figure 2: Distribution of respondents according to the restriction followed during menstruation with their
mother’s education.
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Table 5 and Figure 2clearly indicate that there are still large number of traditional beliefs and restrictions
surrounding menstruation. The mothers who are better educated are more conscious of her child’s menstrual
hygiene. Only 6.6% of the respondents mentioned not practicing any form of restriction or exclusion, it was
evident in the Figure 1 that restrictions and other traditional beliefs and practices affecting adolescent girls are
stronger in illiterate and low educated mothers.The commonest restriction practiced by the survey
respondents is abstaining from religious activities (25.5%), which are followed by abstaining from household
work (13.3%) as well askitchen work(4.5%) (Table 5).In all others categories (49.2%) girls are restricted by
attending guests, playing outside, eat certain foods, visit relatives, friends and neighbours and touch pickles.
The conditions of menstruation and usually mothers imparted these beliefs to the girls as important know how
related to the practices during menstruation (Nepal study). These are some of the practices that have made
menstruation unwelcomed among the adolescent girls.
“We can’t play at school, we just sit in the classroom during menses”.
“It is usually the mothers who enforce these restrictions”
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
The study concludes that unsatisfactory menstruation hygiene practice among rural adolescent girls. Socioeconomic status of the family andeducation of parents and girls influences and affect the menstrual
practiceamong girls. There is need of adolescent girls to have accurate and adequate information about
menstruation. Thegirls should be educated about the process and significance ofmenstruation, use of proper
sanitary pads and its proper disposal. There is aneed for improving access to sanitary pads and advanced
provisionof it.The results of the present study highlights the fact that more efforts should be made to create
awareness about hygienic practices during menstruation, especially in rural areas.
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Bheenaveni, R. (2010). Beliefs and practices in women health. Available at:
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Dhingra, R., A. Kumar and M. Kour (2009). Knowledge and practices related tomenstruation among
tribal (Gujjar) adolescent girls. Ethno-Med. 3(1). pp. 43-48.
7
Diaz, A., M.R. Laufer and L.L Breech (2006). Menstruation in girls and adolescents: Using the
menstrual cycle as a vital sign. Pediatrics. Volume 118. No 5. 2245‑2250.
8
El-Lassy, R.B. and A.A. El-Aziz Madian (2013). Impact of health education program on menstrual
beliefs and practices of adolescent Egyptian girls at Secondary technical nursing school. Life Science J. 10(2).
pp. 335-345.
9
Garg, R., S. Goyal and S. Gupta (2012). India moves towards menstrual hygiene: Subsidized sanitary
napkins for rural adolescent girls-issues and challenges, Matern Child Health J. Volume 16. pp. 767–774.
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10
Government of India (2001). Census of India. Ministry of Home Affairs. Office of the Registrar General
& Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi.
11
Khanna, A., S.R. Goyal and R. Bhawsar (2005). Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: A
study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan. Journal of Health Management. 7 (1). pp. 91-107.
12
Padubidri, V.G. and S.N. Daftary (2004). Shaw’s textbook of Gynaecology, Chapter 3, Physiology,
Churchill Livingstone Pvt Ltd New Delhi. pp. 46.
13
Puri, S. and S. Kapoor (2006). Taboos and myths associated with womens health among rural and
urban adolescent girls in Punjab. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 31(4). 168-170.
14
Rao, S., S. Joshi and A. Kanade (1998). Height velocity, body fat and menarcheal age of Indian girls.
Indian Pediatr. 35(7). pp. 619-628.
15
Singh, A. J. (2006). Place of menstruation in the reproductive lives of women of rural
North India. Indian Journal of Community Medicine.31(1). pp. 10-14.
16
Shah, S.P., R. Nair, P.P. Shah, D.K. Modi, S.A. Desai and L. Desai (2013). Improving quality of life with
new menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent tribal girls in rural Gujarat, India, Reproductive Health
Matters. 21(41). pp. 205-213.
17
Thakre, S.B., S.S. Thakre, M. Reddy, N. Rathi, K. Pathak and S. Ughade (2011). Menstrual hygiene:
Knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner, Nagpur district, Journal of Clinical and
Diagnostic Research. 5(5). 1027-1033.
18
Thérèse, M., and F. Maria (2010). Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: A neglected issue
for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes. Gender & Development 18(1). pp. 99-113.
19
UNICEF (2011). The State of World’s Children: Adolescence, An Age of Opportunity. New York.
20
Water Aid (2009). Is menstrual hygiene and management an issue for adolescent girls?: A
comparative study of four schools in different settings of Nepal.
21
Women Studies Research Centre (2011) Evaluation of sanitary napkin project in Kurukshetra district.
Un-published report. Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana.
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Knowledge Management HRM Practices
Dr.G.V.SUBBA RAO*
Dr.R.KRISHNA REDDY**
Principal,Sri Mahavir Memorial Jain Degree College-Guntur,Andhra Pradesh, India*
Lecturer in Commerce,Sadhana Junior College-Markapuram,Prakasam District,Andhra Pradesh, India**
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
ABSTRACT
Today's Business environment is characterized by continuous after radical changes along with evolutions in
customer preferences and needs which made organizations more complex and made Knowledge Management
a necessity rather than a luxury. In addition, factors like high staff turnover, lack of adequate training and
determining which information is valuable have accorded emphasis on the importance of Knowledge
Management.
This Paper mainly deals with highlighting the importance of Knowledge Management and its vital role in HRM
Practices
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge Management (KM) is a newly emerging, interdisciplinary business model that has knowledge
within the framework of an organization as its focus. It is rooted in many disciplines including business
economics, psychology, and information management. It is the ultimate competitive advantage for today's
firm. Knowledge Management involves people, technology, and processes in overlapping parts these areas
have developed perspectives on the workings of individual and systematic knowledge. KM embraces these
perspectives, but operates from the basic premise of sticky nature of knowledge.
In some ways, KM is about survival in a new business world - a world of competition that increases in
complexity and uncertainty each day. It is a world that challenges the traditional ways of doing things. The
focus is not only on finding the right answer, but also on asking the right questions. What worked yesterday
mayor may not work tomorrow the focus is on "doing the right thighs" rather than "doing things right" so that
core competencies do not become core rigidities in the future (Malhotra 2000)
KM is the process of capturing and making use of a firm's collective expertise anywhere in the business- on
paper, in documents, in databases (called explicit knowledge) or in people's heads (called tacit knowledge). It
is the fuel or raw material for innovation - the only competitive advantage that can sustain a company in an
unpredictable business environment. It is not intended to favour expert system of the early processes. The
goal is to present a balanced view of how computer technology captures, distributes, and shares knowledge in
the organization by linking human expertise and documentation in an integrated KM
system.
Evolution of Knowledge Management: An overarching theory of knowledge management has yet to emerge,
perhaps because the practices associated with managing knowledge have their roots in a variety of disciplines
and domains.
A number of management theorists have contributed to the evolution of knowledge management notable
among them were Peter Drucker, Paul Strassmann and Peter Senge in the United States. Drucker and
Strassmann have stressed on growing importance of information and explicit knowledge as organizational
resources, whereas Senge has focused on the "learning organization", a cultural dimension of managing
knowledge. Chris Argyris, Christopher Bartlett and Dorothy Leonard-Barton of Harvard Business School have
examined various facets of managing knowledge. In fact, Leonard- Barton's well-known case study of Chaparral
Steel, a company that has had an effective knowledge management strategy in place since the mid-1970s,
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inspired the research documented in her Wellsprings of Knowledge Building and Sustaining Sources of
Innovation.
The 1980s also saw the development of systems for managing knowledge that relied on work done in artificial
intelligence and expert systems, giving us such concept as "Knowledge acquisition," "knowledge engineering"
knowledge base systems, and computer-based ontologies.
HRM PRACTICES
KM is an important activity in any organization,. Many CEO's could become more successful only because of
their zeal to manage Knowledge dissemination in their organization and keep their organization a learning one.
Employee management is thus an ideal area for companies to improve with knowledge-management
solutions. This paper describes how some companies including Microsoft, Hewlett Packard, and Godavari
Polymers pvt. Ltd, Tata Steel, Reliance and BSNL and ABC Company in Public Sector address the issues.
STAFFING
Small organizations can be nimble. They are often quick to reorganize and reconfigure in response to
escalating competition, demanding customers, and changes in market conditions. Because of these abilities,
they are frequently well positioned to take advantage of new and emerging market opportunities. If they
change effectively they are more likely to prosper and grow larger to build on their successes. But there lies
one of the major challenges to all successful companies. A larger organization is rarely as nimble as it was in its
early days, yet its need to respond promptly to changes and opportunities remains unchanged.
This was the challenge the Microsoft HR Department faced. The company's Success had resulted in an
explosive growth in personnel. However, this rapid growth made it significantly more difficult to manage
staffing issues throughout the company. Each of the company's business units had its own system for tracking
and managing headcount. When managers changed their teams, they initiated a paper based transaction to
update the corporate records. Managers submit updates to HR personnel, who maintained 18 databases
located worldwide. Twice a week, these 18 databases were consolidated into one reporting database. By the
time the information was consolidated it was at least four days behind reality. The information in the central
reporting database was useful to corporate HR and Finance for quarterly and annual closing information.
TRAINING
Training is an obvious target for Knowledge Management, Connect Austria is a prime example of a company
that relies on its system for orienting the employees it hires. Training 50 to 100 new hires a month quickly and
keeping veteran employees up to date on new policies and procedures remains a top priority for managers at
this company. Regards to the company's knowledge management system, as new employees can ramp up
more quickly than before. According IT Codirector for Connect Austria, the average person takes less than half
an hour to learn how to use the system. For training and company information, new and veteran employees
find the corporate intranet a valuable part of the knowledge management system. Connect Austria publishes
its hand 'xoks, manuals and other administrative information of its intranet. While knowledge- management
system won't replace existing training materials, they do make those training materials more available to
users. By using the system's search tool, employees can find information they need quickly. Whenever
managers approve a change they notify employee by e-mail. By publishing this kind of information to its
intranet, the company saves both the time and the fixed costs associated with frequent printing and
distributing thousands of memos and handbooks.
Hewlett-Packard is a large, successful company with over $31 billion I 1995 revenues. The company competes
many markets including computers and peripheral equipment, test and measurement devices, electronic
components and medical devices. It has 110000 employees and over 400 location around the world.
Hewlett-Packard has used KM initiatives for training purpose. KM initiative involves HP educators. As there are
more than 2,000 educators or trainers distributed around HP, most of them work within small groups and find
it difficult to share knowledge, using Lotus notes as the technology vehicle, karney established three different
"Knowledge bases: for educators to use.
SKILL ALIGNMENT
Training to keep employees skills current is only half the story, though effective solutions also help companies
align employees' skills with the companies needs, For example Siemens' 400,000 employees make it the fourth
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largest company in the world and a leader in highly complex SAP RI 3 implementation. Siemens Business
services division has 1600 SAP Rl3 consultants working around the globe to provide customers with solutions
to complex business and technical problems. The key to managing such a geographically dispersed workforce
was to create Consultant Network. This tool yes the company an easy way to profile consultants. identify
expert skills, and look up availability so that it can assign the right person to the right job at the right time.
Siemen's KM system has enough flexibility and scalability to meet the Company's continually growing business
needs and to stay a step ahead of the competition Godavari Polymers Pvt. Ltd has initiated KM which includes
management concepts, technical, knowledge, and skill development training programmes which were
conducted every quarterly. Here the development of knowledge management not only with employees but
also with farmers conducting group discussions, training programmes, maintaining libraries, field training
programmes for field mechanics and farmers with the importance for generating wealth from their intellectual
assets.
PERFORMANCE REVIEWS
Technology will never replace a personal face-to-face performance review, but knowledge management can
make establishing and recording the review information more efficient. At Microsoft, some 3,000 managers
conduct performance reviews for more than 20,000 eligible employees. The process of evaluating, updating
and managing review information has been enhanced by a desktop application used around the world: MS
Review. Managers and employees discuss performance plan and goals year-round in an ongoing process that
encourages frequent communication and feedback, twice a year, most employees participated in a
comprehensive performance review The Microsoft process for reviewing performance provides a structured
method for managers and employees to set goals, review achievements, and develop an application plan for
professional development. During the biannual performance-review periods, managers assign numerical
performance ratings for each employee and might adjust employee compensation as results to help administer
the biannual performance reviews, Microsoft managers rely on MS review to see what review scores
employees earned in previous periods and to enter information for the current period. They can also use MS
Review to see whether the review decisions they made fall within corporate guidelines. MS Review enables
managers to analyze statistics, view budgets, and track their numbers against corporate or subsidiary budgets.
It's kind of one-stop shopping experience-providing managers with a single place where they can enter and
view review details and compensation information.
In 2003, Tata Steel was chosen as one of Asia's Most Admired Knowledge Enterprises (MAKE) it was the only
company in the manufacturing sector in India. Tata steel.management expected KM to playa key role in
establishing intellectual assets rather than physical assets, as the growth driver of the company. Tata steel was
early to recognize the significance of KM for the success of a company. It made it compulsory for all its
employees to participate actively into its KM program. The company base its new Performance assessment
program on the participation of each individual employee in the KM program through the introduction of a
"KM Index" the index tallied the points achieved through participation in the KM Program, giving the
benchmark for their participation. Tata steel also encouraged employees to experiment with new ideas, for
which they were rewarded.
PAYROLL AND DIRECT DEPOSITS
The payroll area of HR web includes an online direct-deposit feature that enables employees to specify how
they want to allocate their paychecks to a selected bank, investment accounts, and personal benefits.
Additionally, HR web posts earnings statements for each employee to view in a secure environment. This has
eliminated the need to print and mail paychecks saving the company $ 600,000 a year.
Paperless Management: HR Web simplifies the process for reporting vacation time, sick time, and for hourly
employees, work time with a time-card/absence-reporting application. This application can determine if an
employee is hourly or salaried and direct him to time cards or absence-reporting forms accordingly. It can also
calculate how many vacation hours an employee has left, based on how many he has already used. It replaces
a paper based time-card system and an e-mail-based absence-reporting system, decreasing processing time by
half.
CONCLUSION
Analytical description of application of Knowledge Management technology in Human resource Practices such
as staffing, training; skill development, performance review, payroll and direct deposits certainly improves the
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efficiency of the organization by making economies in time and investment. Modem orgnaisations leap a step
a head in the competition by using exclusively Knowledge Management Infrastructure and access
technologies. KM
Infrastructure basically comprises of tools that enable KM applications development and servicing the define
KM software and hardware. KM infrastructure covers data repositories, groupware, and messaging software,
equipment, software and solution.
INFRASTRUCTURE
Lotus, probably the first company to appreciate the power of knowledgemanagement for the mass market,
has developed several tools for the purpose of KM. when they first entered the market with their Lotus notes
in 1996 many people were skeptical about its usefulness. Today KM software, like Outlook and Lotus Notes is
very much part of the everyday work life of any employee in the IT or Telecommunication industry the main
benefits of such tools are that they support organisations in expressing, sharing and retaining information and
knowledge. KM Infrastructure basically comprises of tools that enable KM applications development and
servicing while the entire KM software and hardware market also comprises of tools that help the users access
KM.
ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES
KM Access technologies cover intellectual capital, erection of KM portals, and profiling and exchange of
information about business process, rules and results. The enabling software is designed to extract and
capture employee know-how related to successfully completing a business process. This software provides
content on various methodologies for involving participants in a project, collecting their contributions and
creating and documenting a plan of action that can be used repeatedly as a process guide. Here is a list of
access technology options across KM spectrum.Computer conferencing, data warehouses & mining, document
management, Groupware Helpdesks, linking library, web publishing and work flow.
References
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Ajiferuke, I. (2003), “Role of informationprofessionals in knowledge managementprograms: empirical
evidence from Canada”,Informing Science Journal, No.6, pp.247-57.
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Albert, J. (2000), “Is knowledge management reallythe future for information professionals?”,
inSrikantaiah, K., Koenig, M.E.D. (Eds), Knowledge Management for the Information Professional,Information
Today, Medford, NJ, pp.63-76.
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Broadbent, M. (1997), “The emerging phenomenonof knowledge management”,The Australian
LibraryJournal, Vol. 46 No.1, pp.6-23
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Broadbent, M. (1998), “The phenomenon ofknowledge management: what does it mean to
theinformation profession?”,Information Outlook, Vol.2 No.5, pp.23-34.
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Chen, H.-h. (2005), “The working environment andchanging role of corporate librarians
inTaiwan”,Journal of the American Society for InformationScience and Technology, Vol. 56 No.11, pp.1227-36.
6.
Corrall, S. (2006),“Knowledge management: are wein the knowledge management
business?”,available at: www.ariadne.ac.uk/isue18/knowledge-mgt/ (accessed July 2006).
7.
Davenport, Thomas H. and Lawrence Prusak. 1993.Blow UpThe Corporate Library.
InternationalJournalof Information Management 13, no. 6:405-412.
8.
Davenport, E., Cronin, B. (2000), “Knowledgemanagement: semantic drift or conceptual shift?”Journal
of Education for Library and InformationScience, Vol. 41 No.4, pp.294-306
9.
Kok, W. et al. (2004)Facing The Challenge. TheLisbon Strategy for Growth and Employment.
Reportfrom the High level Group(Brussels: EuropeanCommission).
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Leadbeater, Charles & Demos. (1999) NewMeasures for the New Economy Report presentedat
International Symposium on Measuring andReporting Intellectual Capital: Experience, Issuesand
Prospects,Amsterdam, 9-11 June 1999.
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IMPACTS OF GLOBAL CRISIS IN
INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO BPO
ARVIND M. GAJERA
Commerce & BBA College, Junagadh-362 001, (Gujarat)
KEYWORDS: Sub-prime crisis, Global economy, Deloitte Economists BPO
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
ABSTRACT
On entering the year 2013, it appears that the global economic crisis is bottoming out – creating a sense of
precautious optimism. Global IT-BPM spend is expected for growing by 6 % in 2013 to touch USD 2 trillion.
More importantly, the rate of introduction of disrupting technologies will continue to be faster; Social,
Mobility, Analytics, Cloud technologies is expected for increasing to over USD 1 trillion by 2020.
The financial crisis has a tremendous consonance between the conditions, events, and policies of the decade
of the 1920s and the events and policies of the past decade to hit the U.S. economy. BPOs, financial services
and other software exports contributing to about 2 per cent of India's GDP are likely to be affected due to the
global changes in policies. Emerging economies of Ruso (Russia), Elephant (India), and Dragon (china), while
slowing, will remain important drivers of global growth. Industry leaders from the non-voice sectors of the BPO
industry like animation and transcription said that the financial crisis has been affected by decreasing demand
of outsourcing from the United States. Indian media has also written a great deal about President-elect
Obama's stance on outsourcing. Indian officials remain sanguine at least in public about the country's
outsourcing posterity. Infosys, one of India's outsourcing titans, is predicting a 14-16 percent growth next year.
The Indian IT sector is taking a wait-and-see approach in anticipation of the fast recovery from gloomy
recession. Previous year witnessed the major financial crisis that may cause global downturn in next year’s.
INTRODUCTION
Last year witnessed the emergence of the most serious financial crisis to hit the U.S. and the greater global
economy since the 1930s – a crisis that has already begun to precipitate a major recession in the U.S. in 2012
and, in turn, raising the odds for a wider global downturn in 2013. History will show a remarkable congruence
between the conditions, events, and policies of the decade of the 1920s, on the one hand, and the events and
policies of the past decade.
THE 1920S WERE CHARACTERIZED BY

An over-extended housing and construction boom in mid-decade that imploded

A slowdown in investment in the productive economy as speculative investment steadily crowded out
real investment

A Federal Reserve System that pumped up the money supply without concern for its eventual
speculative effect

An increasing imbalance in world trade and currency volatility

The near destruction of labour unions-to name the more notable
As in the 1920s, in the previous decade the U.S. has been lurching from one speculative bubble to the next.
These include:

The Long Term Capital Management ( LTM) hedge fund bailout of 1998

The Asian debt crisis of 1998( at the center of which were U.S. money center banks)

The dot-com technology asset bubble of 1999-2000

The recent subprime mortgage bust (the foundations for which were laid in2003-04)

The recent rapid spread of the subprime crisis in 2012-13 to other capital markets in the U.S.
DELOITTE INDIA RELEASED THE DELOITTE GLOBAL ECONOMIC OUTLOOK
In 2013 ending published by five Deloitte economists which discusses the historical precedent of financial
crisis while predicting the posterity beyond the India will face slower growth prospects with analysts predicting
a fall of as much as 1.5 percentage points over the next couple of years. However in the longer term, the
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outlook will depend on the government's ability to invest in infrastructure and the rudimental of the Gitian
economy remain strong and a bounce-back, once set in motion, will be faster than other economies in Europe,
North America and Japan. In the quinquennium, global business process outsourcing by the financial services
sector will be worth $ 145-165 billion for India-based services providers, says a study by Everest Research
Institute. The study entitled 'Global Sourcing in Banking, Capital Markets and Insurance' further states that
offshore BPO adoption in the insurance sector will grow 12-15 times in the same time period.
The ongoing sub-prime crisis, in the medium-to-long term period, will accelerate global sourcing adoption as
financial institutions are exercising the option to cut costs, the report said. The institute predicts that
outsourcing from the financial services sector have the potential to increase 42-47 times the ongoing market
size over the next quinquennium, with key drivers of growth coming from cost pressures and the timely advent
of more vertical-specific offerings by offshore suppliers.
The contemporary financial crisis in the US markets is increasing the interest of stakeholders to understand
adoption trends and opportunity areas in off-shoring, among other cost-curbing measures. Banks and other
financial services firms are under significant cost-reduction pressure. So, a large number of firms plan to
reduce headcount in the West and move jobs offshore," said Nikhil Rajpal, vice president, global services of
Everest Research Institute.
Current global economy remains at substantial risk, but the speed and size of the various governmental rescue
efforts bode well for a recovery in the not-too-distant future. However, more than half of India's services and
merchandise exports go to the US and the ongoing slowdown in the US economy will likely affect the future
growth in India's exports. Experts forecast that US businesses would likely either reduce outsourcing or
withhold expansion plans.
Consequently, BPOs, financial services and other software exports contributing to about 2 per cent of India's
GDP are likely to be affected. Industry association National Association of Software and Service Companies
(NASSCOM) has forecasted that there is likely to be a significant effect of the global crisis on the Indian BPO
sector. Despite significant Asian growth and India's strategy to focus on non-US markets for exports, a
slowdown in the US is expected to influence almost all economies worldwide which will have an eventual
cascading impact on the Indian economy. According to Shri Shanto Ghosh, principal economist, Deloitte India,
unlike some past financial crises, this one resulted in a rapid and massive governmental response on both sides
of the Atlantic. Thus, there are the rhymes and reasons we can be cautiously bullish about the medium-term
outlook for the global economy. In India too policy response has been fast and continuous
In the United States, recapitalization of banks will help to revive credit market activity, Euro-zone banking
consolidation will have a positive long-term impact on European capital market efficiency and finally the
emerging economies of Ruso, Elephant, and Dragon, while slowing, will remain important drivers of global
growth. The global economic crisis is slowing down the demand for services in some sectors of the business
process outsourcing (BPO) industry and experts are saying they may revise growth targets for 2010.
At the ongoing 2-day BPO Summit Philippines 2008 in Ortigas business district, industry honchos from the
various sectors of the BPO industry said that the slowdown in the United States—where major BPO clients are
located—and in other major economies have slowed down their operations. Industry honchos from the nonvoice sectors of the BPO industry like animation and transcription said that the financial crisis has been
affected by decreasing demand from the United States.
According to Mr.Grace Dimaranan, president of the Animation Council of the Philippines, some of the projects
were on hold due to the recession. Some animation series were decreased. The animation sector has been
growing by an average of 38 percent during the past three years, data from the Business Process Association of
the Philippines (BPAP) showed. In 2007, it generated revenue of US$105 million or 2 percent of the US$13
billion generated by the entire BPO industry in 2007. Meanwhile, Myla Reyes, managing director of the
Medical Transcription Industry Association of the Philippines (MTIAPI) said that some of their operations
slowed down as a result of the economic meltdown. With America's economy in crisis, it would seem that
India has a lot to worry about. The country's annual revenues from outsourcing exceed $40 billion and a
downturn in the U.S. economy could damage India's outsourcing industry. But at the India Economic Summit in
New Delhi this week, Indian officials and corporate executives remained bullish about the posterity of
outsourcing. Montekshing Ahluwalia, Deputy Chairman of India's Planning Commission, forecasted that the
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global financial crisis of 2013 had pulled down India's growth rate to 6.7 per cent in 2008-09. India has
projected a growth rate of 7.6 per cent in 2012-13, up from 6.9 per cent recorded in the previous fiscal he said
in the statement. This is not an Indian crisis. We are being affected by a global crisis. Indian media has also
written a great deal about President-elect Obama's stance on outsourcing. One quote in particular has been
repeatedly cited by Indian newspapers. As an anti-outsourcing sentiment. During a debate with Sen. Hillary
Clinton (D-NY) during the primaries, Obama expressed about stopping tax breaks for companies that are
shipping jobs overseas and give those tax breaks to companies that are investing in the United States of
America. However, Indian officials remain bullish-- at least in public -- about the country's outsourcing future.
Barack Obama's plans to cut down on outsourcing does not pose a threat to the Indian IT-BPO [business
process outsourcing] industry, as per Ganesh Natarajan, chairman of the National Association of Software and
Service Companies, in an article in the International Business Times. Our expertise in several areas of out
sourcing will always lure new projects from the U.S. Infosys, one of India's outsourcing titans, is forecasting 1315 percent growth next year. The company has no plans to scale back, and is committed to keeping the 25,000
new hires it made this year, adding to its workforce of 100,000, as per S. Gopalakrishnan, the chief executive
officer of Infosys, Still times were tough. This downturn is far worse than the 2001 dot-com bubble burst. It is
different, it is probably worse. It is not restricted to one segment or one sector or one region.
In the medium-to-long term, the sub-prime crisis will accelerate global sourcing adoption as financial
institutions push the envelope on off-shoring to cut costs, according to Dallas-based Everest Research
Institute. The Institute forecast business process outsourcing (BPO) from the financial services sector will
increase 40 to 45 times the ongoing market size over the quinquennium, with key drivers of growth coming
from cost pressures and the timely advent of more vertical-specific offerings by offshore suppliers, according
to Everest Research’s study, Global Sourcing in Banking, Capital Market and Insurance. Within a
quinquennium, the firm projects investing for global BPO by the financial services sector will reach US$145$165 billion for India-based services, the hub of global sourcing for financial services. The report also projects
offshore BPO adoption in the insurance sector will grow 12 to 15 times during the same time period.
The Indian IT sector is taking a wait-and-see approach. The global financial meltdown following the collapse of
U.S. investment banks will have limited impact on the Indian IT sector in the short and medium terms, but
poses a challenge in the long term, says Som Mittal, president of IT-BPO industry body Nasscom in an article
from Bihar Times. It is a cause for concern, not panic, says Mittal. The Indian IT sector is resilient to bear the
impact of the turmoil. We need to wait and watch to find out how deep is the crisis. There will be some down
side in the short and medium term.Everest Research expects the increase to continue, and points to the
financial crisis as the reason. Research earlier this year from London-based independent market analyst echoes
the increase in outsourcing. Data monitor’s report, "Trends and Strategies in Policy Administration BPO,” notes
that both large and small insurers will adopt BPO. Contemporary, insurers with fewer than 5,000 employees
have
the
lowest
policy
administration.
BPO
adoption
rate
is
likely
to
change.
The survey also found that large insurers (those with more than 20,000 employees) are increasingly likely to
outsource policy administration. Typically, these players engaged in off shoring via captives, or companyowned facilities. The captive route has not been as fruitful as expected, elevating their interest in outsourcing
to a third-party. The financial services industry, comprised of banking, capital markets and insurance, is the
leading adopter of off shoring services, and accounts for 42% to 47% of world wide global sourcing. The laborarbitrage-driven offshore model has become a standard expectation for buyers who are now looking to
achieve business and strategic impact beyond cost savings,” says Jimit Arora, research director and study coauthor. To achieve this, suppliers will need to continue to innovate and invest in technology, delivery footprint,
and domain and process expertise. Additionally, suppliers will need to identify key focus segments to create
successful differentiation in the market.
REFERENCES
1
Global finance crisis: Indian BPOs will benefit Business Standard Reporter in Mumbai | September 26,
2008 13:12 IST
2
Everest Research Institute, INN archives, Bihar Times
3
Financial Express
4
The Economic Times of India
5
The Outlook
6
International Business Times
7
Deloitte Global Economic Outlook: 4th Quarter 2008
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Issue of Ambivalence: Postcolonial
Study of Derek Walcott’s
‘A Far Cry From Africa’
HINA D. DOBARIYA
Research Scholar, Pacific Academy of Higher Education, Udaipur, Rajasthan.
KEYWORDS: Ambivalent Attitude, Hybrid Identity, An Indigenous Culture, Eurocentric Culture
SUBJECT: LANGUAGE
ABSTACT:
The present paper highlights ambivalent attitude found in an African poet Derek Walcott’s poem A Far Cry
From Africa. It is beautiful piece of writing wherein the poet expresses his dilemma and confusion about
choosing which language- English or African, choosing which identity- hybrid or pure, choosing which culturean indigenous or Eurocentric. The poem is one of the best examples of postcolonial writing wherein such
dilemma is often addressed.
Question of language, issue of cultural confrontation, issue of divided mental state, identity crisis and at last
being nowhere or issue of isolation, is at the core of postcolonial literature be it a novel, poem, or drama.
Derek Walcott’s poem ‘A Far Cry From Africa’ published in 1962, is a painful and jarring depiction of ethnic
conflicts and divided loyalties. The poem discusses the events of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya in the early
1950s. In the mid-twentieth century, British colonialism was a fading but still potent force in the world. In the
African nation of Kenya, British colonists had settled and introduced European concepts to the local people:
money, taxation, and ownership of land. Because the British were replacing the tribal government with their
own, they then claimed all the land in the name of the new British government. Naturally, the Kenyan people
were outraged. Now, instead of owning and farming their own land, they were reduced to being laborers for
the British owners. As employees, they were further insulted by being paid only a fraction of the amount while
a British worker received a huge amount for doing the same work.
The Kikuyu tribe was the largest in Kenya, and the most educated. In 1951, some Kikuyu outbursts of violence
against the British occurred, and in 1952 a secret Kikuyu society known as the Mau Mau began a war of
violence against the British and any Africans who were loyal to them. By October of 1952, the situation was so
serious that the British called out troops to fight the rebels, and a three-year war ensued, during which 11,000
rebel warriors were killed and 80,000 Kikuyu men, women, and children were locked up in detention camps.
One hundred Europeans and 2,000 Africans loyal to them were killed. Later, the leader of the rebellion, Jomo
Kenyatta, was elected prime minister of Kenya when Kenya became independent from Britain in 1963.
Walcott discusses the conflict between his loyalties to Africa and to Britain in ‘A Far Cry From Africa.’ The title
of the poem emphasizes Walcott's cultural instability as it implies a type of alienation from Africa. Walcott, by
juxtaposing the Africans and the British, focuses on each group's transgressions. The poet maintains a negative
view of his hybridism:
I who am poisoned with the blood of both
Where shall I turn, divided to the vein? (p.2oo)
This severely pessimistic image illustrates a consequence of displacement-isolation. It seems that Walcott feels
foreign in both cultures due to his lack of "pure" blood. An individual's sense of identity arises from cultural
influences which define his or her character according to a particular society's standards. The poet's hybrid
heritage prevents him from identifying directly with one culture and creates a feeling of isolation. The poem
provides a textual version of the poet's mental dissertation on the vices and virtues which differentiate each
culture.
Walcott, in ‘A Far Cry From Africa’ depicts Africa and Britain in the standard roles of the vanquished and the
conqueror, although he portrays the cruel imperialistic exploits of the British without creating sympathy for
the African tribesmen. This objectivity allows Walcott to contemplate the faults of each culture without
reverting to the bias created by attention to moral considerations. He characterizes the African Kikuyu in a
negative light: Flies/Batten upon the bloodstream of the veldt (p.200)
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The Kikuyu resemble primitive savages who abuse the fertile resources of their native plains. In this sense, the
entrance of the British appears beneficial not only to the inhabitants, but also to the suffering land. However,
Walcott contradicts this savior image of the British through an unfavorable description in the ensuing lines:
The worm, colonial of carrion, cries: 'Waste no compassion on these separate dead! (p.200)
The poet casts the authoritative British figure as a worm, a creature which exists below the fly on the
evolutionary ladder. Walcott's feelings about his heritage remain ambiguous through his focus on the failings
of each culture. He portrays the futility of an empirical comparison of the two cultures:
The gorilla wrestles with the superman. (p.200)
The Africans, associated with a primitive, natural strength, and the British, portrayed as an artificially enhanced
power, remain equal in the contest for control over Africa and its people. Walcott further complicates his
search for a legitimate identity in the final stanza. He questions,
…how choose
Between this Africa and the English tongue I love? (p.200)
These lines identify the aspects of each culture that the poet admires. He remains partial to the African terrain
and way of life, while he prefers the English language and literary tradition. The poet grapples with his affinity
for progress and technology contained within the British culture and his nostalgia for the rich cultural heritage
of Africa. The magnetism that each culture holds for Walcott causes a tension which augments as the poem
continues. The concluding lines of the poem deny the poet resolution of his quandary:
How can I face such slaughter and be cool?
How can I turn from Africa and live? (p.200)
Walcott's divided loyalties engender a sense of guilt as he wants to adopt the "civilized" culture of the British,
but cannot excuse their immoral treatment of the Africans. ‘A Far Cry From Africa’ reveals the extent of
Walcott's consternation through the poet's inability to resolve the paradox of his hybrid inheritance.
A similar conflict regarding language is also found in many other postcolonial works like A Small Place by
Kincaid. She like Walcott is also in dilemma about which language she should take up to express her sociopolitical experiences. She even talks about problem regarding English language .For her it is very difficult to
accept English language as it is not language of her culture. However, finally like Walcott, Kincaid too accepts
English for writing. So that she can make the colonizers feel about what they have done to the innocent
natives. This is what one can say in brief: The Empire Writes Back. Secondly, both criticize the colonizers and
colonized for their transgression in their writings. These are some areas where both Walcott and Kincaid share
resemblance. One can say that issue of language, question of identity, question of divided loyalty etc… are
major questions puzzle to the postcolonial writers. To let out their emotional pain they pen down it in a piece
of writing. As a result, many resemblances are found among them and their writings.
REFERENCE
Bhabha, H. K. ‘Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse’ October 28, Spring: pp. 125-133,
1984.
Brown, G. and Yule, G. Discourse Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1983.
Cesaire, A. ‘Discourse on Colonialism’, New York and London: Monthly Review Press, first published 1972.
Ferguson, Moira and Kincaid, Jamaica, ‘A lot of memory: An Interview with Jamaica Kincaid.’ The Kenyon
Review, New Series, Vol. 16, No.1 (Winter, 1994), pp. 163 – 188.
Neil, S. Colonialism and the Christian Missions, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.
Walcott Derek. ‘Far Cry from Africa’, An Anthology of Commonwealth Poetry, edited by
C.D.Narasimhaiah.1990. Macmillan India Limited .p- 200.
Said, E.W. Culture and Imperialism, London: Vintage, 1994.
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Toeplitz and Circulant Matrices
* Prof.Jayesh N. Zavaladia
** Dr.Kishor H. Atkotiya
*HEAD, Department of Business Management, Gyanyagna College Rajkot
** HEAD, Department of Computer Science, J H Bhalodiya Women’s College Rajkot
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT:
A Toeplitz matrix is an n x n matrix Tn = [tk,j; k,j = 0,1,….,n-1]
where tk-j= tk-j, i.e., a matrix of the form
Such matrices arise in many applications. For example, suppose that
INTRODUCTION
Is a column vector (the prime denotes transpose) denoting an “input” and that t k is zero for k < 0.
Then the vector
Represents the output of the discrete time causal time-invariant filter
h with “impulse response” tk.equivalently, this is a matrix and vector formulation of a discrete-time
convolution of a discrete time input with
a discrete time filter.
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As another example, suppose that {Xn} is a discrete time random process with mean function given by
the expectation mk= E(Xk) and covariance function given by the expectation Kx(k, j) = E[(Xk – mk)(Xj -mj)]. Signal
processing theory such as prediction, estimation, detection, classification, regression, and communications and
information theory are most thoroughly developed under the assumption that the mean is constant and that
the covariance is Toeplitz, i.e., Kx(k, j) = Kx(k - j), in which case the process is said to be weakly stationary. (The
terms “covariance stationary” and “second order stationary” also are used when the covariance is assumed to
be Toeplitz.) In this case the n xn covariance matrices Kn=[Kx(k, j); k, j = 0, 1,…n - 1] are Toeplitz matrices. Much
of the theory of weakly stationary processes involves applications of.
1.1. Toeplitz and Circulant Matrices 3
Toeplitz matrices also arise in solutions to differential and integral equations, spline functions, and problems
and methods in physics, mathematics, statistics, and signal processing.
A common special case of Toeplitz matrices – which will result in significant simplification and play a
fundamental role in developing more general results – results when every row of the matrix is a right cyclic
shift of the row above it so that tk = t –(n-k) = tk– n for k = 1, 2,…,n – 1. In this case the picture becomes.
A matrix of this form is called a CIRCULANT matrix. Circulant matrices arise, for example, in applications
involving the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and the study of cyclic codes for error correction.
A great deal is known about the behavior of Toeplitz matrices – the most common and complete
references being Grenander and Szegö [16] and Widom [33]. A more recent text devoted to the subject is
Böttcher and Silbermann. [5]. Unfortunately, however, the necessary level of mathematical sophistication for
understanding reference [16] is frequently beyond that of one species of applied mathematician for whom the
theory can be quite useful but is relatively little understood. This caste consists of engineers doing relatively
mathematical (for an engineering background) work in any of the areas mentioned. This apparent dilemma
provides the motivation for attempting a tutorial introduction on Toeplitz matrices that proves the essential
theorems using the simplest possible and most intuitive mathematics. Some simple and fundamental methods
that are deeply buried (at least to the untrained mathematician) in [16] are here made explicit.
The most famous and arguably the most important result describing Toeplitz matrices is Szegö’s theorem for
sequences of Toeplitz matrices
{Tn} which deals with the behavior of the eigenvalues as n goes to infinity. A complex scalarαis an eigenvalue of
a matrix A if there is a.
Introduction
Nonzero vector x such that
Ax=αx, (1.3)
in which case we say that x is a (right) eigenvector of A. If A is Hermitian, that is, if A * = A, where the asterisk
denotes conjugate transpose, then the eigenvalues of the matrix are real and henceα*= α, where the asterisk
denotes the conjugate in the case of a complex scalar. When this is the case we assume that the eigenvalues
{αi} are ordered in a nondecreasing manner so that α0 ≥ α1 ≥ α2 · · ·. This eases the approximation of sums by
integrals and entails no loss of generality. Szegö’s theorem deals with the asymptotic behavior of the
n,i; i = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1} of a sequence of Hermitian Toeplitz matrices T n= [tk−j ; k, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n −
1]. The theorem requires that several technical conditions be satisfied, including the existence of the Fourier
series with coefficients tkrelated to each other by.
Thus the sequence {tk} determines the function f and vice versa, hence
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the sequence of matrices is often denoted as Tn( f ). If Tn(f ) is Hermitian, that is, if Tn( f )*= Tn(f ), then t-k = t*k
and f is real-valued.
Under suitable assumptions the Szegö theorem states that
For any function F that is continuous on the range off. Thus, for example, choosing F(x) = x result in
so that the arithmetic mean of the eigenvalues of Tn( f ) converges to the integral of f. The trace Tr(A) of a
matrix A is the sum of its
2. Examples
5
Diagonal elements, which in turn from linear algebra is the sum of the eigenvalues of A if the matrix A is
Hermitian. Thus (1.7) implies that
Similarly, for any power s
If fis real and such that the eigenvalues n,k≥ m>0 for all n,k,
thenF(x) = lnxis a continuous function on [m,∞) and the Szegö
theorem can be applied to show that
From linear algebra, however, the determinant of matrix Tn(f) is given by the product of its eigenvalues,
So that (1.10) becomes
As well shall later see, if fhas a lower bound m>0, than indeed all the eigenvalues will share the lower bound
and the above derivation applies. Determinants of Toeplitz matrices are called Toeplitz determinants and
(1.11)describes their limiting behavior.
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1.2 Examples
A few examples from statistical signal processing and information theory illustrate the application of the
theorem. These are described
6
Introduction
With a minimum of background in order to highlight how the asymptotic eigenvalue distribution theorem
allows one to evaluate results for processes using results from finite-dimensional vectors.
The differential entropy rate of a Gaussian process
Suppose that {Xn; n= 0,1,…} is a random process described by probability density functions fxn(xn) for the
random vectors xn= (X0, X1,…, Xn-1) defined for all n = 0,1,2,…. The Shannan differential entropy h(Xn) is defined
by the integral
and the differential entropy rate of the random process is defined by the limit
if the limit exists. (See, for example, Cover and Thomas[7].)
A stationary zero mean Gaussian random process is completely described by its mean correlation
function rk,j = rk-j = E[XkXj] or, equivalently, by its power spectral density function, f, the Fourier transform of the
covariance function:
For a fixed positive integern, the probability density function is
whereRnis the n x n covariance matrix with entries rk-j. A straightforward multidimensional integration using
the properties of Gaussian random vectors yields the differential entropy
1.2. Examples 7
The problem at hand is to evaluate the entropy rate
The matrix Rn is the Toeplitz matrix Tn generated by the power spectral density fand det(Rn) is a Toepolitz
determinant and we have immediately from (1.11) that
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This is a typical use of (1.6) to evaluate the limit of a sequence of finite- dimensional qualities, in this case
specified by the determinants of a sequence of Toeplitz matrices.
The Shannon rate-distortion function of a Gaussian process
As a another example of the application of (1.6), consider the evaluation of the rate-distortion function of
Shannon information theory for a stationary discrete time Gaussian random process with 0 mean, covariance
Kx(k, j) = tk-j, and power spectral density f( )given by (1.4). The rate-distortion function characterizes the
optimal tradeoff of distortion and bit rate in data compression or source coding system. The derivation details
can be found, e.g., in Berger [3], Section 4.5, but the point here is simply to provide an example of an
application of (1.6). The result is found by solving an n-dimensional optimization in terms of the eigenvalues
n,k of Tn( f ) and then taking limits to obtain parametric expressions for distortion and rate:
8
Introduction
The theorem can be applied to turn this limiting sum involving eigenvalues into an integral involving the power
spectral density:
Again an infinite dimensional problem is solved by first solving a finite dimensional problem involving the
eigenvalues of matrices, and then using the asymptotic eigenvalue theorem to find an integral expression for
the limiting result.
One-step prediction error
Another application with a similar development is the one-step prediction error problem. Suppose that Xn is a
weakly stationary random process with covariance tk-j. A classic problem in estimation theory is to find the best
linear predictor based on the previous n values of Xi,i = 0,1,2,…, n – 1,
in the sense of minimizing the mean squared error E[(Xn – Xn)2] over all choices of coefficients ai. It is well
known (see, e.g., [14]) that the minimum is given by the ratio of Toeplitz determinants detTn+1 / detTn. The
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question is to what this ratio converges in the limit an ngoes to ∞. This is not quite in a form suitable for
application of the theorem, but we have already evaluated the limit of detT n1/nin (1.11) and for large nwe have
that
and hence in particular that
so that
1.3. Goals and Prerequisites 9
providing the desired limit. These arguments can be made exact, but it is hoped they make the point that the
asymptotic eigenvalue distribution theorem for Hermitian Toeplitz matrices can be quite useful for evaluating
limits of solutions to finite-dimensional problems.
Further examples
The Toeplitz distribution theorems have also found application in more complicated information theoretic
evaluations, including the channel capacity of Gaussian channels [30, 29] and the rate-distortion functions of
autoregressive sources [11]. The examples described here were chosen because they were in the author’s area
of competence, but similar applications crop up in a variety of areas. A Google TMsearch using the title of this
document shows diverse applications of the eigenvalue distribution theorem and related results, including
such areas of coding, spectral estimation, watermarking, harmonic analysis, speech enhancement, interference
cancellation, image restoration, sensor networks for detection, adaptive filtering, graphical models, noise
reduction, and blind equalization.
1.3
Goals and Prerequisites
The primary goal of this work is to prove a special case of Szegö’s asymptotic eigenvalue distribution theorem
in Theorem 4.2. The assumptions used here are less general than Szegö’s, but this permits more
straightforward proofs which require far less mathematical background. In addition to the fundamental
theorems, several related results that naturally follow but do not appear to be collected together anywhere
are presented. We do not attempt to survey the fields of applications of these results, as such a survey would
be far beyond the author’s stamina and competence. A few applications are noted by way of examples.
The essential prerequisites are a knowledge of matrix theory, an engineer’s knowledge of Fourier
series and random processes, and calculus (Riemann integration). A first course in analysis would be helpful,
but it is not assumed. Several of the occasional results required of analysis are.
10 Introduction
Usually contained in one or more courses in the usual engineering curriculum, e.g., the Cauchy-Schwarz and
triangle inequalities. Hopefully the only unfamiliar results are a corollary to the Courant-Fischer theorem and
the Weierstrass approximation theorem. The latter is an intuitive result which is easily believed even if not
formally proved. More advanced results from Lebesgue integration, measure theory, functional analysis, and
harmonic analysis are not used.
Out approach is to relate the properties of Toeplitz matrices to those of their simpler, more
structured special case – the Circulant or cyclic matrix. These two matrices are shown to be asymptotically
equivalent in a certain sense and this is shown to imply that eigenvalues, inverses, products, and determinants
behave similarly. This approach provides a simplified and direct path to the basic eigenvalue distribution and
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related theorems. This method is implicit but not immediately apparent in the more complicated and more
general results of Grenander in Chapter 7 of [16]. The basic results for the special case of a banded Toeplitz
matrix appeared in [12], a tutorial treatment of the simplest case which was in turn based on the first draft of
this work. The results were subsequently generalized using essentially the same simple methods, but they
remain less general than those of [16].
As an application several of the results are applied to study certain models of discrete time random
processes. Two common linear models are studied and some intuitively satisfying results on covariance
matrices and their factors are given.
We sacrifice mathematical elegance and generality for conceptual
simplicity in the hope that this will bring an understanding of the interesting and useful properties of Toeplitz
matrices to a wider audience, specifically to those who have lacked either the background or the patience to
tackle the mathematical literature on the subject.
Circulant Matrices
A circulant matrix C is a Toeplitz matrix having the form
where each row is a cyclic shift of the row above it. The structure can also be characterized by noting that the
(k, j) entry of C, Ck,j, is given by
The properties of Circulant matrices are well known and easily derived
([18], p. 267,[8]). Since these matrices are used both to approximate and explain the behavior of Toeplitz
matrices, it is instructive to present one version of the relevant derivations here.
32 Circulant Matrices
3.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
The eigenvalues ψkand the eigenvectors y(k) of C are the solutions of
Cy = ψy
or, equivalently, of the n difference equations
Changing the summation dummy variable results in
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One can solve difference equations as one solves differential equations – by guessing an intuitive solution and
then proving that it works. Since the equation is linear with constant coefficients a reasonable guess is yk = pk
(analogous to y(t) = e
of myields
Thus if we choose
–n
= 1, i.e., isone of the n distinct complex nth roots of unity, then we have an eigenvalue
with corresponding eigenvector
where the prime denotes transpose and the normalization is chosen to give the eigenvector unit energy.
Choosing mas the complex nth root of unity,
–
/n
, we have eigenvalue
m= e
3.1. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
and eigenvector
Thus from the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors,
Equation (3.7) should be familiar to those with standard engineering backgrounds as simply the discrete
Fourier transform (DFT) of the sequence {ck}. Thus we can recover the sequence {ck
kby the Fourier
inversion formula. In particular;
where we have used the orthogonality of the complex exponentials:
whereδ is the Kronecker delta,
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Thus the eigenvalues of a circulant matrix, and conversely first row of a Circulant matrix is the inverse DFT of
the eigenvalues.
Eq. (3.8) can be written as a single matrix equation
34Circulant Matrices
Is the matrix composed of the eigenvectors as columns, and
diagonal elements
n–1.Furthermore, (3.10) implies that U is unitary. By way of details, denote
th
that the (k, j) elements of U* by ak,jand observe that ak,jwill be the product of the kth row of U, which is time
the jth column of
U*, which is so that
and hence UU* = I. Similarly, U*U = I. Thus (3.11) implies that
Since Cis unitarily similar to a diagonal
matrix it is normal.
3.2 Matrix Operations on Circulant Matrices
The following theorem summarizes the properties derived in the previous section regarding eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of Circulant matrices and provides some easy implications.
Theorem 3.1. Every Circulant matrix Chas eigenvectors y(m) =
m = 0, 1,…, n – 1, and
corresponding eigenvalues
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and can be expressed in the form C= U U*, where U has the eigenvectors as columns in order and
diag( k). In particular all Circulant matrices share the same eigenvectors, the same matrix U works for all
Circulant matrices, and any matrix of the form C = U U* is Circulant.
Let C = {ck – j} and B = {bk – j} be Circulant n x n matrices witheigenvalues
3.2. Matrix Operations on Circulant Matrices
35
respectively. Then
(1)
C and B commute and
CB= BC = U
(2)
,
Where
m
m),
and C Bis also a Circulant matrix.
C + B is a Circulant matrix and
U*,
m
(3)
C– 1= U
if
m
–1
U*.
m
k–m}
m = 0, 1,…, n– 1, then Cis nonsingular and
Proof. We have C = U U* and B = U
U*
m
m).
(1)
CB = U U*U U* =U U* =U U* = BC
is diagonal, the first part of the theorem implies that CB is
circulant.
(2)
C+B=U
U*.
(3)
CU
U* = U U*U U* = U
U*
UU* =I.
Circulant matrices are an especially tractable class of matrices since inverses, products, and sums are
also Circulant matrices and hence both straightforward to construct and normal. In addition the eigenvalues of
such matrices can easily be found exactly and the same eigenvectors work for all circulant matrices.
We shall see that suitably chosen sequences of circulant matrices asymptotically
approximate sequences of Toeplitz matrices and hence results similar to those in Theorem 3.1 will hold
asymptotically for sequences of Toeplitz matrices.
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Origin and Development of Indian
Village in The Course of History
MOTIBHAI H. DEVU
Assistant Professor,M.D.Gramseva Mahavidyalaya,Gujarat Vidyapith,Sadara
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: HISTORY
INTRODUCTION
In India Villages originated form time ancient. In Indian Social context, village bears great significance. Though
villages originated naturally in India, they are considered as miniature forms of cities. In this sense – it is
smaller form of a city. In village, life, nature and natural resources are intervowen integrally. Villages take
shape and spread as per the local geographic conditions. Great diversities are seen in different villages.
VILLAGE IN INDIAN LITERATURE
In Vedic literature, in Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Yajurvaveda (Vajaseni Samhita) etc., the term ‘Gram’ (village) is
used to denote the groups of families and their residencies places. Alongwith the terms ‘Gram’ reference to
‘Mahagrams’ (Big villages) like that of Jaminiya Upanishan Brahman is also found.1
The terms ‘gramak’ and ‘gam’ as used in the Buddhist Literature refer smaller and commonplace villages.
In Rigvedic and post-vedic literatures too there are ample references to village set-ups. Here, in these texts the
term ‘pur’ – i.e. filling work done for the protection of the village is referred every now and then. In majority of
cases, villages remained open and unprotected i.e. without any sort of fencing. The villages with wealth and
political powers were protected with high compound walls such places are referred to as ‘purs’ or ‘puries’ in
Rigvedic and other such literature. However, the term ‘changar’ is not found ved-samhita, but it is found in
‘Taiteriya’ and ‘Arantyak’ and other literature of later periods. In vedic-texts there are many terms like ‘gram’
(village), ‘Mahagram’ (Bigger village), ‘Pur’ (village with wall protection) and in the later parts of vedic-texts
there is a reference of the term ‘Nagar’ (township).2
Etymologically the terms ‘Gam’ (In Gujarati), ‘Gauv’ (In Hindi), ‘Gamadu’, ‘Gamadi’ etc. have originated from
the Sanskrit term ‘Gram’ which semantically, means habitation in the proximity of cultivated farms and farmproduce.3
In the Astadyayi of Panini, the places of public habitation are referred to as (1) Nagar, (2) Gram, (3) Ghosh, (4)
Khed. During the time of Panini the village boarders were determined by the natural borders/barriers like
rivers, hill-lines, jungles etc.4
In ‘Tripitak’ literature there are terms ‘Ghosh’, ‘Gram’, ‘Nigham’, ‘Pur’ and ‘Nagar’ referring village like set ups.
In his Arthshastra’s Janapadhiven chapter, Kautilya talks about various types of villages such as ‘Dronmukh’,
‘Kharvatic’ and ‘Sangrahan’.5
In the second Adhyay (chapter) of Uttaradya, four types of villages have been referred such as Gram, Nagar,
Wigham and Rayhani i.e. Rajadhani (capital city in which the king resides)
In Acharangsutra, Gam, Nagar, Khed, Kalled, Mandal, Pahan, Dronmukh, Akar, Ashram, Sannivesh, Naigam,
Rajadhani – these twelve sorts of village set-ups have been referred.6
In the Kamsutra of Vatsayan, there are three types of village set-ups referred such as Nagar, Patan and
Kharvat. The Brahmand puran talks of ‘khet’, ‘Purak’ and ‘Gram’ as the major types of villages. 7
In the Vastushastra Granth (book) named ‘Mansar’ Gram-lakshan (science of Architecture) (i.e. characteristics
of village) and Nagar-lakshan (i.e. charactarstics of a town) are discussed very elaborately. As per this book,
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there are eight types of villages namely, Dandak, Sarvatobhadra, Nandhyavarta, Padmak, Swastik, Prastra,
Karmuk and Chaturmukh.8
The great king Bhoj wrote the book named ‘Samaranjan Sutradhar’ – i.e. a book of architectural guidance for
various solts of buildings. In the eighteenth chapter titled ‘Nagaradi Sangna’ i.e. – details on Towns, Here, he
enumerates the names of the Nagars. In the first six sloks (verses), there is a depiction of ‘Nivesho’ – i.e. –
habitate places. According to it, the place/city in which the king resides is called ‘Rajadhani’ and other cities
are town as ‘Branch-cities’. The towns smaller than the ‘Nagar’ (city) were known as ‘Karvat’, and somewhat
smaller in size to Karvat, was known as Nigham ‘Gramkalpa’.9
In the sutrank – 69 to 79 and in the 76th sutra of ‘Aparajit Prichcha’, various sorts of villages and their different
names have been discussed in detail. In the 73rd chapter titled ‘Pur-lakshan’, ‘Fat’, ‘Khet’ and ‘Gram’ such
terms are defined.10
TYPES OF VILLAGE (SETUPS) DESIGNS/PLANNIGS
So far as village set-ups are concerned, it seems a great importance is given to various geometrical shapes such
as lines, squares, quadrate, Hexagonal; round and oval shapes are given much importance whereas Triangles
are not considered greatly important.
Sometimes the borders of the villages as per the basic planning are found exceeded by the spread of the
village habitations. Whereas in some cases they are not reached entirely. In all such different cases various
historical, political, social as well as geographical factors are seen playing important role.11
Jain ‘Bruhat Kalpsutra Bhashya’ provides ample information about ancient Indian Villages and their planning.
This book throws light on different types of villages.
The villages from which taxes are levied or which immerse intellectual properties are ‘grams’. The villages
where no taxes are to be levied are (No-Tax) Nakar – Nagar. The villages surrounded by earthen compound
wall are Khet Fa-Nagar. The village without such fencing is Mandal. The village that is accessible on the landroads and routes is sthal-patan whereas which is accessible through water-routes is Jal-Patan. And, the village
which can be reached through both the water and land routes is called Dron-Mukh. The villages which are
inhabitated by the Vanik-People (business clan) are called Nigham. The villages inhabited by Tapas – i.e. those
who lead spiritual life are called Ashram. The villages where Sarth like communities reside are called ‘Nivesh’.
Villages located at geographically diverse places such as on high mountains where people live to deposit
different things of livelihood are called Sambadh. The villages in which reside the herdsman clans are called
Ghosh. And the centre of wholesale trade is called Purbhedan. 12
According to ‘Arthshastra’ and ‘Markandey Puran’, villages were classified as per caste and clans residing in
them, Varnadhivas (Race), magnitude and size and the route accessibility of them.
‘Arthshashtra’ and ‘Mankanday Puran’ state that the villages were inhabited by the peasants and farmers who
fell in the ‘Shudra’ category of Race-system. From tripitak and Jain Agam it appears that such villages would
have been evolved during the fourth, fifth and sixth century BC, but in later periods villages would be inhabited
by almost all sorts of professional castes. ‘Maymat’ villages were the village of Brahmin castes and detailed
descriptions of them are found. ‘Ek Bhog village’ i.e. a village inhabited by the generations of the same
parenthood. In the same way, the village of scholarly Brahmin was known as ‘Mangal’ and village of noble
ancestry was known as ‘Agrahar’. In Jain Bruhat Kalpasutra Bhashya there is a reference to such independent
villages as inhabited by people expert in same one particular art or craftsmanship. As per this there is a
reference to the villages of Soni (Goldsmiths), Suthar (carpenters), Kumbhar (potters), Vankar (weavers),
Chandal (Butchers), Brahmins etc.13
In ‘Mansar’ eight types of villages are referred as per the size, accessibility, planning and Race-inhabitation and
temple namely, Dandak, Sarvatobhadnd, Mandhavarta, Padmak, Swastik, Prastar, Karmuk and Chaturmukh.
Mayanuni analyses villages only on the basis of route designs. As per him, the villages can be termed as
Dandak, Swastik, Prastar, Prakirnak, Nandavart, Parat, Padmak and Shripathisthit. Apart from this,
‘Kamikagam’ adds four main types of villages such as ‘Sampatkar’, ‘Kumbhak’, ‘Shrivatsa’ and vedic. Thus, the
total variants of villages reach up to fifteen as the population of villages increase14, the size of the village also
expands under the geographical factors and the village acquires its shape according to it. In the flat pasture
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land, generally villages develop guadually with parrellel streets. In the same way, villages expand quadrate on
the flat bank of river.15
Water resources play important role in the development of villages. As on the bank of the river, when village
locates on the bank of the ponds, the shape of ponds bank also plays role in the design of the village set up.
The roads are straight, there are bends and turnings near the pond bank. 16
FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF VILLAGE
In smaller settlements, the inhabitants reside at distances without any certain pattern whereas in big village
people prefer to settle down in proximity. The spread of any village depends on geographical and social
factors, and then diversities are observed in the development patterns of different villages.
In ordinary cases, there are roads across the village for traffic management and the arrangements remain such
that there are residential buildings on both the side across the road. The main road intersects the village in the
middle.17
In the plains, there are roads across, parallel and intersecting each other. And there are at least three roads in
any moderate sized village.
Sometimes the borders of the villages as per the basic planning are found exceeded by the spread of the
village Habitations, whereas in some cases they are not reached entirely. In all such different cases various
historical, political, social as well as geographical factors are seen playing important role. Moreover, prevalent
planning designs, land utilization, changes in ownerships, roads available facilities etc. also play role on the size
and shape of the village.18
Sometimes, some instances are also found in which one ancestral person might have selected one particular
place of residence, then in the course of time, the generation, go on and the whole set up turns into a fullfledged village.
Further, migrations of the people have also much to do with the scope, size and development of villages.
Migrations take place owing to some political unrest, over population, for some trade and commerce and
owing to some cultural factors too. When the migrations are on higher scale, the all the difference categories
of people of one locality are found inhabiting another locale. In the villages formed out of migratory public, the
various streets of one same category/caste of people- Fort like structures are found, around such streets are
often known as ‘Pol, ‘Faliya’, ‘Mahollo’etc.19
CONCLUSION
Thus, there different viewpoints and historical evidences lead us to confer that village is a smaller set-up to the
city or town. And along with the natural factors, several socio-political, geographical factors also play
important role in the development of a village. Villages develop in the places where water and food resources
are conveniently available. The villages are classified as per the shape & size, planning, patterns, population.
Foot-note
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Dr. Priyabala Shah, Prachin Bharatiy Shilpkala and Sathapatya Gujarat University, Ahmedabad-1968, p. 3.
Ibid, p. 13.
Ramanlal Nagarsi Maheta, Bharatiy Vasavat, Itihas And Sunskrati Vibhag, Gujarat Vidyapith, 1986, p. 18.
Pro. Thomas Paramar, Bharatnu Nagarik Sahapaty, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 1984, p. 33.
Ibid, p. 32.
Dr. Priyabala Shah, op. cit., p. 33.
Ibid, p. 35.
Ibid, p. 36.
Ramanlal Nagaraji Maheta, op. cit., p. 34.
Ibid, p. 35.
Ibid, p. 33.
Dr. Priyabala Shah, op. cit, p. 35.
Thomas Parmar, op. cit., p. 35.
Ibid, p. 35.
Ramanlal Nagarji Maheta, op. cit., p. 36.
Ibid, p. 32.
Ibid, p. 32.
Ibid, p. 33.
Ibid, p. 31.
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A STUDY JOB SATISFACTIONON AS
PREDICTOR OF LIFE SATISFACTION ON
LECTURERS IN GOVT. AND PRIVATE
COLLEGES IN GUJARAT
DR. JEETENDRAKUMAR K. PANSURIYA
SHRI G.S. KUMAR VIDHYALYA-LIMBDI
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: PSYCHOLOGY
ABSTRACT
The present study aims to find out the job-satisfaction and life satisfaction of the government and private
lecturers of Gujarat district. A total of 60 lecturers (30 male and 30 female) were selected using random
sampling technique. The data was obtained through questionnaires which were administered personally.
Results indicted a significant difference in the job satisfaction of government and private college lecturers with
Government College lecturers having higher job-satisfaction. Government and private college lectureres do
not differ significantly on life-satisfaction scores. A significant positive correlation between job-satisfaction and
life-satisfaction of overall sample was found. Positive correlation between these two variables has important
implications for managers and supervisors.
INTRODUCTION
Job satisfaction or Employee satisfaction (also refereed to as morale) is one of the most used variables in
Organizational Behavior. It is an employee’s attitudinal response to his or her organization. As an attitude, job
satisfaction is summarized in evaluative component and comprised of cognitive, affective, behavioral
components. As with all attitudes, the relationship between satisfaction and behavior, most specifically job
performance and membership, is complex. Job satisfaction plays an important role in determining the quality
of one’s life. If one is satisfied with one’s job, it will boost one’s morale and one will always aspire to rise
further in life. Job satisfaction not only improves quality of life but it also makes a person more confident &
secures future. Job satisfaction also brings to fore one’s hidden potential which otherwise would have
remained untapped if one is dissatisfied with job. A steady & secure jog gives a person the much needed
financial security which is directly linked to a life full of contentment and satisfaction. The job become more
gratifying if one get a job of one’s own choice and one enjoy work to the best of one’s abilities. Thus, a job in
which a person is satisfied makes him or her happy, prosperous, financially secure and gives much needed life
satisfaction.
Objective:
1.
To study the job-satisfaction of govt. and private college lectures.
2.
To study the life-satisfaction of govt. and private college lecturers.
3.
To study the relationship between life-satisfaction and job-satisfaction of govt. and private college
lectures.
Hypotheses:
1.
There will be significant difference in job-satisfaction of govt. and private college lectures.
2.
There will be significant difference in life-satisfaction of govt. and private college lecturers.
3.
There will be significant correlation between job-satisfaction of govt. and private college lectures.
Job-satisfaction and life-satisfaction of an individual are closely related to each other. Job-satisfaction leads to
life-satisfaction which brings in its wake a positive impact on one’s life. A person who is wholly satisfied with
his job is bubbling with positive energy, vigor, self-confidence, ever ready to delve further into his choice field
of study. as per the maxim, nothing succeeds like success A self confident person achieves one success after
another and aims higher and higher in his life because job satisfaction has given him or her much needed
confidence to achieve satisfaction in life.
METHOD
Sample:
The sample for the present study consists of lectures of various private and government colleges of
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Gujarat district. A total of 60 lectures were selected using random sampling technique. 30 lectures (15 male &
15 female) were selected from government colleges. Similarly, 30 lectures (15 male & female) were selected
form private colleges.
Tools used:
Job-satisfaction scale developed by Dr. Amar Singh and Dr. T. R. Sharma.
Life-satisfaction scale developed by Dr.Promila Singh and Dr.George Joseph.
Variables:
Independent Variable - Type of College (Government/Private) & gender.
Dependent Variable - Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction.
Statistical Tools:
The SPSS 12 will use to analyses the obtained data.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows that female private college lectures have higher job- satisfaction (M=125.6, SD = 6.79) than male
(M = 124.4 SD = 6.50). However the difference is not statistically significant at 0.05level of significance. Similar
is the case in government colleges; females are high on job-satisfaction (M =131.2, SD = 7.56) than male
lectures (M = 129.13 SD = 7.5). This is due to the fact that for most of the women doing job is a matter of
choice and not necessity as for male and moreover. They are doing extra role besides their primary role of
home making. This produces in them a sense of achievement and a raised self esteem which in turn raises their
job-satisfaction.
TABLE 1
Summary table showing the means and S.D. of job-Satisfaction and Life-Satisfaction Scores of College Lectures.
Life-Satisfaction
Job-Satisfaction
15
15
N
149.5333
125.6000
Mean
10.77608
6.79075
Std. Deviation
15
15
N
148.6000
124.4667
Mean
10.82194
6.57774
Std. Deviation
30
30
N
149.0667
125.0333
Mean
10.62182
6.59406
Std. Deviation
15
15
N
150.5333
131.2000
Mean
10.88161
7.59887
Std. Deviation
15
15
N
Gender
Type of College
FEMALE
Private
MALE
TOTAL
FEMALE
Government
MALE
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148.5333
129
Mean
10.88161
7.59574
Std. Deviation
30
30
N
149.5333
130.1667
Mean
10.74062
7.53206
Std. Deviation
30
30
N
150.0333
128.4000
Mean
10.65277
7.63206
Std. Deviation
30
30
N
148.5667
126.8000
Mean
10.66313
7.37377
Std. Deviation
60
60
N
149.3000
127.6000
Mean
10.59309
7.48337
Std. Deviation
TOTAL
FEMALE
Total
MALE
TOTAL
The overall job-satisfaction of the female lecturers in the total sample (M = 128.4, SD = 7.63) is higher
than their male counterparts (M = 120.8, SD = 7.37) and as the t-test indicates this difference is statistically
significant (t = -0.82, p < 0.05).
The results also indicate that female lecturers have higher life-satisfaction scores in both government
and private colleges as compared to male lecturers. However it shows that there is no significant difference (t
= 0.169, p > 0.05) in the life-satisfaction of male and female, government as well as private college lecturers.
Further it was found positive correlation (0.505) between job-satisfaction and life satisfaction of an
individual. Thus it is clear that job-satisfaction is an important factor that determines the life-satisfaction of an
individual. However, the obtained results and the methodology used do not permit us to conclude that there
two variables. Thus, there may not be direct relationship between job-satisfaction and life satisfaction through
its effect on various other variables such as quality of life, social network, and support etc. Which contributes
positively to the life-satisfaction of an individual.
Result clearly shows that there is a significant difference in job-satisfaction of male and female college
lecturers and also there is a positive correlation between job-satisfaction difference in the life satisfaction of
male and female lecturers. These results simply conclude that job satisfaction is not the factor that determines
the life-satisfaction of an individual but there are other factors too.
CONCUSIONS:
■
There is a significant difference in the job-satisfaction of government and private college lecturers
with government college lecturers having higher job-satisfaction.
■
Government and rivate college lecturers do not differ significantly on life-satisfaction scores.
■
There is a significant positive correlation between job-satisfaction and life-satisfaction of overall
sample.
Limitations the study:
1.
The study was restricted to the colleges of Gujarat Province only.
2.
A sample of 60 marks it difficult to generalize the results.
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3.
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The data was obtained through questionnaire and it has own limitations.
REFRENCES:
Chadha, N.K.and kanwara, P. (1993). Quality of life among aged Indians. Journal of Psychiatry, 68(1&2) 15-21.
Rogers, J.D., Clow K.E and Kash, T. J.(1994). Increasing job satisfaction of service personnel. Journal of Services
Marketing 8(1), 14-26.
Sigh, P. and Sharma, T. R. Manual for Job-satisfaction Scale. Agra: National Psychological Corporation.
Singh, P and Joseph, G. Manual for Life Satisfaction Scale. Agra: National Psychological Corporation.
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PROMOTION OF PEACE EDUCATION
THROUGH TEXT
DR. RAJKUMAR S. TOPANDASANI
Associate Professor & Head, Arts & Commerce College, Mendarda (Gujarat) – 362 260.
KEYWORDS
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
ABSTRACT
Peace is a word that uttered almost as frequently as “truth”, ‘beauty’ and ‘love’. It may be just as elusive to
define as the other virtues. Common synonyms for peace include ‘amity’ ‘friendship’, harmony and neutrality.
Peace is not just a state of mind. Place is not just an attitude. Peace is a philosophy. It is the total
understanding and the total tolerance and the love of that which surrounds us. For if we can understand and
appreciate that which is happening, without any resentment, even through we may not agree, if we can
tolerate the actions of others, finding qualities in their sins, we will be close to peace. Peace is not the total
abdication of the spirit towards any one situation.from above discussion of peace we can understand that
peace means absence of violence among people, love for all, absence of destructive weapons and friendly
relations between nations without peace the destruction of human beings is very easy. The destruction of
human being means destruction of humanity.
INTRODUCTION
Peace is a word that uttered almost as frequently as “truth”, ‘beauty’ and ‘love’. It may be just as elusive to
define as the other virtues. Common synonyms for peace include ‘amity’ ‘friendship’, harmony and neutrality.
Peace is not just a state of mind. Place is not just an attitude. Peace is a philosophy. It is the total
understanding and the total tolerance and the love of that which surrounds us. For if we can understand and
appreciate that which is happening, without any resentment, even through we may not agree, if we can
tolerate the actions of others, finding qualities in their sins, we will be close to peace. Peace is not the total
abdication of the spirit towards any one situation.
From above discussion of peace we can understand that peace means absence of violence among people, love
for all, absence of destructive weapons and friendly relations between nations without peace the destruction
of human beings is very easy. The destruction of human being means destruction of humanity.
PEACE EDUCATION
Peace education is a broader discipline. Disarmament education, human rights education, environmental
education for international understanding and global education, are various forms of peace education. Peace
education concerns with peace ideas, peace studies and peace activities. It deals with conflicts arising out of
aggression or war situations and also arising out of injustice or exploitation. Unicef describes peace education
as schooling and other educational initiatives that:
Function as ‘Zones of peace’ , where children are safe from violent conflicts.

Uphold children’s basic rights as outlined in the CRC

Develop a climate that models peaceful and respectful behavior among all members of the learning
community

Integrate and understanding of peace human rights, social justice and global issues throughout the
curriculum wherever possible.
AIMS OF PEACE EDUCATION

“Education aims not to reproduce but to transform” – john Dewey

To explore concepts of peace both as a state of being and as an active process.

To explore a range of different alternative futures, in particukar ways of building a more just and
sustainable world society.

To assure the creation of culture of peace.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULT
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The present study required analyzing the contents of the textbook of civics Indian constitution and
government prescribed by CBSE. New Delhi for class IX in reference to 8 identified peace contents/ elements.
The identified peace contents . Elements were Human Rights, Duties, Justice, Equality, Democracy, Liberty,
Tolerance and Cooperation. the elements of peace as reflected in the contents of various chapters were
identified for their nature and the frequency of each peace elements were depicted and presented as rew
data.
Democracy as a parameter, which has been reflected in each and every chapter at least 5 to 6 times. The
reflection of democracy in the civics text i.e. Indian constitution and government was 79 times from 15
chapters. Equality as the next parameter was another significant aspect from studying peace education it was
reflected 4 to 5 times in 8 chapters i.e. a total occurrence of 33 times. cooperation Occurred times in the text.
Duties as one of the important identified parameters were reflected very less in comparison to other
parameters. The purpose of duties in civics text was to promote patriotism among citizens, help them to follow
a code of conduct that would strengthen the nation protect its sovereignty and integrity help the state in
performing its diverse duties. The reflection of duties in text was 10 times in six chapters.
Human Rights as identified parameter have also been reflected at very few places. In are fundamental for
human life. Human rights were reflected only 3 to 4 times and that to only in 4 chapters. Liberty has been
reflected 7 times in the prescribed chapters. Tolerance as identified parameter was reflected only 4 times in 2
chapters. But the importance of tolerance is as usual like other parameters for promoting peace and harmony.
Justice as an identified parameter Was reflected very less in comparison to other parameters. It was reflected
only once in only one chapter. But the role of justice is important like other parameters for maintaining peace
and harmony in the country.
Now the data so obtained have been prescribed in the following table :
Table -1
Occurrence of Peace Parameters in the Text
Name of Parameters
Democracy
Frequency
79
Percentage
46.7%
Equality
33
19.5%
Cooperation
18
10.6%
Human Rights
17
10.5%
Duties
10
5.9%
Liberty
7
4.1%
Tolerance
4
2.36%
Justice
1
.59%
The table shows the frequency and percentage of the 8 identified peace elements as reflected in the
contents of the textbook of civics of “Indian Constitution and government” has been gives.
The result when expressed in percentage can be read as follow. Democracy were found to be inherently
present in the contents were 46.7% Equality 19.5% , cooperation 10.5%, human Rights 10.% Duties 5.9%,
Liberty 4.1%, tolerance 2.36% and justice.59%.
CONCLUSIONS

The results of the analysis showed that the weightage or emphasis is given to the identified 8 peace
contents/elements in this book is not of a significant desirable level, because some parameters were found
very rarely in the content.

The questions, which indirectly promoter peace education, is need of interpretation by the teacher so
that the student easily understood them which is helped for the promotion of peace education.
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
From identified 8 parameters that is liberty, equality, democracy, tolerance, duties, justice,
cooperation, human rights, democracy was reflected much more i.e. 79 times while justice was reflected least,
i.e. 1 times

In some chapters the reflection of peace contents is very rare. But over all observation of the book
provide contents of peace education which help to promote peace education either directly or indirectly.

Most of the peace contents were almost 60 % reflected directly and 12% reflected indirectly in this
book. This implies that a teacher is required to play an active role in elaborating the meaning and essence
inherent in the contents if he/she wishes the student to analysis and internalize peace contents / elements.
“peace is not merely the absence of war and hatred but also the presence of cooperation, understanding and
compassion and world wide justice.”
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Miracle of teaching September-october-november-december-2008 volume-8
M.R.Bawa Muhaiyadden words
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RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING IS
A COST CONTROL DEVICE
PROF. DR. SANJAY RADADIYA
Assistant Professor,Shri Patel Kelavani Mandal College of Tech. & B.Ed.-Junagadh-362001
KEYWORDS: Introduction and meaning, Steps, Centers, Advantages, Disadvantages, Roles, Conclusion
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
ABSTRACT
Responsibility Accounting is a technique which helps in measuring as well as improving the performance of
employees, which ultimately helps the organization in controlling and reducing the costs.
Responsibility Accounting refers to the principles, practices and procedures under which costs and revenues
are classified according to the responsibility centers that are responsible for incurring the costs and generating
the revenue. It is a system of control where persons are made responsible for control of cost. Authority is
given to person of the different levels so that they are able to keep up their performance.
In recent times responsibility accounting has assumed an important place in modern business. But too much
should not be expected from it. After all, it is a system and its success depends upon the manner in which the
management utilizes it. It is not a substitute for good management. The top management should consider
even behavioral aspect of the system. Else, it will discourage the managers and would not achieve its
objectives.
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING’ has been widely used in formulating control systems. It is a system of
accounting and reporting in management accounting. In this system a number of centres, popularly called
‘Responsibility centers’ are created in an organisation under the charge of manager. This done by delegating
and locating responsibility for costs revenues and investments. The system would trace costs, revenues, and
assets as the case may be, to the individual managers who are primarily responsible for making decisions
about the above factors under review. The performance of various managers are judged by assessing how far
they have been able to achieve the pre-determined targets or objectives setup for the departments or sections
for which they are responsible. This is done by furnishing the departmental heads with performance reports
form time to time. An effective system of responsibility accounting would require that the responsibility of
each executive is defined clearly so that he knows what is expected of him. He is responsible or accountable
for various between the targets and the actual of those factors which are under his control. Responsibility
accounting is based on the principle that an executive will be accountable only to those acts which are under
his control. Responsibility accounting system can be tailored according to the needs of an organisation.
MEANING OF RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING
Institute of Cost and Works Accounts of India: defines Responsibility accounting as “a system of management
accounting under which accountability is established according to the responsibility delegated to various levels
of management and a management information and reporting system instituted to give adequate feedback in
terms of the delegated responsibility”.
According to Charles T. Horgren: Responsibility Accounting is a system of accounting that recognizes various
responsibility centres throughout the organisation and that reflects the plan of action of each of theses centres
by allocating particular revenues and costs to the one having the pertinent responsibility.
According to Robert Anthony: Responsibility accounting is that “that type of management accounting that
collects and reports both planned and actual accounting information in terms of responsibility centres”.
The definitions given above make it clear that the organisation should be classified into suitable responsibility
centres, so that the authority and responsibility of each individual can be very well defined. Each executive
must know: (1) what is expected of him and (ii) what has been his performance? For this purpose the reporting
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system is so developed that the executive gets the requisite information. Thus, in case of responsibility
accounting the main emphasis is on cost control, rather than on cost ascertainment, and on individual, rather
than on cost element.
STEPS INVOLVED IN RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING
Responsibility accounting is a cost control devise, which is evolved to help management in achieving
organizational goals. The following prerequisites are required for its proper functioning:
1. The organization is divided into various responsibility centers. Each responsibility centre is brought under
the charge of the responsibility manger who will be responsible for the performance of that department.
2. The area of responsibility and the authority of each centre should be well defined through an organization
chart.
3. The targets of each responsible centre are to be fixed in advance in consultation with the manager of the
responsibility centre so that he will be able to give full information about his department.
4. The actual performance of each responsible centre should be recorded and communicated with the
executive concerned and the actual performance be compared with the whole set.
5. There should be device for comparing the actual standards and reporting any variance to the top
management.
6. There should be devise for taking timely action in case there is any lapse in the part of the person in
charge of any responsibility centre.
RESPONSIBILITY CENTRES
Responsibility accounting focuses attention on Responsibility Centers. Responsibility Centre refers to any
organisation unit that is headed by a responsible manager. “Responsibility Centre is like an engine in that it has
outputs, which are physical quantities of material, hours of various types of labour, and a variety of services, it
works with these resources.
Responsibility accounting measures both inputs and output of the responsibility centres in monetary terms
wherever feasible. The input is termed as ‘cost’ while the output is termed as ‘revenue’ of the responsibility
centre. However, where monetary measurement of output is not possible (e.g. services rendered by the
accounting department to the organisation), it may be measured in terms of total cost of goods or services
transferred or as number of units if output.
Types of Responsibility Centres:
Responsibility centres can be three types
(a) Expense/cost centre
(b) Profit Centres
(c) Investment centres.
The Details study is as under:
(a)
Expense/Cost Centres:
In case of certain responsibility centres, it is neither possible nor necessary to measure the output in terms of
monetary units. Most of the services department comes in this category. E.g. it is almost impossible to
measure the monetary value of the Finance or the accounting Department contribution to the company. The
accounting system therefore, records the cost incurred in respect of these centres but not the revenue
incurred. Such centres are therefore, termed as Expenses centres.
(b)
Profit Centres:
A centre whose performance is measured in terms of both-the expenses it incurs and revenue it earns, is
termed as a profit centre. The output of a responsibility centre may either be meant for internal consumption
or for outside customers. In the latter case the revenue is realized when the sales are made. However, in case
of internal transfers, a responsibility centre is a profit centre only when the management decides to measure
its output in monthly terms. For example, in case of a process industry the output of one process may be
transferred to another process at a profit by taking into account the market price of such output. Such
transfers will give that responsibility centre some profit. Of course, such internal transfers do not increase the
company’s assets but definitely help sometimes in the management control process.
(c)
Investment centres:
Investment centres is the ultimate extension of the responsibility idea. It is a centre in which the head of the
centre is held responsible for the use of the assets as well as for revenues and expenses. In other words, he is
expected to earn a satisfactory return on the assets employed in his responsibility centre.
ADVANTAGES OF RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING
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It is an important system of management control and is useful in decentralizing the business enterprise.
Beside, it has number of other advantages.
1. It provides a useful tool to the management for control. The efficiency and profitability of large and small
departments and section are available from such reports.
2. It helps in evaluating the performance of divisional managers in an objective manner. Their performances
are compared with realistic targets fixed in advance carefully by the top management.
3. In order to appraise the performance, the objectives of business are to be determined and carefully
prepared realistic targets are to be fixed. Thus it compels top management to do so.
4. Under responsibility accounting, decision making is delegated to mangers of responsibility centres. This
helps in decentralization has become almost inevitable in modern business world.
5. Cost consciousness develops among divisional managers. Wherever they present a proposal, they would
always analyse cost benefits aspects of it.
6. It improved efficiency in yet another way. As the performance reports are promptly presented and
corrective actions are taken in time before it is too late.
7. It leads to improved efficiency in yet another way. As the performance reports are presented very much in
time before the divisional mangers, they have enough data before them, on the basis of which they take their
decisions. Thus decision- making delegated to him becomes scientific. These decisions are matured.
8. It is a motivating technique for divisional managers. Presenting the performance reports of their division
would encourage them to see that their targets are being achieved.
DISADVANTAGES OF RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING
1. If the top management does not heartily support the system, it will fail. Instead of motivating the
divisional managers, it will develop bitter feelings.
2. If the organization structure is not properly organized, there would be imbalance in delegation of
responsibility and authority. Thus the base itself would be weak.
3. The targets fixed must be realistic. If the targets are too high, it will discourage divisional personal and
would not achieve its goal of motivating managers.
4. The defective reporting system will have adverse repercussions. So also, not presenting report in time will
discourage the operating managers. They would not be able to take timely corrective measures.
ROLE OF RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING
Following are the main roles or contribution of responsibility accounting:
1. Decentralization: By dividing the total organization in smaller subunits, the organization becomes more
manageable.
2. Performance Evaluation: Responsibility accounting establishes a sound and fair system of performance
evaluation of each manager and personnel. The performance of each responsibility center is measured and
presented periodically on performance report.
3. Motivation: Responsibility accounting emphasizes on the individual achievement-based performance
evaluation. Therefore, the job becomes more challenging for the employees and motivates them to use their
full potentiality in achieving the results.
4. Transfer Pricing: Responsibility accounting divides the organization in different autonomous responsibility
centers or subunits. In such circumstances, product or service of one division or unit can be transferred to
another division or unit within the same organization charging a transfer price. This creates an intercompetitive environment to make each subunit of the organization more profitable and efficient.
5. Drop or Continue Decision: If the organization is divided into subunits, it becomes possible to measure
division wise or product wise profitability of the organization. If saving in costs exceeds the foregone revenues,
the center can be discontinued.
CONCLUSIONS
In recent times responsibility accounting has assumed an important place in modern business. But too much
should not be expected from it. After all, it is a system and its success depends upon the manner in which the
management utilizes it. It is not a substitute for good management. The top management should consider
even behavioral aspect of the system. Else, it will discourage the managers and would not achieve its
objectives.
As E.W.Netten writes, “responsibility accounting opens up new ways for the accountant to provide valuable
services to his enterprise after enterprise and to take his place on management team. Enterprise after
enterprise has adopted it and has found that it brought very worth while benefits through more realistic
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planning, greater profit consciousness, clear definition of organizational responsibilities, closer control and
better management decision.”
REFERENCE
-
Financial control and Management Accounting by S.N. Maheshwari.
Advanced Management Accounting by J. Madegowda
Open Internet Sources
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The Role of Public Expenditure in
India’s Development
MRS. VARSHABEN K. TANDEL
Associate Professor (Economics),C.P.Patel & F.H.Shah Commerce College,Anand
KEYWORDS: plan- non plan expenditure, capital and revenue expenditure , transfer & non
transfer expenditure, developmental & non developmental public expenditure
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
Public Expenditure can broadly speaking as the expenditure incurred by public authorities like central, state
and local government to satisfy the collective social wants of the public. In period of 19 th century most
governments followed state (The most classical economists such as Adam Smith & Ricardo believed) Laissez
Faire economic policies and their functions were only restricted to defending aggression and maintaining law
and order. Therefore the size of Public expenditure in that time was very small. But now the expenditure of
governments all over has significantly increased in early 20th century. John Maynard Keynes advocated the role
of public expenditure in determination of level of income and its distribution. In India Public expenditure policy
not only accelerates economic growth and promotes employment opportunities but also plays useful roles in
reducing poverty and inequalities in income distribution:

Functional classification

Capital & revenue

Productive & non Productive
OBJECTIVES
1.
2.
3.
Examine the growth of public expenditure in India.
To study the developmental role of public expenditure in India.
To identify plan and non-plan public expenditure in India.
METHODOLOGY
This conference paper has applied secondary data source. It examines the central government, total
expenditure, and plan and non-plan public expenditure in India. The study period covers post liberalization and
recent time budgetary proposals.
The main theories of public expenditure are related to optional provision of public goods generally
those two theories support in that way for viz : the principle of ability to pay Prof. A .C. Pigou gave this
theory
He explain the goods and services provided by state and the goal of state is the to promote the Welfare of the
society and Second principle is the benefit principle which is given by following economists.
(A) Erick Lindahi
(B) Samuelson
(C) Johansen Model
Those three economists’ theories indicate only the distribution of public goods and taxpayers. While in
modern times all countries of the world have experience the stimulation of public expenditure. These are
three important theories of growth of public expenditure.
1)
German economist ,Adolph Wagner
2)
Wiseman and Peacock
3)
Colin clark
This paper focuses on Adolph Wagnar’s Hypothesis of functional cause- effect relationship between
economic growth and growth in public expenditure. This hypothesis considers increasing government
activities due to increasing GDP growth.
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Chart 1: Most of the developing countries have followed below structure of public expenditure.
Above Chart shows Goals, Targets and Operating expenditure.
In developing countries main goal of the public expenditure is to economic stability , and economic Growth ,
the role of public expenditure in India has a vision for economic transformation and achieved a leading big
emerging economy in the global setting in to a developed country status .
The Public expenditure has a pivot role to play in the developmental process of India. It can promote economic
development. Many public expenditure programs have special purpose at promoting sustained and equitable
economic growth. Public Expenditure has played an important role in physical and human capital formulation
over a period of time. An effective public expenditure boosts in short term as well as long term country’s
economic growth.
Causes of Increase in Public Expenditure in India
1.
Growing population
2.
Defense
3.
Inflation
4.
Economic Development
5.
Technological changes
India has been over populated country that will add responsibility of solving such problems as food,
unemployment, housing, sanitation, health service. The government has to spend more on family planning
campaign. Actual budget of India year 2010-11 Food and Public Distribution expenditure Rs. 70790.18 Cr.
While it increased in budget estimate in 2011-12 was Rs. 73807.84 Cr. Revised. Health and Family Expenditure
in year 2010-11 & 2011-12 were Rs. 22764.50Cr. Rs.25254.00Cr. respectively.
Defense Expenditure was in year 2010-11Rs. 154116.71 Cr, and in 2011-12 revised with Rs. 170936.81 cr. Due
to uncertain and insecure international political environment. The defense expenditure are perpetually rising
in India because of war material, maintenance and growth of armed forces, military pensions, interest on war
loans, rehabilitation of war cost and so on. In modern times defense expenditure in India is continuous
increasing.
With the rising prices has contributed to the mounting public expenditure. There has been rise in prices of all
goods and services. During inflation government has to pay dearness allowance. The spread of Urbanization in
India is the leading factor to the relative growth of public expenditure in recent times. In year 2010-11 the
urban development expenditure was Rs. 8191.5 cr. While it increased in 2011-12Rs. 8649.73 cr. Government
has tried to reduce the problem of water supply, traffic, drainage, pollution, air pollution, etc.
India is an emerging developing country thus the rural areas dominant the government has to spend more and
more for various rural development program like community development and integrated rural development.
In year 2010-11 the expenditure was Rs. 72109.37 cr. While in Rs.67183.32 cr.in 2010-11
Economic Development most of the country’s first priority to economic development High income group
nations are to raise their standard of living still higher .while the developing countries are anxious to attain a
certain minimum standard. It is a costly Process
Technological inventions look forward for larger or new production in public Sector. The state can provide
technological know –how that will improvement in Internal investment projects fast in this regards the total
expenditure in information technology in 2010-11is that Rs. 3107 cr.
Concepts and Types of Public Expenditure: It is necessary to understand the concepts and types of the public
expenditure are as follows:
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Capital Expenditure of the government refers to that expenditure which results in creation of fixed assets.
They are in the form of investment. They add to the net productive assets of the economy. Capital Expenditure
is also known as development expenditure as it increases the productive capacity of the economy. It is
investment expenditure and a non-recurring type of expenditure. For E.g. Expenditure - on agricultural and
industrial development, irrigation, dams, and public -enterprises etc are all capital expenditures
Revenue expenditures are current or consumption expenditures incurred on civil administration, defense
forces, public health and, education, maintenance of government machinery etc. This type of "expenditure is
of recurrent type which is incurred year after year.
2) Development and Non - Developmental Expenditure / Productive and Non - Productive Expenditure:Expenditure on infrastructure development, public enterprises or development of agriculture increase
productive capacity in the economy and bring income to the government. Thus they are classified as
productive expenditure. All expenditures that promote economic growth development are termed as
development expenditure.
Unproductive (non - development) expenditure refers to those expenditures which do not yield any income.
Expenditure such as interest payments, expenditure on law and order, public administration, do not create any
productive asset which brings income to government such expenses are classified as unproductive
expenditures.
3) Transfer and Non - Transfer Expenditure:Transfer expenditure refers to those kind of expenditures against there is no corresponding transfer of real
resources i.e., goods or services. Such expenditure includes public expenditure on National Old pension
Scheme, Interest payments, subsidies, unemployment allowances, welfare benefits to weaker sections etc. By
incurring such expenditure, the government does not get anything in return, but it adds to the welfare of the
people, especially to weaker sections of society. Such expenditure results in redistribution of money incomes
within the society.
The non - transfer expenditure relates to that expenditure which results in creation of income or output The
non - transfer expenditure includes development as well as non - development expenditure that results in
creation of output directly or indirectly. Economic infrastructure (Power, Transport, Irrigation etc.), Social
infrastructure (Education, Health and Family welfare), internal law and order and defense, public
administration etc. By incurring such expenditure, government creates a healthy environment for economic
activities.
4) Plan And Non - Plan Expenditure
The plan expenditure is incurred on development activities outlined in ongoing five year plan. In 2009-10, the
plan expenditure of Central Government was 5.3% of GDP. Plan expenditure is incurred on Transport, rural
development, communication, agriculture, energy, social services, etc.
THE ROLE OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE IN INDIA’S DEVELOPMENT
The role of Government started increasing due to industrialization and urbanization according to German
economist, Adolph Wagner opines that though government’s expenditure is increasing because of economic
and non-economic expenditure starts increasing this is due to increase in more intensive and additional
extensive activities this can be turn to enlarge and widening activities so as to achieve certain pre –determined
socio-economic objectives of the country. First role to play in India the public expenditure should increase
necessary infrastructure like the roads and railways, irrigation and power projects are for quicker economic
development. And then after, to provide social overheads like hospitals, schools, colleges, technical
institutions, universities, too are essential.
BALANCED REGIONAL GROWTH
India has been special attention in this regard, as an imbalance regional growth is the permanent features of
the country. India has providing such as public tools to develop backward areas and under developed regions
large amount of money spent by government of India. In this regard, government gives grant and subsidies to
the lower economic growth of the state.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY
We examine the past history of Indian agriculture sector which is very significant role to play to the
development of India therefore it is necessary to develop agriculture sector in propriety based. Government of
India has been providing such facilities like irrigation and power, seeds, warehouse facilities, market facility,
price support, etc. while industrial sector by huge investment of the core industries for e.g. steel plants, heavy
engineering, machine making factories, etc. all these way are promote economic development.
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Table: 2 Trends in Central Government Expenditure Rs. In Cr.
Year
Revenue
expenditure
Capital
expenditure
Revenue
Expenditure
Capital
Expenditure
1990-91
73,516
31,782
69.8
30.2
2000-01
277839
47,753
85.3
14.7
2005-06
439,761
66,362
86.9
13.1
2006-07
514,609
68,778
87.1
12.9
2007-08
594,433
118,238
83.4
16.6
2008-09
793,798
90,158
89.8
10.2
2009-10
906,355
115,192
88.7
11.3
2010-11
958,724
150,025
86.5
Source: Statistical Outline of India 2009-10 p. 212
as share of total expenditure
13.5
As shown in the table and chart, revenue and capital expenditure of central government expenditure. Revenue
expenditure is continuing increases whereas the capital expenditure is sharply decline during given period. In
1990-91 the capital expenditure was the highest that is 30% of total central expenditure while it declined by
13. 5% in 2010-11. In year 2008-09 the revenue expenditure of the central government which is highest in
89.8% while lowest in 1990-91 it was 69.8%.
Table: 3:- Developmental & Non-Developmental Expenditure of the Central & State Governments
Rs. In Billion
Year
Developmental Exp
Non-Developmental Exp
Others
Total
1990-91
977.24
643.6
14.36
1635.2
1991-92
1093.72
723.19
42.14
1859.05
1992-93
1182.02
827.95
20.46
2030.43
1993-94
1290.42
1002.61
33.47
2326.5
1994-95
1503.67
1193.22
31.85
2728.74
1995-96
1653.61
1352.74
29.47
3035.48
1996-97
1853.68
1549
32.8
3435.48
1997-98
2013.99
1788.17
50.86
3853.02
1998-99
2397.2
2156.62
85.63
4639.45
1999-00
2744.83
2571.42
87.98
5404.23
2000-01
3085.46
2777.6
92.89
5955.95
2001-02
3322.24
3078.64
128.79
6529.67
2002-03
3593.29
3395.23
60.52
7049.04
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2003-04
4178.34
3716.51
68.99
7963.84
2004-05
4453.54
4163.4
80.63
8697.57
2005-06
5095.25
4403.77
99.53
9598.55
2006-07
5880.28
5076.35
135.11
11091.74
2007-08
7102.71
5897.42
162.33
13162.46
2008-09
9437.08
6373.09
185.16
15995.33
2009-10
10628.08
7689.1
205.77
18522.95
2010-11
13460.08
8797.55
275.6
22533.39
2011-12
14164.84
9653.06
322.37
Source: RBI handbook of statistics 2011-12 Chart 2:
24140.27
Above table and chart line indicate the four types of public expenditure that is developmental expenditure non
developmental, others expenditure & total expenditure With the central and state combined public
expenditure .during eleven period of time the total expenditure has been sharply increasing as also increasing
trends of developmental expenditure whereas others expenditure steadily constant while the non –
developmental expenditure increasing manner that shows increasing government activities due to
fulfillment of its objectives .but in India it is of unhealthy sign of the change of pattern of public expenditure
in recent years. The growth of non plan expenditure is high in three major items like (i) defense (ii) interest
payment (iii) subsidies.
CONCLUSION
Of course, the public expenditure in India’s growth trends is increasing. And the ratios of plan non-plan
expenditure are not important to the India’s development but some issues related to the welfare activities of
the whole society e.g. education and health sectors are deprived from government expenditure. Education is
an important in ingredient of growth as well as welfare of the masses. India where 64% of the population is
illiterate so that India has to focus on develops education and the education based facilities. Same as the other
health issue of India. Economics Times ET Bureau, Jan 31 st ,2014 “The Public Expenditure on healthcare in
country has come down considerably in recent years due to structural adjustment policies which could result
in an increase in imbalances and inequalities between poor and rich in health outcomes.” while there should
required sound public expenditure policy in India.
REFERENCES:








Mithani D.M.(2007) Public Finance: Theory and Practice
Dr.Cauvery R., et.al. (2011) Public Finance (Fiscal Policy) S.Chand & Company Ltd.
Dewett K.K (2010) Modern Economic Theory pp 744 to 752
L.N. Vijay ,Public Expenditure & Economic Growth : Global Journal of Management
Budget Documents of the Government of India and State Governments
Indian Public Finance Statistics 2012-13 (Report)
ET Bureau, Economic Times 31st January,2014
http//indiabudget.nic.in
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KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: EDUCATION
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(learning
by
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KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: EDUCATION
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lX1F6NX"G 5Z CHL :5Q8 ZLT[ JTF"I K[ tIFZ[ 5|FYlDS lX1F6DF\ 5|JT"DFG
VeIF;S|DDF\ ;DFlJQ8 5|FRLG TtJlR\TGGL 5|:T]TTF ;DHJF DF8[ VeIF; CFY
WZJFDF\ VFjIMP
5|:TFJGF ov
R.T.E.- 2009 T[D H N.C.F.-2005 G[ wIFGDF\ ZFBLG[ ;DU| N[XDF\
5|FYlDS lX1F6GF\ VeIF;S|D45F9IS|D VG[ 5F9I5]:TSM T[D H ;DU|
lX1F65|lS|IFDF\ AN,FJ Y. ZæM K[ PS[/J6LG]\ S,[JZ H}GL ~l-VM VG[
5Z\5ZFVMDF\YL D]ST Y.G[ GJF 5|:YFG VFNZ[ K[P T[D KTF\ DCFG
lJRFZSMGF\ TtJlR\TG TYF T[G[ ,LW[ lJlJW lJRFZWFZFVMGL V;Z 56 JT"DFG
lX1F65|6F,LDF\ HM. XSFI K[P
5|FRLG lX1F6NX"GGM 5|EFJ VF56F
lX1F6NX"G 5Z CHL :5Q8 ZLT[ JTF"I K[ tIFZ[ 5|FYlDS lX1F6DF\ 5|JT"DFG
VeIF;S|DDF\ ;DFlJQ8 5|FRLG TtJlR\TGGL V;Z HF6JF RFZ D]bI
lJRFZWFZFVMGL lX1F6GF\ D]bI 5F;F 5Z YTL V;Z RSF;JFGM 5|ItG SZJFDF\
VFjIMP
;\XMWGGF\ C[T]VM ov
lGdGNlX"T C[T]VMG[ wIFG[ ,. ;\XMWS[ 5|:T]T ;\XMWGSFI" CFY WI]"
K[P

lX1F6 V\U[GF\ TtJlR\TGGM VeIF; SZJMP

5|FYlDS lX1F6DF\ 5|JT"DFG WMZ6 & YL (GF\ VeIF;S|DDF\ ;DFlJQ8
5|FRLG TtJlR\TGGL 5|:T]TTF ;DHJLP
DCtJ ov
U]HZFTDF\ NCF-2005 VG[ RTE-2009 VgJI[ WMP & YL ( DF\ JQF" Z_!Zv!#
YL GJF 5F9I5]:TSM VD,L AgIF K[P tIFZ[ VF GJF lJRFZ 5|JFCM TYF
AF/DGMlJ7FG äFZF ;}RJFI[, VwIIGvVwIF5GGL DCtJGL AFATM VG[ 5|FRLG
lJRFZWFZFVM JrR[ HMJF D/TL ;];\UTTF V\U[GM ;\A\W HF6JF DF8[ ;\XMWS[
5|:T]T VeIF; CFY WIM" K[P
RFJL~5 XaNMGL jIJCFZ]\ jIFbIF ov
GJF[ VeIF;S|D o
lJnFYL" JU"B\0 p5ZF\T XF/FDF\ S[ XF/F ACFZ lJlJW 5|J'lTVM äFZF
X{1Fl6S VG]EJM D[/J[ T[P VCL\ WMP & YL ( GM JQF" Z_!Zv!# YL VD,L AG[,
GJM VeIF;S|DP
5|FRLG lJRFZWFZFVMGF\ TtJM ov
TtJ7FGGL lJlJW lJRFZWFZFVM VFNX"JFN4 5|S'lTJFN4 Vl:TtJJFN lJU[Z[
V\TU"T ZH} SZFI[,L S[/J6LGF\ VFNX" TtJM JT"DFG ;DIDF\ JT"DFG
VeIF;S|DDF\ S[8,F :JLS'T ZCIF K[ T[ HF6JFGM 5|:T]T ;\XMWGDF\ 5|IF; YIM
K[P
5|FRLG lJRFZSMGF\ lJRFZMGL lX1F6 5ZGL V;ZMDF\ lX1F6GF\ TtJM
H[JF S[4 lX1F6GF\ C[T]VM4 5F9IS|D4 lX1F6 5âlT4 lX1FS4 lX:T4 XF/F JU[Z[
5ZGF\ lJRFZMGL JT"DFG lX1F6 5ZGL V;ZM HF6JFGM V+[ 5|IF; YIM K[P
DFlCTL V[S+LSZ6GL ZLT ov

S[/J6LGF\ TtJlR\TGGL lJlJW lJRFZWFZFVM V\U[GF\ 5]:TSMG]\ JF\RGP

S[/J6LGF\ TtJlR\TGGL lJlJW lJRFZWFZFVM 5Z YI[,F ;\XMWGMG]\
JF\RGP
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JT"DFG VeIF;S|D VG[ lX1F65|YF 5Z YTL TtJlR\TGGL V;ZP
DFlCTL lJ`,[QF6GL 5âlT ov
5|:T]T ;\XMWG U]6FtDS 5|SFZG]\ CM. lJQFIJ:T] lJ`,[QF6 5âlTGM p5IMU
SZJFDF\ VFJ[,P
DFlCTL lJ`,[QF6 ov
VFNX"JFN
lX1F6 5âlT ov

AF/SGL G{;lU"S 5|lS|IFVMG[ VG]~5 CMJL HM.V[P

TS"GF\ 5FIF 5Z VFWFlZT4 VJ,MSG 5âlT4 lGZL1F6 VG[ 5|IMU 5âlT
p5ZF\T lR\TG4 DGG VG[ V\To:O}Z6FG[ DCtJGL 5âlT U6[ K[P

AF/SGL 5|S'lTG[ wIFGDF\ ZFBL S[/J6L VF5JL HM.V[P

AF/S V[ DM8[ZFVMGL ,3]VFJ'lT GYLPAF/SGL ;H"GFtDS XlST
lJS;FJJFGM C[T] K[P

;'lQ8DF\ H[ SF\. X]E4 ;tI K[ T[G[ jIlST 5MTFGF\ HLJGDF\ pTFZ[P

EFZTLI lR\TS UF\WLHL .lgãIMGF\ SF{X<IEIF" p5IMUYL jIlSTGF\
VFtDFGM lJSF; YFI T[D .rKTF CTFP
lX1FS ov

S]X/4 ;æNIL ãlQ8JF/F DFGJLP

AF{lâS VG[ G{lTS ZLT[ prR S1FFJF/MP

lJnFYL"VMDF\ 7FGGM XMWS VG[ 5'YÞZ6 SZJFGL ãlQ8JF/MP
lX:T ov

S0S lX:T VG[ lX:TE\U AN, VlGJFI"56[ lX1FFDF\ DFG[ K[P JT"DFG lX1F6
VF AFATG[ V:JLSFI" U6[ K[P
5|S'lTJFN

AF/S DCtJG]\4 AFCI A\WGMYL lJD]ST4 :JT\+ JFTFJZ6DF\ AF/SGM lJSF;
YJF NM T[ VlEUDP

AF/S DM8[ZFVMGL ,3] 5|lTS'lT GYLP AF/SG[ AF/S ZC[JF NMP

S[/J6L AF/SGL G{;lU"S 5|lSIFVMG[ VG]~5 CMJL HM.V[P

AF/SGM lJSF; DGMlJ7FGGL ¡lQ8V[ VG[ VF\TlZS XlSTVM äFZF H YFI
K[P

NZ[S AF/SG[ ;LWF XFlaNS VG]EJM G VF5TF VG]EJM D/[ T[JL X{1Fl6S
TSM 5}ZL 5F0JL HM.V[P

AF/SG[ XLBJL GFBJFGL pTFJ/ G SZMP T[G[ 5MTFGL UlTV[ XLBJF
NMP

HLJGDF\ 5|YD ;FT JQF" ZDTUDT VG[ 5|J'lT äFZF DFT'EFQFFDF\ lX1F6
VF5JFGL lCDFIT SZL K[P
5âlT ov

5|tI1F VG]EJ äFZF lX1F6

5|lS|IF äFZF lX1F6

~;M XFlaNS lX1F6GM ;bT lJZMW SZTFP

p5N[XFtDS VG[ DFlCTL5|WFG XFlaNS lX1F6G[ :YFG[ VG]EJM äFZF
lX1F6P

ZDTvUDT VFWFZLT 5|J'lTVM4 :SFp8L\U4 XF/F 5|JF;M4 :JvXF;GGF\
VG]EJM p5ZF\T4 B]<,L HuIFVMDF\ lGZL1F6 äFZF lX1F6G]\ J,6P
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lX:T ov

NDGJFNL lX:TGM lJZMW

lGIDM 5|FS'lTS

lJnFYL"5lZQFN lGIDM AGFJ[P
JF:TJJFN o

DFT'EFQFF äFZF S[/J6L

;DFH DCFG 5]:TSP T[GF\ VeIF;YL jIlSTDF\ jIJCFlZS SF{X<I VG[
;FDFlHS ;O/TF D[/JJFGL XlST VFJ[P

S\9:Y SZ[,F ;}+M S[ D]B5F9 SZ[,F D\+M HLJG HLJJFGL S/F EFuI[ H
XLBJ[ K[P JF:TlJS HLJG äFZF H ;FR] lX1F6 5|F%T YFI K[P

.lgãI äFZF 7FG D[/J[P

J{7FlGS -A[ lR\TG YFIP

HLJGDF\ G{lTSTF4 RMS;F.4 RLJ84 lGIlDTTF4 lX:T5F,G H[JF U]6M
S[/JFIP
VeIF;S|D ov

c;Z/ 5ZYL ;\S], TZOc l;âF\T VFWFZLTP

5|tI1F JU"lX1F6DF\ ;CvVeIF; 5|J'lTVM H[JL S[ VeIF; D\0/M4 ;FDFlHS4
;F\:S'lTS 5|J'lTVM4 5|JF; 5I"8G4 D],FSFT4 XF/F 5|NX"GM IMHL SF{X<I S[/J6LP
5âlT ov

5|tI1F VG]EJ äFZF lX1F6

.lgãIM äFZF 7FG5|NFG

.lgãIM SF{X<IM lJS;FJJF T[ 5FIFGM l;âF\T
lX:T ov

JF:TJJFNLVM S0S lX:T VG[ lX:TE\U AN, VlGJFI"56[ lX1FFDF\ DFG[ K[P
JT"DFG lX1F6 VF AFATG[ V:JLSFI" U6[ K[P
jIJCFZJFN ov
VG]EJGL S;M8L 5Z H[ ;FR] 9Z[ T[ H ;tI SCL XSFIP T[YL SM. 56 lJRFZ S[
SFI"G[ 5|IMU S[ VG]EJG[ VFWFZ[ l;â SZJ]\ VFJxIS K[P
VHDFIX äFZF H[ p5IMUL lGJ0[ T[ H ;tIP

jIlST JFTFJZ6G[ VG]S}/ Y.G[ DFGJJT"G SZ[ T[ VFJxIS K[P

lJnFYL"VMDF\ V5lZlRT 5lZl:YlTDF\ D}<IM ;H"JFGL XlST BL,JJLP

NZ[S 5lZl:YlTDF\ ;}h VG[ ;FC; ATFJ[ T[JF lS|IFXL, VG[ ;FG]S}/ jIlSTtJG]\
;H"GP

5|IMU äFZF ;tIGL XMWP

7FGG[ VB\04 VlJEFHI ZLT[ ;\Sl,T VG]EJM 5}ZF 5F0JFP

5|J'lTS[gãL VG[ VwI[TFS[gãL VeIF;S|D CMJM HM.V[P

Reflective Thinking VG[ discovery 5âlT DF8[ lCDFITP
5âlTov

;D:IF pS[, ZDTUDT

5|MH[S8 5âlTvH}Y 5|J'lT 5Z lJX[QF EFZP

VFUDGvlGUDG 5âlT
lX1FS ov

VwI[TF ;FY[ lD+TFG]\ J,6 ZFBGFZP

5}J"U|CZlCT

5lZzDXL,

;H"GFtDS AFATMDF\ Z; WZFJTM

;CSFZ VF5GFZ4 lGQ9FJFGP
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DCtJGL RFZ lJRFZWFZFVMDF\YL :JLS'T p5ZGF\ lJRFZM JT"DFG
VeIF;S|DGF\ GLR[GF\ l;âF\T v C[T]DF\ HMJF D/[ K[P

NCF-2005 DF\ NXF"J[, DCtJGL AFATM ov
NCF-2005 DF\ AF/SMGL XLBJFvXLBJJFGL TYF HLJGD}<IMGF\ lJSF;
DF8[GL lGdGl,lBT DCtJGL AFATM NXF"J[, K[P

5|tI[S AF/S DCtJ5}6" K[P

5|tI[S AF/SGL 5MTFGL XLBJFGL UlT CMI K[P

5|tI[S AF/SG]\ 5MTFG]\ :TZ CMI K[P

ZRGFJFN VG];FZ AF/S 5MTFGF 7FGG]\ HFT[ lGDF"6 SZ[ K[P

7FGG[ XF/F ACFZGF\ JFTFJZ6 ;FY[ HM0J]\P

UMB65ÎLJF/L 5ZL1FF5âlTGM tIFU SZJMP

VeIF;S|D 5F9I5]:TSYL VFU/ JW[ T[JM CMIP

5ZL1FF5âlT JW\] ,RL,L AGFJJLP

lX1F6G[ HLJG ;FY[ HM0J]\P

AF/S[gãL lX1F6 CMIP

AF/SGL ;lS|I EFULNFZL VG[ T[GF\ jIlSTtJGM :JLSFZ YFIP

AF/SM V[JF JFTFJZ6DF\ E6L XS[ K[ H[DF\ T[DG[ ,FU[ K[ S[ T[DG[
DCtJ5}6" U6JFDF\ VFJ[ K[P
AF/SM V\U[GF\ :JLS'T bIF,M ov

AF/S 5MTFGF SFDG[ 5|NlX"T SZJFGL >rKF WZFJ[ K[P

AF/S SMZL :,[8 GYLP

AF/SM V[SWFZF56FYL S\8F/[ K[P

AF/SM cHFT[c 36]\ XLB[ K[P

AF/SMGF HUTDF\ SX]\ H V3Z]\ GYLP

AF/SMGF\ DGDF\ 5}J"U|C G ZM5LV[P

5|tI[S AF/S VGgI K[P

AF/SMG[ VY"5}6" 5|J'lTVM VF5LV[P

AF/SMGL VlEZ]lR4 S]T}C,4 VFSQF"6 VG[ pt;]STF 5Z wIFG VF5J]\
HM.V[P
lJ`,[QF6 5âlT ov
5|:T]T ;\XMWGDF\ TtJ7FGGL RFZ lJRFZWFZFVM V\TU"T ZH] SZJFDF\
VFJ[, lJRFZMG\] lJ`,[QF6 SZFI]\ K[P
TFZ6M ov

GJF 5|JT"DFG VeIF;S|DDF\ RFZ 5|FRLG lJRFZWFZFVMGF\ ;FZF TtJM
;\lDl,T :J~5DF\ HMJF D/[ K[P

5|FRLG RFZ lJRFZWFZFVMDF\YL NZ[S AFATG[ H[vT[ :J~5[ H
:JLSFZJFG[ AN,[ VFW]lGS I]U ;FY[ A\WA[;TL AFATMG[ :JLSFZF. K[P

VFNX"JFNGF\\ C[T] VFwIFltDS lJSF;G[ AN,[ ;JF"\UL lJSF;DF\ GJL S[/J6L
DFG[ K[P 5Z\T] ;F\:S'lTS JFZ;F4 ;tI VG[ G{lTSTFG]\ DCtJ :JLSFZ[ K[P

5|JT"DFG VeIF;S|DDF\ 5|S'lTJFNGF\ 36F\ AWF lJRFZMGM :JLSFZ YIM
K[P

5|YD ;FT JQF" ZDTvUDT VG[ 5|J'lT äFZF DFT'EFQFFDF\ lX1F6 V[
D}/E}T 5|S'lTJFNGM lJRFZ K[P

J{7FlGS lR\TG4 .lgãIM äFZF 7FG V[ DCtJGL AFATM JF:TJJFNLVMGL
N[G K[P
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
VF p5ZF\T4 5|tI1F JU" lX1F6DF\ VG[S 5|J'lTVMGF\ p5IMUG]\ ;}RG
JF:TJJFNLVMG]\ K[P

c;Z/ 5ZYL ;\S], TZOc GF\ l;âF\TM 5Z VFWFZLT VeIF;S|D JF:TJJFNL
lJRFZGM :JLSFZ K[P

:Y/ D],FSFT H[JF S[4 A[gS4 5MQ8VMlO;4 dI]hLID4 UF0"G4 5|NX"G4
5]:TSF,I4 VF8"U[,[ZL JU[Z[ JF:TJFNL lJRFZGL N[G K[P

X{1Fl6S
;FWGMvp5SZ6MGF\
p5IMU
5Z
EFZ4
NFPTP
8LPJLP4Sd%I]8Z4lJl0IMGM lX1F65|lS|IFDF\ p5IMU TYF ;H"GFtDSTFGF\ lJSF;
DF8[ lJWFYL"VM lR+M4 RF8";4 VFS'lTVM NMZ[ T[ 56 JF:TJJFNL lJRFZ K[P
;\NE";}lR o
1. pRF8 lNPVP4 s!)((fP ;\XMWGGF\ 5|FZ\E[4 V1FZ EJGP
2. PPPPPPPPPP4s!))!fP X{1Fl6S ;\XMWG4ZFHSM8o 0F"P0LPV[PpRF8
3. pRF8 lNPVPVG[ VgIMP4 s!))(fP ;\XMWGGF\ VC[JF,G]\ ,[BG S[JL ZLT[
SZXM m4 ZFHSM8 o lGHHG ;FISM ;[g8ZP
4. PPPPPPPPPPs!)((fP ;\XMWGG]\ ;\NMCG4 ZFHSM8 o lX1F6XF:+ EJG4
;F{ZFQ8| I]lGP
Buch, M.B. (1974). A Survey of Research in Education, Baroda: CASE.
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tulsI ke kaVy me. 2mR AaEer rajnIit
p/a Da> mala 0s im&a
Ò
Ò
Ò
Ò
VyaQyata -srkarI ivnyn 0v. vai`Jy kolej-Aahva ÜDa.gÝ
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: LANGUAGE
ihNdU 2mRkox me. '2mR' ko iksI vStu kI iv2ayk AaNtirk v<i% ke +p me. pirwai8t ikya gya hE.| p/Tyek
VyiKtTv ijs v<i% pr inwRr hE, vhI ]s pda4R ka 2mR hE.|Ó vExei8k dxRn ne 2mR kI ATyNt vE)aink pirwa8a
dI hE. -'ytoDWyudyin: &eys isi@d: s 2mR:' A4aRt 2mR vh hE ijsse [s jIvn ka AWyudy AaEer waiv jIvn me.
in:&eys kI isi@d ho| '2ar`at 2mRimTyaHu: 2moR 2aryte p/ja: ' ke Anusar jo 2ar` ikya jaye vhI 2mR hE.|
2mR VyiKt kI trh smaj ka wI iv2ayk hE At: 0k sWy, sus.Sk<t ]¶t smaj me. VyiKt ka smaj ke. p/it, pirvar ke p/it,
gu+jno ke p/it, im5 ke. p/it, AaTma ke. p/it Kya ktRVy Ü'2mR'Ý hona caih0-tulsI ne [ska sMyk\ in+p` ikya hE.|
sNtan ka 2mR hE ik vh mata-ipta A4va sas-ssur ke p/it &@da,seva AaEr sMman kI wavna rqe| tulsI ke nayk
ram ka smUca jIvn hI [s '2mR' kI isi@d hetu p/yasrt hE.| ram Svy. to 'pu5-2mR 'ka invaRh kr hI rhe hE., ANy
ke il0 p/erk wI bne hE.| vn-gmn ke smy sIta v l(m` ko idya gya ]nka ]pdex [sI ktRVy ke Anupaln kI k4a kh rha
hE.|
'mat<-ipta' gu+SvamI isq, isr 2ir krih suway>,
lhe] lawu itNh jankr , nt+ jnmu jg jay> |Ô
ix*y ko gu+ ke p/it &@da, p/em, ivny, seva, s.koc ke sa4 0k iniXct dUrI bnaye rqte hu0 wyimi&t sMman ka
wav rqna caih0 yhI 'ix*y 2mR' wI hE.| ram-l(m` svR5 [s wav ko bnaye rqe hE.| yhI nhI tulsI wI ]sI wav ko bl
dene hetu p/Ty9 vKta bn gye hE.| gu+ ka wI ktRVy Ü 2mR Ý ix*y kI )an-d<i*3 me. ivStar krna t4a d<i*3-do8
ÜA)anÝ ka nax krna hE.|
''&I gu+ pd-nq min gn jotI,
suimrt idVy d<i*3 ihy> hotI|Õ
gu+ pd-rj m<du m.jul A.jn,
nyn AimA d<g do8 ivw.jn|''Ö
prSpr p/em, smpR` AaEer in*#a-wav hI pit-pTnI ka 2mR hE.| 'ramcirt mans' me. ram-sIta, ixv-pavRtI,
x.kr-stI, Ai5-AnusUya, rav`-mNdodrI [ske ANytm ]dahr` hE.| pit 0v. pTnI dono. ka prm 2mR hE ik duq:suq,
hain-law me. 0k dusre ke shwagI bnkr rhe,[email protected] me. sIta [sI 2mR kI Ai2vKta bnI hE.| iki*kN2aka.D
me. 'im5' ke. jo l9` btaye gye hE, tulsI in+ipt 'im5-2mR' ka hI pyaRy hE.|
2mR ka 0k +p ]pasna-p@2it wI hE| prm s%ako mankr ]skI AcRna krna| vEidk 2mR ke Anusar {Xvr 0k hE.| vh
ivXv kI svoRCc s%a hE, ]se Anek namo. se yad ikya ja skta hE.| in8do. ka wI yhI mt hE.| vedo> ka manna hE.
]ska ko{ Aakar nhI. hota At:]skI mUitR wI nhI. bna{ ja sktI hE.| vh svRVyapI tejSvI, xrIr riht, Snayuriht,
xu@d, papmuKt kiv, mnI8I, SvyMwU, smSt pda4oR ka inmaRta hE.| tulsI ne. wI {Xvr ke mUl +p ko 0esa hI
SvIkar ikya hE.| ]Nhone. Sp*3 SvIkara hE ik ram vStut: Apirimt bl vale Anaid, AjNma, AVyKt, 0k Agocr,
goivNd ÜA4aRt\ ved vaKyo µara janne yoGyÝ [iNµyo. se AtIt µNµ ko hrne vale, iv)an kI 2nmUitR t4a p<$vI
ke. Aa2ar hE.|
'blm5mepnaidwjmVyKtmek goc.r,
goivNd gopr µNµd<r ivGyan2n 2rnI2r.| ''×
tulsI ke. kaVy me. khI wI s%a-moh d<i*3gocr nhI. hota, rajnIit 2mR p/eirt hE., jha> Tyag kI wavna
blIwUt hE>| 2mR se yha> taTpyR iksI sMp/day ivxe8 se n hokr manvIy-mULyo se hE| v.x prMpranugt
imlnevala raJy wI ram ko Aaki8Rt nhI. kr pata ''tulsI ne. y5-t5, raja-p/ja ke ktRVyaktRVy ka wI s.ket idya he.|
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[email protected] me. ram khte hE ik muiqya muq ke sman hona caih0, jo qan-pan me. to Akela hE pr.tu
ivvekpUvRk sb A.go ka paln-po8` krta hE.|
'muiqya muq so caih0, qanpan khU> 0k,
pak{ po8{ skl A.g, tulsI siht ivvek| ''Ø
sam,dam,d~D AaEer wed-rajnIit ke. ye car p/muq A.g hE.| tulsI kaVy me. NyUnai2k sbke dxRn hote
hE.|kuxl rajnIit) ram smyanusar di~Dt krte hu0 to d<i*3gocr hote hI hE.| ]ict Avsr pr wed-nIit ka p/yog krne se.
wI nhI. cUkte| A.gd kI Sp*3 SvIkaroiKt hE ik 'sam dan A+ d~D ivweda, n<p-]r bsih. na4 kh beda|' rajnIit
me. x5u p9 ke. sbl hone kI smSt s.wavnaAae. ko wed-nIit µara i7¶-iw¶ kr idya jata hE| ram ne wI svR5 [ska
shara ilya hE.|
tulsI kI rajnIit 2mRmy hE| yha> 2mR ka taTpyR iksI sMp/day ivxe8 ka s.r9k hona nhI. Aiptu manvIy AaEr ]dar
nIit se sMp<Kt hona hE| ivwI8` ke x.kakul hone pr ram ne ijs '2mR-r4' kI ccaR kI he,Sp<d<gIy hE| ram ne. kha
ik'ivjy-r4' ke xaEyR AaEr 2EyR do pihye hE| sTy AaEr xIl ÜsdacarÝ ]skI d<! @vjabl, ivvekdm Ü[iNµyo ka
vx me. honaÝ AaEr propkar ye car 6oDe hE, jo 9ma, dya, smta +pI DorI se r4 me. juDe_ hu0 hE.| {x wjn hI r4
clane. vala sari4 hE| bEraGy !al hE, s.to8 tlvar hE, dan prxu hE, bui@d p/c.D xiKt hE, &e*3 )an ki!n 2nu8 hE,
inmRl AaEr iS4r mn trkx hE smÜmn ka vx me. honaÝ Aih.said ym AaaEr xaEcaid inym ye bhut se ba` hE|
b/aHm` AaEr gu+ ka pUjn Awe@y kvc hE| [ske sman ivjy ka dUsra ko{ ]pay nhI. he.|
tulsI ke. nayk ke xasna+!_ hote hI svR5 AanNd AaEer m.gl ka sam/aJy p/sairt hota hE| vStut: xask kI
suVyvS4a µara hI swI suqI, sa2n-sMpNn, inwRy AaEer xok riht ho gye hE| ctuidRk_ Aga2 sNto8 pirVyaPt hE,
[sil0 prSpr vEr-wav wI nhI.'d~D jitNh kr wed jh> ntRk n<Ty smaj,
jIthu mnih suinA As ram cN³ ke raj|''Ù
yhI tulsI in+ipt AadxR VyvS4a hE AaaEr Aaj ke pirp/e(y me. wI yhI kaMy hE.|
yad i3Pp`I
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ihNdU 2mR kox, Da>rajblI pa~De, p< Ò ÕÕÛ |
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ramcirtmans, [email protected], tulsIdas, p< Ò ÕØÓ |
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vhI, p< Ò ÔÒÓ |
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Indian Renaissance Thinkers and
Writers – A Bird’s View
DR.Rushikesh N. Upadhyay
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: LANGUAGE
Renaissance or new birth in India was the awakening of the mind, soul and psyche of the nation after a long
span of darkness in the field of arts, literature, philosophy, science, religion etc... The 19th century in Indian
perspective was also known as Navajagaran, Punarjagaran, Lokjagaran, Sudharayug or Prabodhan in different
languages. With the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, a new age was about to dawn of
patriotism, liberty, appreciation for the rich cultural tradition etc. that was to inspire large masses in general
and the creative writers in particular. It was a period of transition between the pre-colonial and the postcolonial India. The great Indian leaders, thinkers, saints, social reformers and writers of the time were
persistently engaged with the economic, religious, social, political and cultural problems. Their actions,
writings and speeches revolved around the discussions and solutions of these problems. Monhanty writes, “It
is a happy phenomenon that the rise of Indian English literature coincided with Indian Renaissance and that it
was able to construct the notion of nation in the absence of political freedom.” (Singh 2003: 193)
The Reformation Movement began with the establishment of the BrahmoSamaj by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in
1828, the PrarthanaSamaj by Ranade in 1870, theAryaSamaj by DayanandSaraswati in 1875 and the
Theosophical Society by Annie Beasant in 1882. These were the upper class reformers. Along with them,
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Narayan Guru (Kerala) and Mahatma Phule(Maharashtra), representing the lower strata of the society, tried
their best to make the reformation movement powerful. They in their analysis tried to bring out the merits of
the ancient and modern India.
The newly gained acquaintance with English attracted the intelligentsia of India and they wrote in English to
spread their thoughts worldwide. The prose literature of the age was marked by discursiveness. Some
extraordinary experiments were witnessed in literary forms. The creative writers of the age made abandon use
of travelogues, biography, autobiography, letters, diary, novel and short stories for their purpose.
They came across the direct impact of a great industrial, scientific and technical civilization which was in a
process to change the shape of the world. It also engendered a new critical and reflective attitude in them.
They became more conscious of the shortcomings of their own society. The Indian thinkers were now
determined to reform society and purge it of all its evils like child marriage, Sati, untouchability, caste system
etc. Above all, the Indian thinkers and reformers of this period condemned and discouraged the tendency of
some English educated people to entertain blind and uncritical admiration for everything Western and cherish
hostility towards their own culture and civilization.They admired English education and the scientific and
technical prowess of the West. But strikingly enough, they were not insensible to the injury being done to their
own culture and religion. The negative tendencies of the Western influence also came out. Instead of a revival
of Indian classical thought, there was a deft invasive displacement of Indian knowledge systems. This state of
affairs pointed out a peculiar thing about Indian history. It was the first time perhaps that the Indian mind was
thrown off its balance. Even the devastating Muslim invasions and conquests had not produced a result of this
kind.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) wanted modern knowledge to be communicated to the Indian masses as a
supplement to the information gathered from the Indigenous tradition. As a rationalist, he discarded the idolworship of the later Hinduism and returned to the pristine Hinduism of the earlier period.
Swami Vivekanand(1863-1902) believed that religion was the keynote of the Indian psyche. But he vehemently
attacked the Hindus for distorting their religion beyond limit. He bitterly proclaimed: “We are neither
Vedantists, most of us now, nor Puranics, nor Tantrics. We are just “Don’t touchists”. Our religion is in the
kitchen. Our God is the cooking-pot, and our religion is “Don’t touch me. I am holy”. If this goes on for another
century, every one of us will be in a lunatic asylum.” (Vivekananda 1994: 167) He rebuked the Indians for not
trying to seek anything original. Vivekananda criticized the caste-system. He firmly favoured the reconversion
of those who had left Hinduism for social reasons. Political power without proper education and without
internalization certain norms and ideals of public life would be completely futile. “Swamiji re-constructed a
spirituality which is devoid of dogma, devoid of irrationalities, devoid of the mombo-jumbo of superstition,
devoid of all the negative things in religion, devoid especially of intolerance, hatred, divisiveness, which
religion seems to breed even today.” (Singh 2005: 208)He earnestly tried to bring all the traditional systems
like Bhakti, Karma, Yajna and Raja Yogas into one modern, rationalistic framework through his speeches and
writings. He attempted not only to bridge the gulf between spirituality and science but also between the east
and the west.
Sri Aurobindo(1872-1950) gave the call of PurnaSwaraj long before Mahatma Gandhi. He also outlined the
concept of passive resistance, the programme of non-cooperation and boycott together with its natural
corollary of Swadeshi in all fields of activity – economic, educational, judicial, executive and social. He, unlike
Mahatma Gandhi, believed in the effectiveness of the armed struggle.Sri Aurobindo had great faith in the
spirituality of India. “Sri Aurobindo had another interrelated conviction, that India was destined to spearhead
the next phase of human evolution because it was Swadharma or essential nature to guide the world on the
spiritual path.” (Singh 2003: 172)
V. S. SrinivasaSastri(1869-1946) struggled for achieving equality of citizenship within the British Empire.
Though the Indians were crusading for Swaraj, he displayed faith in the idea of the commonwealth, in British
sense of fair play, in moderate politics, in constitutional reform. His conviction travelled through a literary and
philosophical route. He was a political Sanyasi who took politics as an opportunity to serve instead of a chance
to grab the power.“His entire life was an example of close Socratic questioning of given ideas, a rejection of
the market place and mere passion, an attempt to reconcile the claims of reason with those of the spirit.
Sastri, like Gandhi, went by the inner voice.” (Singh 2003: 232)He showed faith in Indo-British constitutionalism
and asked to cancel of repressive laws from a constitutional stand point. His desire was to achieve full
constitutional liberty within the British Empire by entirely peaceful and constitutional methods. As a vigilant
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champion of civil liberties, he was instrument in getting most of these laws revoked.He criticized both the
British Government and the Congress. He admired Gandhiji but rejected his non-co-operation movement. He
called for Peace which was a consistent theme in his life. He urged the Liberal Party to oppose unjust laws and
neglect of duty by the Government but never to break the law or practice even in non-violent manner like
Gandhiji.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) advised the British Government to look upon free expression of public
opinion as a safety-valve which let off dissatisfaction and not to drive it underground by trying to penalize it.
Tagore finds political ‘emancipatory’ enterprises ‘unreal to the core’ and pitifully feeble. Spiritual emancipation
is what we are in utter need of – seeking our own ‘inheritance’. (Singh 2005: 177)
He believed that India’s handling of caste was the first step towards the solution of the racial problem.
Different castes had lived together peacefully for centuries in India. His fictional literature reflected his
thoughts beautifully which, in turn, awakened the public conscience and affected the public psyche.
Dr.KeshavBaliramHedgewar(1889-1940) founded the RashtriyaSwayamsevakSangh in 1925. It played a unique
role in the nation building and in the national movement. Dr.Hedgewar and the Swayamsevaks launched janajagarana – public awakening – campaigns on various issues of vital national concern. The noble aim behind
establishing this organization was to unite all the Hindus and to enlighten the feelings of patriotism, discipline
and bravery in the thoughts and actions of the people of India.
VinayakDamodarSavarkar (1883-1966)was a fearless freedom fighter, social reformer, writer, dramatist,
historian, political leader and philosopher all rolled into one. He firmly believed that the Hindu society was
based on the principle of mutual co-operation without any internal competition. And this became possible
because of the distribution of social duties from the Shudras to the Brahmins in the Hindu civilization. He
found the evils prevalent in the contemporary Hindu society and made attempts to eradicate them in order to
strengthen the society. He believed that the Varna of a person was determined by merit and action and not by
birth.He did not only theorise the ideals of the removal of caste evils but also make sincere and practical
attempts.
Mahatma M. K. Gandhi(1869-1948) was not happy with the type of history written by the British historians. He
asked the Indians to find out and interpret their history on their own.
He admitted that there were certain defects in Indian civilization but these defects could be eradicated.
According to him, in no part of the world and under no civilization had all men attained perfection.
He propounded that the spirit of national consciousness did not interfere with another’s religion. Indian
nationalism was not militarist, aggressive or destructive. Rather, it was health giving, religious and
humanitarian.
Gandhiji devised his own way of theorising and practising Satyagraha whereby the dispossessed and oppressed
could confront the powerful oppressor in a non-violent way through restraint and moral superiority.
The Indian social reformers accused the British government for their insufficient support in the work of social
reformation. It strengthened the determination of the leader of the Indian national movement to secure
political power so that they could use it to accelerate the tempo of social and religious reform in India.The
British knew that the easiest way to rule over the people was to destroy all their traditions by one way or
another. They used all means of oppression against the Indians.
Time came when the untouchables got tired of repression and devised various ways for resistance. They also
took resort to violent and non-violent struggles, political demands, media and literature.Indian English
discourse can be read as a reception, celebration and rejection through systematic resistance as in
Coomaraswami, Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo and Dr. Ambedkar. A remarkably different dimension was added to the
discourse of resistance by the writings and speeches of Dr. Ambedkar who eventually championed the cause of
the untouchables. His was a bitter discourse of resistance against the prevalent political and social scenario. He
complained that the British established their rule in India with the help of valour, discipline and loyalty of the
untouchables in different parts of India but they did precious little for the emancipation and upliftment of the
depressed classes.
Most of the renaissance thinkers firmly believed that the aim of reformation can only be fulfilled through
social and religious reformation. All of them equally felt the need of the restoration of their religion. All of
them asked people to go back to the root of Hinduism and find it once again in its ancient glory. Vivekananda,
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Hedgewar, Golvalkar, Savarkar, Aurobindo, DayanandSaraswati, Gandhiji and many others constantly
expressed faith in Hinduism and worked in positive direction.
REFERENCES
Alone, Y. S., “Historicism: Confrontations and Inquiries”. Ambedkar in Retrospect.Thorat and Aryma (eds.) New
Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2007.
K. RaghavendraRao, Babasaheb Ambedkar, Makers of Indian Literature. New Delhi: SahityaAcademi, 1998.
KeerDhanajay, Dr. Ambedkar – Life and Mission, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1971.
MonhantyNiranjan, “Renaissance in Indian Poetry in English: A Study of H. L. V. Derozio”.Indian Renaissance
Literature, A. K. Singh (ed.). New Delhi: Creative Books, 2003.
Mowli, Chandra V., B. R. Ambedkar – Man and His Vision. New Delhi: Sterling Pub. Pvt. Ltd., 1990.
Patel, Pramod, “Indian Renaissance and Its Various Facets: With Special Reference to Gujarati Literature”.
Indian Renaissance Literature, A. K. Singh (ed.). New Delhi: Creative Books, 2003.
Ramanan, Mohan, “V. S. SrinivasaSastri: A Renaissance Man”. Indian Renaissance Literature, A. K. Singh (ed.).
New Delhi: Creative Books, 2003.
Sharma, Kavita, “Sri Aurobindo and Nationalism”. Indian Renaissance Literature, A. K. Singh (ed.). New Delhi:
Creative Books, 2003.
Singh, A. K., “Theorising/ Narrating Resistance and Colonisation in India”. Discourse of Resistance in the
Colonial Period, A. K. Singh (ed.). New Delhi: Creative Books, 2005.
Vivekananda, Swami, The Collected Works of Swami Vivekananda, Calcutta: AdvaitaAshrama, Vol. 3, 1994.
Gandhian Ideas in
Raja Rao’sKanthapura and R. V. Desai’s
Gramlaxmi: A Comparative Study
DR.RUSHIKESH N. UPADHYAY
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: LANGUAGE
Shri Krishna has said in the Geeta,the Lord promised to take birth again and again to abolish the evil and
establish Dharma in India. It was a God’s promise. He came whenever the humanity was in danger. He
endowed the Indians with liberty, prosperity and safety.
For nearly 250 years, India had been crushed under the iron rule of the British. Oppression, exploitation,
cruelty, ignorance and violence were seen everywhere. The basic human rights were denied. In this age of
darkness, a ray of hope emerged in the form of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Before his arrival on the Indian
political scene, the struggle for freedom was started. But his presence gave a new shape to the struggle. His
personality, thoughts and way of working had a deep impact on the Indians. He, with his deeds, compelled the
rulers to take notice of his unique movement for freedom.“Gandhi was the kind of man whom one could love
or hate but not ignore. There were people who worshipped him as a saint when he was alive; there were
people who perhaps thought of him as nothing short of Machiavelli; but there were few who could resist his
personal charm. He brought to bear upon politics an ethical point of view, and his ethical ideal was ascetic. For
him, non-violence was the only means to ends, political, social or any other.” 1He was a man of principle. He
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was very clear and firm in his convictions. He had a great convincing power. He expressed his ideas not only in
politics but also in social life. His philosophy of life and thoughts regarding society and education were so
unique and impressive that people blindly followed him. During his lifetime, Gandhism was considered to be a
way of living, a religion, a vision.“Gandhiji was a man speaking to men; he was more than an agitation of
politician, he was the liberator, the Messiah, the Great Soul.” 2This charismatic mass leader left a long lasting
impact on the Indian society at large including the creative writing. With the Gandhian revolution in our
political life, there came about a revolution in our writings too. Gandhian ideas are a unique and distinctive
contribution to the modern world. A non-violent political struggle and attainment of freedom without
shedding a drop of blood was an unheard phenomenon in the history of the world. Naturally this phenomenon
attracted many Indian writers writing in various regional languages. The notions and actions of Gandhiji proved
irresistible to the writers in India writing in the third and fourth decades of the 20 th centuary. Gandhian ideas
acted as a creative impulse in several Indian languages and even in Indian Writing in English. His political,
social, economical and ethical ideas and actions serve the material for Indian literature. His ideas and role
provide a frame of reference for the themes of the Indian writers.
The novels Kanthapura(1932) and Gramlaxmi(1933-37) are written with the ink of Gandhism. The first is
written in English by Raja Rao and the other, in Gujarati by R. V. Desai. Though both the novelists belong to
different states and write in different languages, their primary concern as a writer is the same – to hail the
ideas of Gandhiji.The novels successfully reflect Gandhiji and his ideas. This paper presents an interesting
comparison of both these novels. These novels are written with the same intention but the treatment they get
from the respective novelists is different. The author’s own insight, his own image of Gandhiji and his own
understanding of the Gandhian ideas cause marked differences.
Raja Rao, born in 1909 in Mysore, belonged to an old South Indian Brahmin family. For the sheer weight of
wisdom and the adroit concealment in the realm of art, there is hardly anyone to equal Raja Rao in the whole
range of Indo-Anglian fiction. Lawrence Durral remarks about Raja Rao, “You not only do India great honour,
but you have honoured, English Literature by writing it in our language.” 3 His first novel Kanthapurais written
in France.R. V Desai, born in 1892 in Shinor (Gujarat), was a government servant. He visited many villages and
was interested in solving the problems of the Indian villages. The political restlessness of his time did not spare
him. KishansinhChavda remarks,“There is a lucid reflection of the life of Gandhian Age in the novels of
Ramanlal. Its problems and its struggles, its self-sacrifice and extraordinariness – these are not seen in any
other single literary person as they have been echoed in the novels of Ramanlal.” 4His novel Gramlaxmi is
written in four parts. (1933,1934, 1935, 1937)Both the novels present the Gandhian movement which was not
merely a political one but also the one for a real social reformation without the concomitant hatred and
violence. Through the central characters of the novels, the novelists have developed the Gandhian ideas in
their own individual ways. They have tried their best to create ‘literary Gandhiji’ in their novels. Gandhiji’s
views on Truth, Ahimsa, Satyagragh, castism, class-bar, communal harmony, education, ruralupliftment, man
and machine, strike, fasting, Swaraj, women-empowerment, physical toil, patriotism, self-respect etc. are
appropriately demonstrated by the novelists.
Kanthapura narrates the confrontation between the static, archaic existence of a Hindus village and the
historical reality of the present in the form of the Gandhian socio-political agitation. This significant approach
to Gandhian politics – half poetical half whimsical – sets the tone of this novel. As K. R. ShrinivasIyengar
says,“Kanthpura is a veritable Grammar of the Gandhian Myth – the myth that is but a poetic translation of the
reality. It will always have a central place in Gandhi literature.” 5Moorthy, the protagonist, a dedicated and
selfless soul, is presented as a local Mahatma. We feel the living presence of Gandhiji throughout the novel. K.
R. ShrinivasIyengar remarks, “Gandhiji is the invisible God. Moorthy is the visible ‘avatar’. The reign of the Red
men isAsuricrule, and it is resisted by the Devas, the Satyagrahis.”6Moorthy comes to Kanthapura with the
message of Mahatma. He starts the civil disobedience movement. He endeavors to put Gandhian principles
into practice. He abandons his studies and leaves his foreign clothes. He observes celibacy. He devotes himself
entirely to the cause of the national struggle. He sacrifices his personal life. He grows into a dauntless
exponent of Gandhian principles on non-violence, truth and love. Moorthy works for political, social and
spiritual awakening of the people of Kanthapura. He tries to explain the significance of Gandhiji’s struggle for
independence to the villagers. He realizes that he has to use method and means appealing to their religious
sense to make them Gandhi-conscious. He awakens the slumbering consciousness of the villagers.In order to
make the villagers aware of the political situation of the day, Moorthy arranges a Harikatha. The Harikatha
man Jayramachar tells the strange Harikatha with a curious mingling of religion and politics. He initiates the
villagers into the Gandhian principles in a religious manner. Thus young Moorthy, the devotee of Gandhiji, who
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knows that the master-key to the Indian mind is religion, puts the new Gandhian wine into the age-old bottle
of traditional Harikath (legendry narrative of God) and thus indoctrinates the Kanthapurians.
The action develops through conflict. Moorth takes a step ahead in the direction of the abolition of
untouchability. He fights for equality, brotherhood and the basic human rights. He works for the pariah
community. He throws himself heart and soul into the work of upliftment of the downtrodden. The threat of
excommunication from the Brahmins does not affect him. Like Gandhiji, Moorthy inspires the villagers to take
to charakhafor spinning and weaving their own clothes. He popularizes spinning as a means of economic
independence. He, then, forms the Congress Committee in Kanthapura. A volunteer corps is raised and the
volunteers are trained to remain the Congress Committee in Kanthapura. A volunteer corps is raised and the
volunteers are trained to remain non-violent in the face of government repression. Now Moorthy encourages
women to come out of the four walls of their houses and take part in social reformation. He reminds them of
their social obligations. He is supported and helped by Ratna, a young lady of progressive and enlightened
views and Patel RangaGowda, the Sardar Patel of Kanthapura.Three rival forces work collectively against
Moorthy-the foreign authority (represented by the policeman Bade Khan), the Hindu orthodoxy (embodied in
Bhatta) and the influential religious authority (personified in Swami). They oppose the new ideology of
Moorthy bitterly. But he does not waver in his idealism and carries on his work with missionary zeal. The news
that the salt law is broken after the Dandi March do much to boost the public morale. The episode of
harassment and exploitation of the labourers in Champaran(1916) is echoed here in the episode of the
Skeffington Coffee Estate. It highlights the capitalist mentality of the British rulers. It reveals the impact of
industrialization of the traditional community life. The labourers at the Coffee Estate undergo brutal torture
and tremendous suffering. Moorthy goes there to educate courageously against the injustice. Though Bade
Khan practises violence, Moorthy pleads for non-violence. He starts his ‘Don’t touch the Government’
campaign. He observes a fast as a penance to atone for the violence practiced by his followers. This is the
Gandhian method of self-purification. Satyagragh and picketing outside the toddy plantation follow.
Government repression is even more ruthless this time. Even children, women and old men are not spared.
Many are badly wounded. Large numbers of people are arrested including Moorthy.Moorthy embraces his
arrest willingly and asks his followers to let the police do its duty. Though he is charged wrongly, he takes a
firm stand during the trial. He refuses to have a defense lawyer as Truth needs no defense. He is an
embodiment of Gandhism.On his release, he launches the ‘No-tax campaign’ as a part of civil disobedience.
People fight non-violently against the oppression of the rulers. But their land is sold in auction and the very
identity of the village is destroyed. They are compelled to flee.They are defeated but in their very defeat lies
their victory. Their brave resistance gives a jolt to the government. This type of jolts administered all over
country lead the government to its final fate. The government is overthrown in the due course of time.“The
heroic struggle of the people of Kanthapura is thus a milestone in India’s march towards independence.” 7
Apart from Moorthy, there are several other characters also who follow the Gandhian ideas under the
guidance of Moorthy. The most important of them is advocate Shankar. His attitude towards his profession is
very much like that of Gandhiji. He leads a very simple life. He passionately favoursKahadi.Yet another
character following the Gandhian principles is Rangamma. Moorthy’s goodness draws her into Gandhiji’s
movement for freedom. She not only gives moral and material support to Moorthy but also takes an active
part in organizing the women of Kanthapura. The hardest task before her is to prepare the women to bear the
atrocities of the police.Ratna, too, under the influence of Moorthy’s spiritual experience, has intuitively
comprehended the principles of Satyagrah. She encourages the women and keeps their spirit up by telling
them the stories of the heroism of women volunteers of Solapur, Dandi, Lahore etc. Thus she is a born leader.
Dr. V. T. Patil and Dr. H. V. Patil remark,“While the leaders evolve spiritually in understanding the meaning,
significance and implications of the implications of the theory of Satyagragh and Ahimsa, the followers – Range
Gowada, Rachanna, Madanna and others – progress in matters of discipline.”8
Though R. V. Desai did not follow any ‘ism’ or ideology blindly, he combined communism and Gandhian
ideology in his novel Gramlaxmi. The novel presents R. V. Desai’s image and comprehension and Gandhiji and
his ideology through Ashvin, the protagonist. Ashvin has imbibed all the Gandhian principles. He is the mouthpiece of the author. Desai’s views on Gandhiji and his ideas are articulated by Ashvin. Ashvin is an engineer.
But he is jobless and therefore, disappointed. He comes back to his village. After some mental struggle, he gets
himself involved in the upliftment of his village. He leaves his urban dress and accepts the dress of a farmer to
be one with them.Ashvin is presented as a staunch followers of Gandhiji. He is a Gandhian worker working
with the sole aim of rural upliftment. He wishes to solve the problems of rural life. He wants to develop the
village according to the Gandhian principles. He believes that violence arises out of ignorance. Ahimsa does not
mean cowardice or passive submission to the will of the evil. He always speaks in favour of non-violence. He
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does not want any reformation using violence. He prefers self-sacrifice to violence. He says,“There are two
ways to go against the authority. One is to kill andan another is to die. Death speaks much more loudly than
life….to die means to win.” (Garamlaxmi-IV, pp.272-273)Following the Gandhian ideal, he behaves very
normally with wicked Ramchanran, cunning and ill-natured Vaikunthrai, Ramrai, Krushnarai, and Nandi. He
believes,“By starting violence either we create Mehru or Jelo. One burning fire and another cool ash.”
(Gramlaxmi-IV, p.229)Ashvin believes that the capital and the labour should help and supplement each other.
One who gets personal benefit from the prosperity is a social enemy. He tries to abolish the class-war with the
equal distribution of the agricultural products.Gandhiji writes about villages,“The cities are capable of taking
care of themselves. It is the village we have to turn to. We have to disabuse them of their prejudice, their
superstitions, their narrow outlook and we can do so in no other manner than that of staying amongst them
and sharing their joys and sorrows and spreading education and intelligent information among them.” 9Ashvin
decides to do the same. He works for improving the condition of his village. He starts women education,
improved farming and news paper reading in the village. He concentrates on the cleanliness, abolition of rigid
customs and removal of untouchability. He teaches the villagers to economize time and money. How to
increase the income of the poor farmers is his constant concern. He tries raise the income of the illiterate, illclad and ill-fed peasants to a level that would ensure a balanced diet, liable dwelling places, enough clothes,
basic health requirements and proper education. He thinks,“The Indian village is India……India will hold the
feeling that the village holds……..whatever happens in the village will hapen in India.” (Gramlaxmi-III,
p.63)Gandhiji disapproves machines for their dehumanizing effect. Ashvin echoes Gandhiji’s ideas, “I would
certainly have defended the machine……….but the arrival of one motor-car renders ten carriage drivers jobless;
installation of one huller makes fifteen women earning their livelihood from grinding and pounding starve…..I
am not ready to press this type of switch.” (Gramlaxmi-III,p.61)Ashvin brings the gift of education for the
villagers. He takes the all round development of a person as the main aim of education. He tries to fight back
the rural illiteracy. He thinks that if one wants to reform the village, there should be one ideal farmer, one
ideal teacher and one ideal leader in the village. He gets help of his wife Kusum and a window teacher Tara in
this mission.He, then, tries to abolish the evil of untouchability. According to him, it hinders the progress of
society. He starts teaching the untouchables. He fights for their basic human rights. His wife Kusum also
supports him. Though she belongs to an orthodox religious family, she accepts a string of beads from an
untouchable Kanaji.Ashvin also fights back the other social evils like child marriage and castism. He eats with
the law-caste people and considers them equal. To him, caste cannot give anyone superiority. Gandhiji always
practiced what he preached and preached what he practiced. His ideas are put into action by Ashvin and his
followers. Not only their actions but their spiritual evolution also claims attention. Like a true Satyagrahi,
Ashvin does not hate anyone, not even the oppressor. But he refuses to obey the oppressor. He tries to win
the oppressor through the appeal to his heart and conscience. He believes that Satyagrah is merely the
assertion of right. Ashvin gives himself to social service. He, along with the villagers, constructs a road. He
decides to name the road after an humble village farmer Rama Patel. When the opposition arises, he takes the
path of civil disobedience.Ashvin works for the village upliftment in a planned manner. He wants to make his
village self-reliant. He tries to remove ill-will, hatred, cunningness and wickedness from the hearts of the
ignorant and illiterate villagers. Obstacles are not a few, but he sticks to his aim. He wants to enable the village
to protect, nourish and administer itself.Ashvin is misunderstood by some people and the authority also seems
some danger in his upliftment activities. He is wrongly charged and sent to jail. He is accused of destroying the
peace of the village and creating hindrances in the work of the government. During his absence in the village,
the fellow-workers continue to walk on the path suggested by him. Not only his village but other villages also
start the social work for village-welfare. Finally, Ashvin is proved to be successful in his mission.
Both Moorthy and Ashvin make serious efforts in their own ways to translate Gandhiji’s dream of Ramrajya
into rality. They follow the Gandhian ideas and make others to put them into practice. Both of them have fully
imbibed the concept of Satyagragh. We find some similarities in their characters too. They both are educated
young men. They try to abolish the social evils of untouchability, castism, illiteracy, class-war and
communalism. They try to make the villagers aware of the nation-wide freedom movement and Satyagragh.
They preach the importance of Truth and Ashimsa.Though both the novels – KanthapuraandGramlaxmi – are
apparently similar to each other, there are some differences as the novelists’ perceptions of the Gandhian
ideals are different. Raja Rao’sMoorthy wants to make the villagers aware of the Gandhian movement for
freedom. He is considered to be the local Mahatma. At the end of the novel, he is defeated by the rulers.
Kanthapura loses its identity as the land is sold in auction. He and his followers have to flee and take shelter in
a nabouring village. On the other hand, R. V. Desai’s Ashvin wants to work on the Gandhian ideal of rural
uplifment. He is shown as a Gandhian worker. At the end of the novel, he emerges as a successful Gandhi-man.
He succeeds in his motive of village upliftment. Again, Moorthy takes resort to religion to convince people. He
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uses Harikatha as a means to spread the Gandhian ideals in the village. Whereas Ashvin takes social service as
a means to make people know Gandhiji.The socio-economic and political ideas of Gandhiji find an important
place in the thoughts and writings of Raja Rao and R. V Desai. Their novels exemplify the new values, new
norms and new ethos generated by Mahatma Gandhi. It can be said that both the novels are microcosmic
picture of rural India in which the masses become enlightened not only politically but metaphysically.
However, in Gramlaxmi the impact of current scenario is not as strongly felt as in Kanthapura.
REFERENCES:
1. Patil, Dr. V. T. and Patil Dr. H. V., Gandhism And Indian English Fiction, Delhi:Debika Publications, 1977, p.1
2. Iyengar K. R. S., Indian Writing in English, New Delhi: Sterling Pub. Pvt. Ltd., 1966, p.262
3. Rao, Raja, The Serpent and The Rope, The Back Cover.
4. ChavdaKishansih, SanskritiVarsh, Ank-10, p.8
5. Iyengar K. R. S., Indian Writing in English, New Delhi: Sterling Pub. Pvt. Ltd., 1966, p.396
6. Ibid., p.405
7. Awasti, Sharma, Chakravatri, Sood, English Literature, Mannual, H. G. Publication, New Delhi, 2001, p.440
8. Patil, Dr. V. T. and Patil Dr. H. V., Gandhism And Indian English Fiction, Delhi:Debika
Publications,
1977, p.77
9. Gandhi M. K., India of My Dreams, Yong India, (30-03-1931), Navjivan Publishing House Ahmedabad, 1947,
p.92
TEXTUAL REFERENCES
1. Rao Raja, Kanthapura, Orient Paperbacks, New Delhi, 1971
2. Desai R. V., Gramlaxmi, Part-I, II, III, IV, R. R. Sheth& Co., Bombay-Ahemdabad, 1992
^^efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh
jktuhfr^^
,d lekt’kkL=h; fo’ys”k.k
JYOTI GUPTA
(Research Scholar, Bhagwant University Ajmer (Raj.)
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: SOCIOLOGY
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ls rkRi;Z gS efgykvksa esa vkRe
lEeku o vkRe fo’okl dh Hkkouk fodflr djuk efgykvksa
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dh ldkjkRed Nfo dk fuekZ.k muds lkekftd vkfFkZd thou
esa ;ksxnku dks ekU;rk nsdj fd;k tk ldrk gS]
efgykvksa esa vkykspukRed fparu’khy {kerk dk fodkl
djuk] fu.kZ; ysus dh {kerk dks fodflr o mUur djuk]
fodkl ÁfØ;k esa leku Hkkxhnkjh djuk] vkfFkZd Lora=rk
gsrq lwpuk] Kku o dq’kyrk miyC/k djkuk] rFkk
efgykvksa ds dkuwuh Kku dk fodkl rFkk Lo;a ds
vf/kdkjksa laca/kh lwpukvksa rd mudh igq¡p dks
lqfuf’pr djuk o lkekftd vkfFkZd thou ds lHkh vaxks
esa leku:i ls mudh lgHkkfxrk esa o`f) gsrq Á;kl djuk
gh efgyk l’kfDrdj.k gSA^^
L=h iq:”k dh fodkl ds dk;ksZ esa lgHkkfxrk ls gh ns’k
dks Áxfr ds iFk ij vxzlj djrh gS bl dkj.k L=h iq:”k
ds e/; dk larqyu gksuk vko’;d gSA blds fy, L=h dks
ÁR;sd n`f”V ls l{ke ;ksX;] f’kf{kr vkSj Áxfr’khy
cuk;k tk ldrk gS vkSj ns’k o ns’k ds ckgj dh
efgykvksa dh Hkwfedkvksa ls voxr djk;k tk ldrk gSA
L=h dk lokZxh.k fodkl djds gh ns’k dh eq[; /kkjk ls
mls tksM+k tk ldrk gSA mls vkfFkZd :i ls Lokoyach
cukdj
mlesa
vkRefo’okl
iSnk
djds
mls
lkekftd
lqfo/kkvksa dh miyC/krk] jktuhfr vkSj vkfFkZd uhfr
fu/kkZj.k esa Hkkxhnkjh] leku dk;Z ds fy, leku osru]
dkuwu ds rgr lqj{kk ,oa Átuu vf/kdkjksa vkfn dks
lfEefyr fd;k tk ldrk gSA efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dk vfHkÁk;
lÙkk Áfr”Bkuksa esa fL=;ksa dh lk>snkjh gksa D;ksafd
fu.kZ; dh {kerk dsoy iq:”kksa esa gh ugh gS cfYd
efgykvksa esa Hkh gS vkSj ;gh {kerk l’kfDrdj.k dk ,d
cM+k
ekud
gSA
lekt
lkekftd
laca/kks]
lkekftd
ifjfLfFk;ksa] lkekftd Hkwfedkvksa lkekftd lajpukvksa]
lkekftd O;oLFkkvksa ls fufeZr ,d ,slh bdkbZ gS ftls
¼Public vkSj Private Space½ lkoZtfud o futh Lisl esa ck¡Vk
x;k gSA tgk¡ lkoZtfud LFkuksa esa iq:”kksa dk gh
opZLo gSA ogh ukjh dk opZLo dsoy futh ekuk x;k gSA
D;ksafd ekuk tkrk gS fd iq:”k Á/kku gS vkSj efgyk
mldh lEifÙk dks dekus dk vf/kdkj gSA tcfd efgykvks dk
dk;Z LFky flQZ ?kj dh pkj nhokjh ekuk x;k gSA D;ksafd
iq:”kksa dks ifjokj dh] lekt dh vkfFkZd bdkbZ ekuk
x;k gSA tcfd efgykvksa dks xSj vkfFkZd bdkbZ ekuk x;k
gSA iq:”k oxZ tc dk;Z djrk gSA rks mls ru[okg nh tkrh
gS ysfdu tc efgyk ?kj dk dk;Z fnuHkj djrh gS] rks mls
ru[okg ugha nh tkrh gS] vkt Hkh efgyk iq:”kksa ij
fuHkZj gS] iq:”k oxcZ dks dk;Z djus dh] fopkjksa dks
ÁLrqr djus dh rFkk viuh ethZ ds vuqlkj thou O;rhr
djus dk vf/kdkj
gSa D;ksafd og lora= gS ijUrq
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efgykvksa dks ,slh Lora=rk dgka gS og vkt Hkh]
‘kkjhfjd] ekufld] vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd :i ls iq:”kksa
ij fuHkZj gSA dgus dks rks ns’k Lora= gS vkSj ÁR;sd
O;fDr dks lkspus dhA
vfHkO;fDr dh] jgus dh o vius vf/kdkjksa ds Á;ksx dh
Lora=rk gS ijUrq efgyk,¡ vkt Hkh fopkjksa ls iq:”kksa
ls ca/kh gS og uk rks ‘kkjhfjd :i ls Lora= gS vkSj uk
gh oSpkfjd :i lsAle; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa ukjh ifjn`’;
dk Lo:i ugh cnyk vkSj ukgh ,d tSlk jgkA ifjoZru ,d
fujarj ,d fujarj pyus okyh ÁfØ;k gS vkSj ;s ifjoZru
gh L=h&iq:”k dh fLFkfr vkSj Hkwfedk dk fu/kkZj.k djrs
gSA oSfnd ;qx esa tks fLFkfr ukjh dh Fkh oslh fLFkfr
orZeku le; esa ugh jgh vkt L=h dsoy HkksX;k le>h tkus
okyh oLrq gSA lkear jktk vkSj egkjktk cgqiRuh Hkksxh
cu
x;sA
cky&fookg]
cgqiRuh
fookg]
ngst&ÁFkk]
fo/kok&fookg] fu”ks/k fookg] lrh ÁFkk vkfn ds iuk;nku
ij yk fn;kA fczfV’k ‘kklu dky esa ukjh dh fLFkfr dh
esa ifjoZru gqvk vkSj vlh ;qx esa L=h lekt ls tqM+h
leL;kvksa ls tqM+h leL;kvksa ds fo:} vkunksyu NsM+k
x;kA bu ifjofrZr ifjfLFkfr;ksa us ,sls ifjoZru yk
fn;s fd ukjh dk lalkj cnyrk utj vk;kA vkfFkZd jktuhfr
ifjfLFkfr;ks ds vk/kkj ij ukjh txr esaa Hkh xaHkhj
ifjoZru gqvk gSA
lkekU;r% ukjh us vius vkidks ifjokj fir` lÙkkRed lekt
vFkok iq:”k Á/kku lekt rd gh lhfer dj fy;k gSA ukjh
dh fofHkUu n’kkvksa] fLFkfr;ksa Hkwfedkvksa vkSj
ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk v/;;u djus ds ckn dbZ lekt esa dgk¡
[kM+h gSA mlds pkjksa vkSj dh ifjfLFkfr;k¡ dSlh gS\
fyax lekurk vkSj lkekftd U;k; dh nqfu;k esa mldh D;k
fLFkfr gS\ Hkkjr tSls cgqyoknh ns’k esa ukjh dh
fLFkfr vc fdl :i esa vHkj jgh gS\ D;k bl cnyh gqbZ
ifjfLFkfr esa mldk vkfFkZd&lkekftd vkSj jktuhfrd
ifjn`’; Hkh ifjofrZr gqvk gSA
1971 esa ljdkj us efgyk dh laLrj.kkRed fLFkfr Kkr
djus ds fy, ,d desVh cuk;h] ftlesa ;g ns[kk x;k fd
iapo”khZ; ;kstukvksa esa ukjh ds mRFkku vkSj dY;k.k
ds fy, D;k ;kstuk,¡ cuk;h x;h gS\ D;k ;s dk;Zrqe
xzkeh vkSj ‘kgjh efgykvksa ds fy, i`Fkd&i`Fkd gS\ D;k
lekurk vkSj lkekftd U;k; dh n`f”V ls lafo/kku esa
la’kks/ku
fd;k
x;k
gS\
D;k
ewykf/kdkj
vkSj
uhfr&funsZ’k
rRoksa
esa
efgykvksa
ds
‘kks”k.k]
mnRihM+u vkSj vR;kpkj ls j{kk dh ckr dgh xbZ gS\ D;k
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efgykvksa ds lkFk ?kjsyw fgalk jksdus dh ckr dgha xbZ
gS\ D;k ;g lor ns’k esa efgyk,¡ [kqydj cksy ldrh gS
fd mUgsa D;k leL;k,a gS\ ugha vHkh Hkh efgykvksa ds
lkFk ?kjsyw fgalk gksrh gSA s viuh leL;k,sa Lora= :i
ls ugh cksy ldrh ;s vf/kdkj mUgsa Lora=rk iwoZd Hkh
Ákir ugh Fkk vkSj vkt Hkh ÁkIr nugh gSA og vUnj gh
vUnj ?kqVrh jgrh gS vkSj dqN ugha dg ikrhA L=h]
vkfFkZd] lkekftd <k¡ps dh cqfu;knh ckrksa dh rjQ
ljdkj
dk
/;ku
vkdf”kZr
djuk
gS
ftlesa
vkfFkZd&cqfu;knh <k¡ps dks cnyus dh ckr dgh xbZ gks
ftlesa mldk ‘kks”k.k gksrk gSA D;k efgyk dks lkekftd
U;k; ÁkIr djus dk vf/kdkj Hkh ugh gS\ blfy, vkt ge
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh ckr djrs gS ysfdu fQj Hkh bl
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds uke ij jktuhfr gksrh gSA Hkys gh
iapk;rhjkt ds uke ij jktuhfr gksrh gSA Hkys gh
iapk;rjkt esa 50 Áfr’kr vkj{k.k dh ckr dgh xbZ gks
ijUrq D;k mugsa 50 Áfr’kr dk ykHk ÁkIr gqvk gS\ dgus
dks rks dgk tkrk gS fd efgyk Lora= gS mls vius
fopkjksa dks ÁLrqr djus dh Lora=rk dh o vf/kdkj gS
ijUrq ;s lc dsoy dkxth ckrs gSA vkt Hkh efgyk
l’kfDrdj.k dh jktuhfr ds lkFk NsM+NkM+ gks jgh gSA
muds vf/kdkjksa dk guu gks jgk gSA orZeku esa efgyk
dh fLFkfr D;k gS\ o mlds vf/kdkj D;k gS\ ;s ge&lc ds
fy, fopkj.kh; Á’u gSA
orZeku esa efgykvksa dks cjkcjh dk ntkZ nsus esa 134
ns’kksa esa lsHkkjr 114 osa LFkku ij gS ¼vej mtkyk 10
uo- 2009½ lfn;ksa ls Hkkjr esa efgykvksa ds lkFk
vR;kpkj fd;k x;k gS vkSj th Hkhjdj mudk ‘kks”k.k gqvk
gS rFkk vR;kpkj vkSj mRihMu dh dksbZ lhek ugh gSA
vf’kf{kr efgyk,¡] LokehHkDr fL=;ka] deZdk.M+~ vkSj
/keZ ds va/kfo’oklksa vkSj :f<+;ksa ls c¡/kh
fL=;ksa] ifr dks lc&dqN lefiZr djus okyh efgyk,¡]
vius vf/kdkjksa dh ek¡x dk lkgl dSls dj ldrh
gSA\orZeku esa Hkh lkearh lksp dSls dj ldrh gS\
orZeku esa Hkh lkearh lksp iq:”k ds vg~e dk fgLlk gSA
mUgksuksa rks thou i;ZUr gh L=h dk Hkksx fd;k gS] mls
oLrq dh rjg Á;ksx fd;k gSA mls [kjhnk vkSj cspk Hkh
;g flyflyk dgh de rks dgh vf/kd :i esa gSA vFkkZr~
fL=;ksa dks cspus dk flyflyk vHkh Hkh tkjh gSA vkt
Hkh efgyk viuh lqj{kk ds Bksl mik; pkgrh gS mUgsa Hkh
vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd lqj{kk dh vko’;drk gSA Hkkjr dh
vk/kh nqfu;k ukjh dh gSA fQj mls leku vf/kdkj ÁkIr gS
vkSj iq:”kksa dks 67 Áfr’kr
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fQj Hkh iq:”k oxZ efgykvksa ls Hk;Hkhr gS d;ksa\ dgha
,slk rks ugh gs fd iq:”k oxZ lksprk gS fd efgykvksa
dks vius led{k fcBkdj og iq:”k ds fopkjksa dk
[k.M+u&e.Mu djsaxhA vDlj iq:”k lekt gh ;g rdZ ÁLrqr
djrk gS fd lafo/kku esa L=h vkSj iq:”k ds leku
vf/kdkj gSA vkfFkZd&lkekftd vkSj jktuhfrd vf/kdkjksa
esa dgh Hkh L=h&iq:”k esa HksnHkko ugha fd;k tk;sxk
vkSj efgyk dY;k.k ds fy, fofHkUu dkuwu tSls%& 498 ,
vkbZ ih lh ¼ngst mRihMu½ 3/4 ngst Áfrca/k vf/kfu;e]
ngst ek¡xus okyksa ds f[kykQ lsDlu 12 ?kjsyw fgalk ls
lqj{kk] 125 lh vkj ih- lh- gtkZ [kpZ ikus ds fy,] 294
vkbZ- ih- lh- vHknark ¼bZo Vhftax ds fy, ½ 353
‘kkjhfjd NsMNkM+ o xaHkhj fLFkfr esa] 376 vkbZ- ihlh- jsi dsl ds fy,] /kkjk 14 ds rgr vkSj dbZ vU;
/kkjkvksa esa ^^jkbV Vq yho fon gqeu fMxfuVh^^ ds fy,
ukjh dh lqj{kk ds fy,&fgUnw fookgh vf/kfu;e ¼1955½
fgUnw vf/kdkj vf/kfu;e ¼1956½] fgUnw nyd xzg.k vkSj
Hkj.k
iks”k.k
vf/kfu;e
¼1971½
dU;k&Hkwz.k
gR;k
vf/kfu;e ¼1994] 1996] 2003½ ?kjsyw fgalk vf/kfu;e
¼2005½] mi;qZDr dkuwuksa ds vk/kkj ij iq:”k lekt ;gh
nksgjkrk gS fd ukjh laoS/kkfud n`f”V ls iq:”k ds leku
gS vkSj dkuwu us mls laj{k.k fn;k gS] tks Hkh ukjh ds
fo:} fdlh Ádkj dk vR;kpkj] mRihMu djrk gS] dkuwu mls
dBksj n.M+ nsxkA ijUrq fQj Hkh orZeku esa O;kogkfjd
thou esa L=h vkt Hkh Bxh tkrh gS] ljsvke mldk vieku
gksrk gSA jkst lekpkj i= fL=;ksa ds fo:} dh x;h fgalk
ls hkjs gksrs gS vksj dkuwu pkSjkgS ij [kM+k gksdj
efgykvksa dk migkl mM+krk jgrk gSA iqfyl vkSj turk
vkeus lkeus jgrh gS fQj Hkh og pqi jgrh gS ;k vuns[kh
;k vuns[kh dj nsrh gSA ;k fQj ogk¡ ls xk;c gks tkrh
gSA efgykvksa dks 33 Áfr’kr vkj{k.k ÁkIr gqvk gS
ftlesa lHkh iq:”k ,der ugh gSA blfy, iq:”k 33 Áfr’kr
laln esa efgyk vkj{k.k ds fo:} gSA D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh
ugha pkgsxk fd tks vf/kdkj mldk Lo;a dk gS mls dksbZ
fNu ysA blfy, efgyk,a l’kDr gksdj viukgd ÁkIr djuk
pkgrh gSA blh dkj.k laln esa efgyk l’kfdrdj.k dks
jktuhfr dk itkek iguk fn;k x;k gSA vc loky ;g mBrk gS
fd vkt pqukoh jktuhfr dk tks pfj= gS] D;k ml fLFkfr
esa jktuhfr esa vkj{k.k ls vke vkSjrksa dh ftanfx;ks
esa dksbZ ifjorZu vk,xk\ igys laln esa ftruh vkSjrsa
igq¡prh jgh gS ;k vkt tks fojkteku gSA D;k os vke
vkSjr dh thou fLFkfr esa jÙkhHkj Hkh cnyko djus esa
leFkZ gks ikbZ gS\ Hkkjrh; migk}hi esa cuthj HkqnVks]
bfUnjk xk¡/kh ‘ks[k glhuk] dqekjrqaxk ,oa vU;
ÁHkko’kkyh efgykvksa ds lÙkk esa vkus ds ckn Hkh
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vkSjrks dh fLFkfr esa cnyko ykus dk dksbZ Á;kl gqvk
gSA vkt tks efgyk,¡ laln esa gS os viuh&viuh
ikfVZ;ksa dk Áfrfuf/kRo dj jgh gS u fd vkSjrksa dk
fdlh Hkh ikVhZ dh ukfr;ka ;g r; djrh gS fd og
vkSjrksa ds iFk esa gS ;k ugh ] u fd dksbZ vkSjr ;k
enZA D;ksafd vdsys vkSjr dqN ugh gS og ,d bdkbZ gS
ikVhZ dhA ikVhZ dk fu.kZ; gh lc dqN gksrk gS ;gh dj.k
gS fd laln esa tks efgyk,¡ dk laln esa vkj{k.k gqvk
gS rks D;k os vius jktuhfrd ny ls gVdj dqN djus dh
{kerk vius esa j[krh gS\ D;k budk O;fDRo dqN u dj
ikus esa laln dh lnL;rk ls R;kxi= ns ldrh gS ;k bl
vFkZra= esa lkaln djksM+ifr gks jgsA bl bl nks esa
‘kkfey gksxh vFkok dhehys;j dh rjg ,d efgyk vkj{k.k
dh ,d ubZ fcjknjh cuk ysxh tks vius gh ifjokjksa ds
ykxksa dks vkxs c<+us esa lgk;d cusxhA ,d ubZ oa’k
ijLij u, uke&efgyk vkj{k.k ls tk,xh D;ksafd vktknh ds
i’pkr jktuhfrd&laLÑfr esa ifjokjokn dh Hkwfedk Áeq[k
gks xbZ gSA blls vPNk ÁksQs’ku ns’k lsok ds uke ij
ugh gks ldrkA blesa lsok de vkSj lsok dgh T;knk gS bl
laLÑfr ls jktuhfr vkSj efgyk jktuhfr dks fudkyuk
gksxk rHkh efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh jktuhfr dk vFkZ gks
ldsxkA dqN ,slh tsU;wu leL;k,¡ Hkh gksrh gS ftUgsa
fdlh ns’k dh lhekvksa esa cka/kk ugha tk ldrkA os
vUrjkZ”Vªh; eapks ij cgl dk eqn~nk curh gS] tc efgyk
leL;kvksa ij la;qDr jk”Vª cgl djrk gS rks lEiw.kZ
fo’o esa cgl dk fo”k; cu tkrk gSA D;k dHkh Hkkjr us
efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd leL;kvksa dh
vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd leL;kvksa ij fopkj fd;k\ 1975&85
ds varjkZ”Vªh; efgyk n’kd dk ,slk xjek;k nkSj eSa Fkk
ftlesa jktuhfr esa efgykvksa ds Áfrfuf/k ds fy, vkokt
xwatus yxh FkhA mlds ckn fofHkUu ns’kksa us efgyk
vkSj jktuhfr ij cgl dh tkus yxhA blh dkj.k yxHkx nks
n’kdksa ls efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dk nkSj py jgk gSA txg
buds fy, lsfeukj xksf”B;ka vk;ksftr dh tkrh gSA ys[k
fy[ks tkrs gSA ysfdu D;k bl Ádkj efgykvksa dks og
vf/kdkj ÁkIr gks ldrs gS tks mlds lo;a ds gS\
bldks ysdj efgykvksa ds fy, fo/kkulHkk ds fy,
fo/kkulHkk vkSj yksdlHkk esa 33 Áfr’kr vkj{k.k ykxw
fd;k x;k mnkgj.k 1993 esa 73 osa 74 osa lfo/kku
la’kks/ku
}kjk
iapk;r
vkSj
uxjikfydkvksa
esa
efgykvksa ds fy, ,d frgkbZ LFkku vkjf{kr fd;s x;sA
1995 esa chftax efgyk lEesyu ds i’pkr~ efgyk vkj{k.k
dk eqn~nk xjekus yxk vkSj mldk ifj.kke vk;k] 1996 esa
efgyk vkj{k.k dk fo/ks;d ikfjr fd;k x;k Hkys Hkkjr
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esa efgyk vkj{k.k ykxw gks x;k ij iq:”k lekt mls gs;
n`f”V ls ns[krs gS mudk ekuuk gS fd efgykvksa dks
vf/kdkj nsuk mUgsa mnaM+ cukuk gS nwljs og vius
vf/kdkjksa dk xyr mi;ksx djsxh vkSj ?kj&ifjokjk ij
Hkh /;ku ugh nsxh rFkk iq:”kksa dk opZLo fL=;ksa ds
le{k detksj iM+ tk;sxkA ns[kk tk;s rks efgykvksa us
?kjsyw ifjos’k o lkekftd ifjos’k nksuksa txg viuh
Hkwfedkvksa dk fuokZg fd;k gS vkSj iq:”k lekt dh
mi;ZqDr lksp dks xyr lkfcr fd;k gSA
vkt Hkkjr esa 12 yk[k ls vf/kd efgyk,¡ fuokZfpr
Áfrfuf/k gSA bu efgykvksa esa tkfr] /keZ] laÁnk; dh
xa/k ugh vkrh vkSj buesa gh oxZ] tkfr] dh efgyk,¡
‘kkfey gSA bu efgykvksa esa HkkoukRed ,drk gS tgka u
dksbZ cM+k gS vkSj u dksbZ NksVkA ;g ,d ekSu Økafr dh
ygj gSa tks xzkeh.k thou ls vkjaHk gqbZ vkSj laln dh
xfYk;ksa rd igq¡p xbZA jktuhfr esa Hkys gh cnyko vk;k
gks ijUrq ;g cnyko utj ugha vk;k] ijUrq efgyk,¡
{kerk] cqf}] vkSj prqjrk ls dke djus dh ‘kfDr
iq:”kksa ls de ugh gSA
tSls& bfUnjk xk¡/kh] jktuhfr esa fdlh ls Hkh de ugha
Fkh fnYyh dh eq[;ea=h ‘khyk nhf{kr] jktLFkku dh
eq[;ea=h Jherh olqUnjk jkts fdlh Hkh jktuhfrK iq:”k
iq:”k ls de ugh gS] vkSj rks vkSj vkt laxBukRed Lrj
ij lksfu;k xka/kh dk uke Áfl) ÁkIr dj pqdk gS blh
dkj.k iq:”k oxZ efgykvksa dh l’kfDrdj.k ij jktuhfr
djrk gS mldss dk;ksZ esa gLr{ksi djds og crykrk gS fd
iq:”k oxZ gh loksZifj gS vkSj efgyk,a ns’k dh
ckxM+ksj ugha laHkky ldrh tcfd lR;rk blds foifjr gSA
15 oha yksdlHkk rd vkrs&tkrs efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dkQh
etcwr gks xbZ Fkh blh dk ifj.kke Fkk fd 2001 esa
yksdlHkk pquko esa 51 efgyk lnL; ds vkadM+s ;g
Áekf.kr djrs gS fd efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh ygj iwjs ns’k
esa ¼dqN dks NksM+dj½ viuh igpku l’kDr :i ls cuk jgh
gS vkf[kj efgyk,¡ iq:”kksa ls fdlh ;ksX;rk vkSj
dk;Z{kerk esa de ugh gSA
1996 esa efgyk vkj{k.k fo/ks;d dk Mªk¶V cuus ds
i’pkr] ;g fo/ks;d laln esa cgl dk eqn~nk cu x;k vkSj
vkj{k.k ds i{k vkSj foi{k esa cglsa gksrh jgh] dksbZ
efgyk vkj{k.k ds i{k esa rks dksbZ ugha D;ksfd
iq:”kksa esa ;g Hk; lek;k gqvk Fkk fd vxj efgykvksa
33 Áfr’kr vkj{k.k ns fn;k tk;s rks iq:”kksa dk
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,dkf/kdkj vkSj L=h dh vkokt laln esa xwatsxh tks
vkokt ?kj dh pkj nhokjh ds vunj xw¡th tkuh pkfg, og
vkokt laln esa mBk;sxhA la?k”kZ djsxh] cgl djsxh vkSj
efgyk mRFkku vkSj dY;k.k ds fy, dk;Z djsxhA ,d Lora=
efgyk ‘kfDr laln esa cusxh tks jk”Vªh; Lrj ij
efgykvksa dh leL;kvksa ds fujkdj.k ds fy, dk;Z
djsxhA,d Lora= efgyk ‘kfDr laln esa cusxh tks jk”Vªh;
Lrj ij efgykvksa fd leL;kvksa ds fujkdj.k ds fy, dk;Z
djsxh vkSj efgyk mRihM+u ds fo:) [kM+h gksxhA vHkh rd
efgyk dh vkokt dks nck fn;k tkrk Fkk D;ksafd mRihM+u
vkSj fgalk dk vijk/kh rks iq:”k lekt gh gksrk FkkA
iq:”k lekt gh efgykvksa ds lkfk cykRdkj djrk gS] ngst
ysrk gS] ngst ds fy, gR;k;sa Hkh djrk gSA ogh tc og
Áse esa vlQy gks tkrk gS rks rstkc Hkh Qsad nsrk gSA
lkoZtfud LFkyksa ij efgykvksa dks viekfur Hkh fd;k
tkrk gSA fQj iq:”k lekt D;ksa pkgsxk fd efgykvksa dks
jktuhfr esa vkj{k,k Ákir gksA vkt Hkkjr esa effgyk
l’kfDrdj.k dh jktuhfr dh ckr rks dh tkrh gS ijUrq
vHkh rd efgyk iw.kZ :i ls l’kDr dgk¡ gqbZ gS\
vkt Hkh mls iq:”kksa ls v/khu jguk iM+rk gSA ;s okLro
esa iq:”k lekt }kjk efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds uke ij
jktuhfr dh xbZ gSA efgykvksa dks doy eksgjk cuk;k
tkrk gSA iq:”k jktuhfr esa caVokjs dk i{k/kj ugh gS]
og rks ‘kh”kZ ij jgk gSA vkSj ogh jguk pkgrk gSA
lkaerh ÁÑfr iq:”k ds jx&jx esa clh gqbZ gS] ml ij
‘kkL=ksa us Hkh iq:”kksa dh mPprk] Js”Brk] egkurk dk
rkt iguk j[kk gSA og iq:”kksa ds v/khu jgus okyh L=h
dks bruh ljyrk ls LokoyEch dSls cuus nsaxsA
fu.kZ;
ÁfØ;k esa efgykvksa dh vkt Hkh 30 Áfr’kr lgHkkfxrk gh
gSA cPpksa ds tUe esa rks mudh jk; rd ugha tkuh tkrh
vkSj cPpksa dk ikyu&iks”k.k dSls djuk gSA rFkk mudh
f’k{kk fdl Ádkj dh gksxh ;s fu.kZ; Hkh efgykvksa ds
ugha gSA lEifÙk [kjhnus o cspus esa Hkh 10 Áfr’kr
efgykvksa dh gh lgefr tkuh tkrh gSA vkt jkT; lHkk esa
11 Áfr’kr yksdlHkk esa 10-7 Áfr’kr efgyk,¡ gh dk;Zjr
gS rFkk U;k;ky; esa tt ds :i esa 45 Áfr’kr efgyk,¡
rFkk 51Áfr’kr odhy ds :i esa dk;Zjr gS vkSj iqfyl
foHkkx esa rks ek= 5-33 Áfr’kr efgyk,¡ gh dk;Zjr gSA
¼net ls ½ D;k ;s vk¡dM+s efgykvksa dh jktuhfr ds lkFk
NsM+ NkM+ dks ugha n’kkZrs fd efgykvksa dks vius
fopkj ÁLrqr djus vkSj fu.kZ; ysus dk vf/kdkj gSA
bl dkj.k ls loky mBrk gSa fd iq:”k lekt }kjk efgyk
l’kfDrdj.k ek= ,d dksjk fn[kkok gSA Hkze gS] tkylkth
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gS] vkSj efgykvksa ds lkFk] muds vf/kdkjksa ds lkFk
f[kyokM+ gSA efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds uke ij jktuhfr dk ,d
f?kuksuk [ksy [ksy x;k gSA bl Hkze dks rksM+us ds fy,
efgykvksa dks Lo;a vius vkidks l’kDr djuk gksxk] rHkh
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds uke ij jktuhfr dk [ksy [ksyk tk
jgk gS og can gksxkA vkt efgykvksa dks vkj{k.k dh ugh
cfYd Lo;a dks l’kDr] LokoyEch cukus dh vko’;drk gSA
vHkh Hkh dbZ igyw ,sls gS ftuds tokc gesa grkjh
ljdkjh vkSj lkalnks ls ikus gSA vktknh ds 62 o”kksZ
esa dwM+s ohu us okyh] dkxt chuus okyh efgyk,¡ dks
D;k vkj{k.k dk Qk;nk feyk\ gekjs ns’k dh ljdkj ;k
efgyk lkalnks us bu efgykvksa ds fy, D;k fd;k\ D;k
buds cPps vPNs f’k{kk xzg.k djds viuh ÁfLFkfr dks mPp
cuk ldrs gS\ vkt tks efgyk,¡ laln esa cSBrh gS
mUgksus efgykvksa dh ÁfLFkfr esa L=h Hkj Hkh ifjorZu
fd;k\ vkfn dqN loky ,sls gS ftuds tokc ge lcdks feydj
<w¡<uk gSA
lanHkZ xzaFk lwph%&
1½ cwyLVksudk¶V esjh& 1792^^ , foufMQs’ku vkQW n
jkbVl vkaQ cqeu^^
QsM+u cSVªh& 1963 ^^Qsfefuu feLVsd^^
gqEl oh& 1984 ^^QsfefuLV ÁsfDvl ,.M+ iksLV
LVªDpjfyLV f/kgfj^^
flag oh- ,u-/ tuest; &2010^^ vk/kqfudrk ,oa ukjh
l’kfDrdj.k^^
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¯FDN¯X lDz S[ p5gIF;M\ D[\ lRl+T ,MS
;\:S'lT
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: COMMERCE
Abstract
E-accounting is the application of online and Internet technologies to the business
accounting function. Similar to e-mail being an electronic version of traditional mail, e-accounting is
"electronic enablement" of lawful accounting and traceable accounting processes which were
traditionally manual and paper-based. E-Accounting refers to Electronic Accounting, a term used to
describe an accounting system that relies on computer technology for capturing and processing
financial data in organizations. The manual accounting systems consisted of paper ledgers,
typewriters and calculators.
Now E-Accounting is new development in field of accounting. Under e-Accounting all the
transaction are recorded in online server or data base, which can save the cost associated in
accounting, it minimizes the paper work, Thus, source documents and accounting records exist in
digital form instead of on paper in an electronic accounting system. Both accountant and owner feel
satisfaction because, this is cheap, foolproof and without software defaults. As all the records are
save in online server or database, hence there is no need to record manually.
The International Accounting Standards Board is also in favour of E-Accounting. It is
developing new standards which can be utilized for E-Accounting at international level. The
International Federation of Accountants is searching all the tools of E-Accounting for quality
accounting education and its development.
INTRODUCTION
E-Accounting is just in the developing age and in near future it will surely commercialize use.
There are numbers of company who already started E-Accounting. E-Accounting is cheap and
without software defaults or failure. E-Accounting Concept is adopted international level.
In this all major accounting relating to General ledger Book keeping and maintenance , Bank
reconciliation MIS Cash management , Account Payable and Receivables , Billing Payroll , Budgeting
Management of Records Asset , management Detailed financial analysis , Collection management ,
Credit management , Generation of financial reports Financial statements are totally online .
Some basic concepts, you should know in E-Accounting that it need learning because
without learning of E- Accounting, you never expert in E-Accounting. Almost all companies uses
same system of online accounting but some advance companies makes own system of their online
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or E-Accounting. They need only those dedicated person who know Internet and computer well,
without this they cannot appoint any E-Accountant.
KEY FEATURES OF E-ACCOUNTING
E-accounting does not have a standard definition but merely refers to the changes in
accounting due to computing and networking technologies. Online accounting can be recognized by
the following features:
1)
Zero system administrative for end users
2)
Low cost for providing services to large number of client
3)
Multi user and multi site access
4)
Multi site
5)
Saving of time and money
Uses of E-Accounting
There are number of uses of E-Accounting like Accounts Payable & Receivable, Bank and
account reconciliations, Compliance Reporting, Quarterly Tax Reporting, Tax Return Preparation,
Internal financial consultant, Establish the control system, Financial Write-up and Reporting, Inform
those concerned of financial condition, Provide insight, courses of action, Facilitate future planning
and growth, Supply the business with adequate information, Maintain contact with govt. agencies
and bankers etc.
Advantages:
With the help of E-Accounting we can create account of more than one company from any
place of the world, share accounting information with other from any place of the world, live work of
accounting (It means one accounting project can be complete more than one person from different
place). We can audit the made accounts from any place of the world, give better input data to
finance manager for good future financial plan, get result more fastly from any place of the world.
Any can know what will be the profit or loss figure after each transaction. Other benefits as under:

All over reduction of recurring cost.

No need of trained and expertise bookkeepers.

Avoid problems of employee turnover, leave and absenteeism.

Reduction of work load and pressure.

More concentrates on the revenue side of business.

Maximum utilization of resources.

Saving of time and up to date information which is available in real-time.

Avoid the cost of Hiring/Training accounting and payroll staffs.

No need to upgrade software and annual updates from client side.
E- Filling
Accounting is the back bone of every business. But the knowledge of “e” filing has become
compulsory along with Computerized Accounting course. Taking E-Accounting course may even open
the doors for self-employment or a well-paid job. For a bright future in accounts, we offer this
course with its versatile nature to cater to the needs of a variety of professional/career
opportunities.
Knowledge of E- Filling is mainly required for, Income Tax and 'e' Filing of ITRs, CST & VAT
and 'e' Filing of Returns, TDS and 'e' Filing of TDS Returns, Service Tax - 'e' Filing of Service Tax
Returns, Excise - 'e' Filing of Excise Returns, ROC returns, PF and ESI Returns, Online Banking,
Disadvantages
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Although some small business accounting packages are reasonably priced, the cost of the
software is not the only cost of using the software. Accounting software requires minimum
standards for computer use in regards to RAM, processor speed and hard drive memory. Making a
backup of your accounting data may also require more storage space than an Excel spreadsheet,
which is easily copied to a flash drive. Technical support for the software may cost extra, and you can
incur annual licensing fees in order to receive upgrades. If you are not skilled in software installation
or accounting setup, you may also incur the cost of hiring a consultant to perform those tasks for
you.
Some accounting software packages are designed specifically for non-accountants, but you
will still experience a learning curve when converting to any software package. If you have never
used accounting software before, learning the accounting terms, layouts and determining a proper
setup may be more difficult than the benefits received from utilizing the software. Running your own
business already comes with enough stress and aggravation. You should not add the stress of
learning accounting software to the mix unless it is absolutely necessary or the gains from utilizing
the software outweigh the losses.
Maintaining accounting software not only includes performing upgrades to the accounting
software package, but also maintaining and upgrading all the necessary equipment to utilize the
accounting software as new versions can require upgraded equipment. That equipment often
includes your PC or laptop, monitor, printer, Internet connection and modem, backup drive and
operating system. If you do not wish to spend the time and money to keep your equipment in
compliance with the accounting software, it is best to stick to spreadsheet or ledger accounting.
The disadvantages can be summarized as under:

Power failure, computer viruses and hackers are the inherent problems of using
computerized systems;

Once data been input into the system, automatically the output are obtained hence the data
being input needs to be validated for accuracy and completeness, we should not forget concept of
GIGO (Garbage In(Input) Garbage out ( Output) and

Accounting system not properly set up to meet the requirement of the business due to badly
programmed or inappropriate software or hardware or personnel problems can caused more havoc
and

Danger of computer fraud if proper level of control and security whether internal and
external are not properly been instituted.
Conclusion
The use of E-Accounting has contributed to the effectiveness of tasks as expected. It may
improve the effectiveness of accounting and reporting tasks, budgeting, controlling and auditing
which may reflect on the organizational effectiveness as well. An improved quality in the system may
provide better support for the tasks performed by the system.
The most significant impacts of E-Accounting are on accounting and reporting and budgeting
task performance respectively. Future studies could place more focus on the inter-organizational
factors affecting the adoption rate. Moreover, future research could focus on the attitudes and
resources of the business partners of accounting agencies.
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ZmQ²>¶g§X^}
ag{d^mdZm
‘moKOr^mB© ~r. Mm¡Yar
àmܶmnH$ : g§ñH$¥V {d^mJ,lr ^rIm^mB© nQ>ob AmQ²>©g
H$moboO,AmU§X
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: LANGUAGE
ag:
ag: ^maVr¶ H$mì¶ñ¶ M Xe©Zñ¶ ‘hmZwnbãYr ApñV & ¶Wm
ag{gÕmÝVñ¶ à{VnmXZ§ ì¶mdhm[aH$3no ‘h{f©dmë‘r{H$ Ûmam
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H${WV‘pñV &(1)
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H$¥VmpñV & Vpñ‘Z²>> {ZpûMVg‘¶ñ¶ OrdZñ¶m{^ì¶p³V:
H${WVmpñV & Vñ¶ H$WZ‘pñV ¶V²> B{Vd¥V§ ZmQ>H$ñ¶
eara‘pñV M ag: Vñ¶mË‘mpñV & VmÔe§ àm¶: agñ¶m{Zdm¶©Vm
‘mݶV¶m Amdí¶H§$ ^d{V ¶V²> agmZw3n§ 3nHo$fw
¶mo½¶gpÝY:, H$m¶m©{U VWm Vofm‘“mZm§ ¶moOZm
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{H«$¶Vo &(2) EVmÔe§ ZmQ>Ho$ agñ¶ A{Zdm¶©Vm dm
àmW{‘H$Vm ñd¶§ {gÕ‘²> ApñV & ‘Z {h agmÔVo
H${ûMX߶W©: àdV©Vo’ A{^àm¶: agoU {dZm ZmQ>H$m{Xgw
H$ñ¶m{n
AW©ñ¶
{ZX}e:
g§^d:
ZmpñV &
agñ¶m{Zdm¶©Vm ZmQ²>¶H$Vm© - A{^ZoVm Xe©H$mUm§
H$¥Vo
ApñV
H$maU§
¶V²>
ZmQ²>¶H$Vm©
H$Wm¶m‘{^춳Vagmonar ÔpîQ>¨ Ho$pÝÐH$aUoZ {dZm KQ>ZmA{^Z¶-^mdm{X gd}fm§ ¶moOZm§ Z H$amo{V A{^ZoVm
ñdH$s¶mhm¶m©{X A{^Z¶ofw {Z{X©îQ>agmV²> {Zanoj§ ^yËdm
EH$nmX‘{n Z Mbm¶‘Zmo ^d{V & VWm gmm{OH$‘²> (^mdH$àojH$m¡) A{n agñ¶ gmjmËH$mam¶¡d gånyU©ZmQ>H§$ ÔîQw>§
H$W¶{V
&
agmZw^y{VaWdm
agmË‘H$mZÝX‘od
Vñ¶m{^àoV‘{ñV &
^aV‘wZo: aggy̧ M Vpñ‘Z²> ‘ñWm{n^md:
aggå~ÝYo
^aV‘wZo:
{d»¶mVgyÌ‘pñV
‘{d^mdmZw^mdì¶{^Mm[ag§¶moJmX²ag{Zîn{Îm: &’ AWm©V²>
- {d^md - AZw^md - ì¶{^Mmar ^mdg§¶moJoZ ag{Zîn{Îm: ^d{V &
ñnîQ>‘pñV¶V²>
AÌ agmonH$aUofw ñWm{¶^mdñ¶moëboI§ ZmpñV & àûZ§ ^d{V
¶V²>
ñWm{¶^mdñ¶[ñdH$mañ¶
qH$
H$maU‘²> ?
^ÅbmoëbQ>: g‘mY¶{V ¶V²> A{Z{X©îQ>oZm{n ñWm{¶^md: ñdV:
{Z{X©îQ>‘pñV H$maU§ ¶V²> {d^mdm{X{^: g§¶moOZoZ
ñWm¶r^md Ed ag{ZînÎmo: H$maU§ dV©Vo & EVmÔe‘od
Cnamo³VgyÌñ¶
ì¶m»¶m
^doV²>
‘{d^mdm{X{^:
g§¶moJmo@Wm©V² ñWm{¶ZñVVmo ag{Zîn{Îm: &(3)
lr e§Hw$H$mZwgma‘Ì ñWm¶r^mdpñW{V AZw‘mZoZ {gÕ§ ^d{V
H$maU§ ¶V²> ñWm{¶^mdoZ¡d A{^Z¶m{X Ûmam ag{Zîn{Îm:
^d{V & Vñ¶ H$WZ‘pñV ¶V²> ‘{d^mdmZw^mdì¶{^Mmarä¶:
ñWm{¶Z: g‘¶moJmV² AZw‘mZmV² agñ¶ {Zîn{V: AZw‘mZOݶm àVr{V: &>>’
A{^ZdJwßVñ¶ H$WZ‘pñV ¶V²> ñWm¶r^mdmo ‘mZ{gH$mo ApñV
VoZ H$maUoZ Z Vw à˶joZ dm Z Vw AZw‘mZoZ àVr{V: ^{dVw§
e³¶Vo & Vñ¶ pñW{V: {d^mdm{Xfw ApñV &
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ñWm¶r^md - {d^md - AZw^md - ì¶{^Mmar ^md Ûmam {Zînm{XV
‘AmñdmÚ’ Ed àVrVo: bmoH$moÎmamW} agËd§ àmßV§ ^d{V &
VoZ
{d^mdm{X
g§¶moJmÐgZm¶Vmo
{ZînÚVo@VñVWm{dÚagZmJmoMamo
bmoH$moÎmamo@Wm} ag B{V VmËn¶©gyÌñ¶ &(4)
‘ybV: ñWm{¶^md A{Z{X©îQ>ñVWm{n AmMm¶m©Um‘Zwgma§
agmoËnÎmo: ‘ybH$maU‘pñV & ^aV‘w{ZZm ñd¶‘wn¶w³V gyÌñ¶
ì¶m»¶m¶m§ ñWm¶r ^md Ûmam agËd§ àmßVì¶ñ¶moëboI§
H$¥V‘pñV &(5) AÌmoëboIZr¶‘pñV ¶V²> MVwUmª VËdmZm§
gm‘y{hH§$ ¶moJXmZ‘od agmoËnÎmo: H$maU‘pñV &
ag{ZînVo: à{H«$¶m
ag{Zîn{V: Hw$Ì ^d{V ? EV§ àûZ§ H$m{R>ݶñd3no emñÌH$ma¡:
g‘mYmVw§ à¶ËZ§ H$¥V‘pñV Xe3nH$H$Vm© Ed ñnîQ>§
H$W¶{V ¶V²> ag{Zîn{V: gm‘m{OH$ñ¶ õ{X ^d{V & EVñ¶m:
ñnîQ>Vm¶m: ‘ybo MVwdm©XmZm§ {Z3nU§ pñWV‘pñV &
EVofm§
MVwdm©XmUm‘ä¶mgoZ
Vo
¶V²>
ZmQ²>¶H$¥{VJVag: ZmQ²>¶mV²>> Vñ¶ g‘U‘ma§^¶{V M
H«$‘mZwgma§ dmMH$gm‘m{OH$mZm§ õX²> dm MoVZm§
Amd¥V§ H$amo{V & ^ÅbmoëbQ>ñ¶ ‘VmZwgma§ ag: am‘m{X
AZwH$m¶} AWm©V²> H$¥{VJVnmÌo M Vñ¶ dofdmUr Am{X
A{^Z¶ñ¶ ¶moJoZ ZQ>o à{VV§ ^d{V & ‘am‘mXmdZwH$m¶}
VÐþnVmZwgÝYmZmÝZV©Ho$@{n
{එmZmo
ag:....&’
(‘å‘Q>:)&
lr ewH$ñ¶ H$WZ‘oVñ‘mV²> AJ«J‘Z§ ^d{V EVpñ‘ZW} H$¥Vo:
nmÌ3nmZw‘mZ§ ¶ñ¶ H$¥V§ VmÔeo ZQ>o agà{V AZw^y¶Vo & ‘{MÌVwaJݶm¶oZ am‘mo@¶{‘{V à{Vn˶m J«mô¶o ZQ>o &’
lr ewH$: ñnîQ>Vm§ H$amo{V ¶V²> Ibw agnmÌ3no ¶ñ¶mZw‘mZ§
H$¥V‘pñV VËVw ZQ>o ZmpñV & {H$ÝVw EVVZw‘mZ§
gm‘m{OH$mZ²>
Vofm§
ñdJVdmgZm{^:
^d{V
&
‘a˶m{X^mdñVÌmgÝZ{n
gm‘m{OH$mZm§
dmgZ¶m
M충‘mUmo ag: B{V ewH$: &’
agñdmXñ¶ gm‘m{OH$Vm g§ñH$maoU ZQ>o dmñV{dH$3no dm
Ibw ZmpñV¨ VWm{n ApñV B{V AZw^d§ ^d{V B{V H$Wm
^ÅZm¶H§$ A‘mݶm ApñV AV: AJ«o ^moÁ¶^moOH$Ëd^mdñ¶
{gÕmÝV§
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A{^àm¶§
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gmYmaUrH$¥Va˶m{X ñWm¶r^mdmZ²> gõX dmMH$: ag3no
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^yÄO¶{V VXm ag‘U§ H«$‘oU AJ«J‘ZoZ gõX: gm‘m{OH$ñ¶ õ{X
^d{V &
Efm ag{Zîn{ÎmûM agmZw^dñVWm VÁOݶmZÝXñd3n‘{n
H«${‘H${MÝVZñ¶
J{V:
H${WVmpñV & ^ÅbmoëbQ>o dmMH$‘Zw^y{VñVWm AmZÝX§
^d{V, VÎmw ^«mpÝV3n‘pñV & lr ewH$ñ¶ ‘VmZwgma§ VV²>
{‘Z¶mZw‘mZ3n‘pñV
^ÅZm¶H$ñ¶
‘VmZwgma§
VV²>
j{UH$mZw^d3n‘pñV {H$ÝVw A{^ZdJwßVñ¶ ‘VmZwgma§
H$¥{VJVnm̧ M gõXo AZw^yVo: ¶pñ‘Z²> nyU©g§dm{XVm
gm{YVmpñV & VmÔembm¡{H$H$moËH$Q>m{X M jUdV²>
dmñV{dH$3no AZw^dOݶm ‘Z:pñW{V ApñV &
EVofm§
MVw‘©VmZm‘oH$m
{d{eîQ>VmpñV
¶V²>
MVw‘©Vm{Z à{VnmXZH$V¥©{^amMm¶¡: ^y{‘H$m {^ÝZoä¶:
{^ÝZoä¶: Xe©Zoä¶: ñdrH$¥VmpñV ^ÐbmoëbQ>: {‘‘m§gH$mo, lr
ewH$: Z¡¶m{dH$mo, ^ÅZm¶H$: gm§»¶dmXr A{^dJwßV:
à˶{^kmdmXr M e¡dXe©Zñ¶ na‘monmgH$m: gpÝV & Añ‘mZ²>
gw{d{XV‘pñV ¶V²> agñ¶m¡n{ZfXr¶{gÕm§V: ‘agm¡ d¡ g: & ag§
õ¡dm¶§ bãYdm AZÝXr ^d{V &’ B{V ag{dMmaUm¶m: ‘ybo ApñV
& agOݶ AmZÝX§ ~«ô‘mZÝX ghmoXa AmZÝX§ H$϶Vo &
agñ¶mñdmX: H$¶m ar˶m ^d{V ? ^aVV: kmn¶{V ¶V²> ¶Wm
AZoH$àH$mamUm§
ì¶ÄOZ¡:
g§ñH$m[aV‘²>
AÝZ‘²>
EH$mJ«{MÎm¶w³Vm:, g§ñH$m[aVé{M¶w³Vm: ^moÁ¶‘mUm:
nwéfm: AmñdmX¶pÝV VWm hfm©{X AZw^dpÝV VWm
{d{dY^mdmZm‘{^Z¶oZ ì¶{ÄOV - dm{MH$ - Am[“H$ gmpËdH$m{^Z¶¡: ¶w³VmZ²> ñWm{¶^mdmZ²> gwg§ñH$¥V
àojH$mamñdmX¶pÝV M hfm©{X àmßZwdpÝV &(6) AVaod VmZ²>
ZmQ²>¶agm: H${WVm: gpÝV &
ag^mdm¡ gå~ÝY:
qH$ agoä¶: ^mdm: CËnÝZm: ^dpÝV dm ^mdoä¶: agm: ? ^aV:
{bI{V ¶V²> agmUm§ ^mdmZm§ MmoËn{Îm: nañnagå~ÝYoZ ^d{V,
B{V Ho$MZ²> ‘ݶÝVo {H$ÝVw Ag{‘{MZ‘pñV H$maU§ ¶V²>
^md¡: agmUm§ {Zîn{Îm: ^d{V B{V km¶Vo Z Vw ag¡: ^mdmZm§,
^aV: H$W¶{V {d^mdmX¶mo AZoH$àH$mamUm‘{^Z¶¡: gh g{å‘ë¶
agmUm§ ^mdZ§, H$ma¶{V AVaod V§ ZmQ²>¶à¶moOH$m: ‘^md’
ZmåZm kmn¶{ÝV ¶Wm {d{dYàH$mamUm‘ZoH$Ð춡: ‘ì¶ÄOZ§’
^m{dV§ {H«$¶Vo M ^mdoZ {dZm ag: Z [ñW¶Vo, VWm agoU
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{dZm ^mdmo Z pñW¶Vo Mm{^Z¶oZ nañna§ Ûm¡ {gÕm¡ ^dV: & (7)
¶Wm ì¶ÄOZñ¶ M Ðì¶ñ¶ g§¶moJoZ AÝZ§ ñdm{XîQ>§ {H«$¶Vo M
AÝZoZ ì¶ÄOZ§ VWm Ð춧 ñdm{XîQ>§ ^d{V VmÔe§ ^mdmûM
agm: nañna§ CnH$maH$m: gpÝV &
¶Wm ~rOmV²> d¥j§ ^d{V M d¥jmV²> nwîn§ ’$b§ M ^dpÝV
VmÔe§ gd} agm: ‘yb3nm: gpÝV & ^mdm: Vñ‘mV²> ì¶dpñWVm:
^dpÝV & A{^Z¶JwßV A{n ag§ ‘{d^mdm{X Or{dVmd{Y:’ H$W¶{V
& AWm©V²> {d^mdm{X XþaJ‘ZoZ agmo A{n Z pñW¶Vo & AV:
^mdmV²> agmoËn{V: ñdrH$V©ì¶m &
{d^md: - g§gmao a{V Am{X CX²>~moYH$mo Ed H$mì¶o VWm
ZmQ>Ho$
{d^md§
H$϶Vo
&(8)
^aV‘w{Z
AZwgma§
‘{d^mì¶ÝVo@ZoZ dmJ“gËdm{^Z¶m B{V {d^md:’ & nydm}³V
a{V Am{X CX²>~moYH$nXmWm©Um§ gmYmaUrH$¥V3n‘od
{d^md3no {Z~Õ§ {dÚVo &(9) AV: OZH$VZ¶m{X {deofVmä¶:
a{hV§ gd©Wm gmYmaUrH$¥VgrVm{X Ed {d^md§ H${WVw§
e³¶Vo & EVVmbå~Z§ VWm CX²>rnZ3no [ÛàH$mamZ²>
ApñV &
AZw^md: - a{V Am{X ^mdZm§ gyMH${dH$mamZ²> AZw^mdmo
H$϶Vo & AZw^mdmo {dH$mañVw ^mdg§gyMZmË‘H$: &
(X3nH$‘²> - 4/3) AWm©V²> gm‘m{OH$mZ²> a˶m{X
ñWm{¶^mdmZm‘Zw^dH$Vm©a: VWm agñ¶ n[anmofH$H$Vm©a:
^«y{djonñVWm H$Q>mjm{X ‘AZw^md’ ApñV & H$maU§ ¶V²>
A{^Z¶o
VWm
H$mì¶o@Zw^m{dVa{gH$mZm§
gmjmV²>
AZw^dñ¶ H$‘©U: 3no@Zw^yV§ ^d{V & AV: a{gHo$fw
Vñ¶mZw^doZ V‘Zw^md§ H$϶Vo &
{dûdZmWñ¶ H$WZ‘pñV ¶V²>> - ñdH$s¶¡: H$maU¡éËnÝZa{V
Am{X ^md§ ~«mô¶OZo àH$m{eV^d{V OZo ¶V²> H$m¶©3‘pñV
VV²> lì¶H$mì¶o M Ôí¶H$mì¶o (ZmQ>Ho$) ‘AZw^md‘²>>’ H$϶Vo
&(10)
¶pñ‘Z²> bmoHo$ grVm{X VWm MÝБm{X ñdH$s¶o ñdH$s¶o
Ambå~ZH$maUoZ MmoXr¶ZH$maUoZ am‘m{X AÝV:H$aUo
CËnÝZa{V Am{X ^md§ ~mô¶bmoHo$ àH$m{eV§ H$amo{V
VV²> ‘H$m¶©‘²>’ H$϶Vo & VV²> H$m춧 3nHo$ ‘AZw^d‘²>’
H$϶Vo & AZwnûMmV ^dpÝV AZw^dm: &
gmpËdH$^mdm: - gmpËdH$^md: nÚ{n AZw^mdofw Ed
AÝV^y©V§ dV©Vo VWm{n AݶmZw^mdmZm‘noj¶m Vñ¶
d¡{eîQ>àH${Q>Vw§ gmpËdH$^mdñ¶ g§km XÎmmpñV & YZÄO¶:
gm{h˶Xn©Uo
H$W¶{V
gËdJwUmVwËnÝZ§
dm
gm‘m{OH$m‘m‘ÝV: H$aUo pñWV§ M àH$meH$Vm©ÝV:H$aUñ¶
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Y‘©:
g˶‘²> ApñV & Vñ‘mV²> CËnÝZ{dH$mamZ²> ‘gmpËdH$:’ H$϶Vo
& {dH$mam: gËdg§^yVm gmpËdH$m: n[aH$s{V©Vm: &
gmpËdH$^md: dmñV{dH§$ ¶Wm YZÄO¶oZ H${WV‘²> ApñV am‘m{X AZwH$m¶©ñ¶ gwIXþ:Io Am{X^md¡: ^m{dV^dZoZ
^mdñ¶mÝVJ©V:
ñWm߶Vo
&
gwIXþ:Im{XH¡$^m©dñVØmd^mdZ‘²> &
bmoHo$fw kmVm: gwIXþ:ImË‘H$^mdm: ZmQ²>¶o@{n Vñ¶
dmñV{dH$3no à¶moOZr¶mûM VmÔe§ Xe©ZoZ gwXZm{X 3n§
Xþ:Iñ¶
^md:,
AXþ:IrVnmÌoU
VWm
AmZÝX3ngwI^md:
Xþ:IrVnmÌoZ H$¶m ar˶m à¶moO¶oV²> ? {H$ÝVw gËdñ¶
H$m¶©‘od VVpñV ¶V²> Vñ¶ VV²> nm̧ Xþ:IrV§ dm gwIt
AdñWm¶maZwbjo Alw: dm amo‘mÄM§ Xe©¶oV²> AV: VmZ²>
^mdmZ²> gmpËdH$^mdm: H${WVm: &
^aV AZwgma§ EVo gmpËdH$^mdm: AîQ>m: gpÝV & ¶Wm ñVå^amo‘mÄM-ñda^oX-donOr-d¡dʶ© - Alw - àb¶mûM & VoZ
¶mo½¶agoU gh ¶mo½¶gmpËdH$^mdm: ¶mo{OVm: gpÝV &
ì¶{^Mmar^md: - agogw {d{dY3noU ^«‘UH$Vm©a: ^mdmZ²>
ì¶{^Mmar^md: H$϶Vo & ‘{d{dYm A{^‘w»¶oZ agofw MaÝVr{V
ì¶{^Mm[aU:’ (ZmQ²>¶emñÌ‘²>) H$mì¶o dm ZmQ>Ho$ a˶m{X
VWm {Zd}Xm{X {MÎmd¥VrZm§ ^md: H$϶Vo ¶V²> VoZ
gm‘m{OH$mZm§ õX: ^m{dVm: M ì¶mßVm: ^md¶pÝV &
^md¶pÝV ì¶mßZwdpÝV ‘Z: gm‘m{OH$mZm{‘{V ^md: &(11)
EVm: {MÎmd¥V¶: [Û àH$mamUm§ g§^ì¶Vo & àW‘m§
ñWm{¶^mdÄM [ÛVr¶m§ ì¶{^Mmar^md: H$϶Vo & ì¶{^Mmar^md:
ñWm{¶^mdmZm§ g‘wÐo {~ÝXþdV²> {Z‘{ÄOV: {dÚVo & AV:
ñWm{¶^mdofw d¡{MͶ‘wËnÝZ§ ^d{V & dmUr-A“-gËd¶w³V§
^yËdm à¶moJo agmUm§ dhZ§ Hw$d©pÝV Vm: ì¶{^Mm[aU: &
dmJ“mgËdmonoVm: à¶moJo agmÝZ¶ÝVr{V ì¶{^Mm[aU: ^aV:
bm¡H$sH$ÔîQ>§ XËdm H$W¶{V ¶V²> ³bmoH$m¶m§ gw¶:
H$[ûMV²> {Xdg§ dm ZjÌ‘mZ¶{V g: Z hñVoZ dm
ñH$ÝYmamohUoZmZ¶Vr{V ì¶{^Mm[aUm§ kmV춑²> &(12)
ñWm¶r^md: - Xe3nH$H$ma: ~moY¶{V ¶V²>> - g‘wÐo bdU¶w³V§
M ‘YwaOb§ g‘wÐmZw3n§ ^d{V M V‘mË‘gmV§ H$¥Ëdm
AmË‘3n§ H$amo{V VmÔe§ ñWm{¶^mdmo A{n gd©^mdmZ²> ‘ñd’
3n§ H$amo{V & Ef: ñWm{¶^md: V§ H$϶Vo ¶: à{VHw$b§ dm
AZwHw$b§ H$‘{n ^md§ ñdH$s¶mV²> {^ÝZ§ Z H$amo{V &(13)
ñWm¶r^mdZm§ VmËn¶ª gd©Xm pñWV^md¡: dV©Vo &
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AîQ>ñWm¶r^mdm: ¶Wm a{V-hmg-emoH$-H«$moY-CËgmh-^¶OwJwßgm-{dñ‘¶ &
agmUm§ g§»¶m àH$maûM
e¥§Jmahmñ¶H$éUm am¡Ð{da^¶mZH$m: &
~r^ËgmX^wVg§km¡ Mo˶îQ>m¡ ZmQ²>¶o agm: ñ‘¥Vm: &
(ZmQ²>¶emñÌ‘²> - 6/15)
e¥“ma - hmñ¶ - H$éU - am¡Ð - dra - ^¶mZH$ - ~r^Ëg AX²>^y{V{V AîQ>agmZ²> ^aV: ñdrH$amo{V &
^ÅbmoëbQ> - YZÄO¶ - ^moO - A{^ZdJwßVm{X AmMm¶£:
n¥WH$²> - n¥WH$²> agmUm§ g§»¶m EH$mVîQ> - Zd - Xe ÛmXe dm AZoH$agn¶©ÝV§ {ZpûMV§ H$¥V‘²> &
éÐQ>oU VWm ^moOoZ {Z{X©îQ>§ H$¥V§ ¶V²> 33
ì¶{^Mmar^mdm:, 8 gmpËdH$^mdm A{n ñWm¶r^mddV²>
ñWm{nVw§ e³¶Vo M VoZ {d{^ÝZagmUm‘wËn{V: ^{dVw‘h©{V
&(14) {H$ÝVw EVmÔe§ agmUm§ {dñVma AZmdí¶H$‘pñV
H$maU§ ¶V²> ^aV‘w{Z Ûmam {Z{X©îQ> AîQ> dm Zdagofw Ed
Ad{eîQ>agmUm‘ÝV^m©d: ^d{V &
dËgbñVWm ^JdXZwap³VgyMH$: ^p³VagñVw e¥“maagmÝVJ©V§
ñWm{nVw§ e³¶Vo & ^mZwXÎm Ûmam {Z{X©îQ> EVm¡ Ûm¡
Mmݶ A{^bmfm VWm ñn¥hm Û¶moa{n e¥“mao@ÝV^m©d: ^d{V
& EVmÔe§ gañdVrH$ÊR>m^aUo Cëbo{IVm: ào¶g-emÝV-CXmÎmCÕVm{X A{n {ZpûMVñWm¶r^mdmZm§ VWm agmUm‘od§em:
gpÝV &
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Vocational Education in
India
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DR.ARVINDBHAI TRIBHOVANBHAI PATEL
B.A.,M.A.,M.ED.,Ph.D.
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: EDUCATION
Introduction
Vocational education consists basically of practical courses through which one gains skills and
experience directly linked to a career in future. It helps students to be skilled and in turn, offers
better employment opportunities. These trainings are parallel to the other conventional courses of
study (like B. Sc., M. Sc. etc.). Time management and meeting deadlines play an important role in
success in a vocational course and during their studies students normally produce a portfolio of
evidence (plans, reports, drawings, videos, placements), which is taken as a demonstration of
students’ capabilities for a job. After finishing the courses, students are often offered placements in
jobs. Vocational trainings in a way give students some work related experiences that many
employers look for. According to a National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) report (No. 517,
61/10/03) two types of vocational trainings are available in India: a) Formal and; b) Non-formal.
Formal vocational training follows a structured training program and leads to certificates, diplomas
or degrees, recognized by State/Central Government, Public Sector and other reputed concerns.
Non-formal vocational training helps in acquiring some marketable expertise, which enables a
person to carry out her/his ancestral trade or occupation. In a way through such non-formal
vocational training, a person receives vocational training through ‘hereditary’ sources. Often ‘Nonformal’ vocational trainings are also received through ‘other sources’. In such cases training received
by a person to pursue a vocation, is not ancestral and is different from the trade or occupation of
his/her
ancestors.
Data
and
graphs
used
here
are
all
indicative,
not
exhaustive.
Fig.1: Academic, Technical and Vocational parallel training structure/system in India-a flowchart
Source: Skill development in India: The vocational education and training system report no.-22 World
Bank
Type of Institutions for Vocational training according to National Sample Survey Organization
(NSSO):
Different institutions which impart vocational training can be classified into five categories: (i)
Government, (ii) Local body, (iii) Private aided, (iv) Private unaided, and (v) not known. According to
a NSSO report vocational training is received by only 10% of persons aged between 15-29 years. Out
of this only 2% receive formal training, while non-formal training constitutes the remaining 8%. Out
of the formal training received by that particular age group only 3% are employed. Most sought after
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field of training is computer related training. Only 20% of formal vocational training is received from
ITI/ITCs. In India, technical education and vocational training system follows patterns like graduate post graduate, engineer - technologists through training colleges, diploma from polytechnics and
certificate
level
training
in
ITIs
through
formal
apprenticeships.
The Vocational Training in India is imparted by mainly two types of bodies:

Public Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs)

Private owned Industrial Training Centres (ITCs)
The Indian Government has invested a lot for the development of skills through ITIs. The DGE&T
generally regulates these ITIs and ITCs at national level and implements policies for vocational
training.
Training statistics of ITI/ITCs - main formal vocational training institutes in India:
Some of the principal training schemes are:

The Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS)

Apprenticeship Training Scheme (ATS).
According to the Planning commission report for the 11th Five year plan there are about 5,114
Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) imparting training in 57 engineering and 50 non-engineering
trades. Of these, 1,896 are State Government-run ITIs while 3,218 are private. The total seating
capacity in these ITIs is 7.42 lakh (4 lakh seats in government ITIs and the remaining 3.42 lakh in
private ITCs). Figures below this text represent detailed information on the number and capacity of
ITIs/ITCs in different states/UTs. A number of vocational training institutes are being run by private
training providers. The formal training system of India starts at Grade 8 and above. According to a
report of ILO, the quality of DGE&T’s skills development programmes compete with other
programmes , such as high vocational schools (10 plus 2 stream), colleges, polytechnics, etc. The
share of ITI-based training seems to capture around 10-12 per cent of the total number of school
pass
outs
at
Grade10
level.
Some training schemes provide by DGE&T other than Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS) and
Apprenticeship Training Scheme (ATS) are:
Craft Instructors’ Training Scheme(CITS),Advanced Vocational Training Scheme(AVTS)

Supervisory/Foremen Training Scheme, Staff Training and Research Program

Instructional Media Development Program

Women’s Training Scheme

Hi-Tech Training Scheme
Fig.2: Number of ITIs under Government and Private bodies in main states of India
Source: Ministry of labour DGE&T
From the above graphs we may conclude that Tamil Nadu holds the majority stake in private owned
ITCs and Maharashtra holds a similar position for Government owned ITIs.
Details about the nature of the training in ITIs etc. are available on the website of

Ministry of Labour (http://labour.nic.in/)

National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) (http://dget.gov.in)
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National Council for Vocational Training’, an advisory body, was set up by the Government of India in
the year 1956. The National Council is chaired by the Minister of Labour, with members from
different Central and State Government Departments, Employers and Workers organizations,
Professional and Learned Bodies, All India Council for Technical Education, Scheduled castes and
Scheduled tribes, All India Women’s Organization, etc. And State Councils for Vocational Training at
the State level and Trade Committees have been established to assist the NCVT. Main mandate of
the NCVT, according to DGE&T, is to establish and award National Trade Certificates in engineering,
non-engineering, building, textile, leather trades and such other trades which are brought within its
scope by the Government of India. It also prescribes standards in respect of syllabi, equipment,
scales of accommodation, duration of courses and methods of training. It also conducts tests in
various trade courses and lays down standards of proficiency required for passing the examination
leading to the award of National Trade Certificate etc.
Total number and capacity of ITIs and ITCs per million persons in India:
Fig.3 : Number of ITIs and ITCs available per million persons in different states in India
Source: The vocational education and training system report no.-22 World Bank.
Fig.4: Intake capacity of ITIs and ITCs per million persons in different states in India
Source: The vocational education and training system report no.-22 World Bank.
Statistics on persons (per thousand) who attend vocational training, according to duration of
training and age groups of trained people:
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Fig.5: Percentage of persons who received vocational Fig.6: Percentage of persons who received
training in Rural India (per thousand person) (duration vocational training in Urban India(per thousand
of training wise)
person)(duration of training wise)
Source: NSSO Report No. 517 year 2004-05
Fig.7: Number of person getting vocational training per thousand persons age group wise in India
Source: NSSO Report No. 517 year 2004-05
Despite efforts made to popularize these courses, several problems prevent ITIs/ITCs from reaching
common masses and youth.
Paramedical training status for rural India:
Paramedical courses are one of the largest sources of vocational educated persons in the field of
medical industry. Status of the total paramedical manpower in rural India is given in following graph.
Fig.8: Trained paramedical practitioners available in rural India
Source: MHRD, Annual Report 2002-03, India Year Book 2008, Manpower profile
From the Figure above, it is clear that out of total 315,746 paramedical workers in rural India, 47%
are female health workers. But extension workers are very few; almost 1%. We also need to focus on
the availability of Radio Graphers, Pharmacists and Laboratory Technicians for rural India. To
disseminate knowledge of basic health facilities we need to train more paramedical workers for rural
India. But unfortunately at present they are few compared to the large size of the rural population.
Status in Schools:
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Schools also provide vocational training formally at 10 and 12th level. The following figure shows the
percentage stake of all major states, providing vocational training in India.
Fig.9: Percentage share of the schools imparting vocational training for some major states
Source: MHRD, Annual Report 2002-03, India Year Book 2008, Manpower profile
It is observed that states like Punjab, Orissa Tamil Nadu etc. hold approximately 79% stake in
number of schools which impart vocational training. And Maharashtra is the foremost, holding more
than 16%. Schools have an important role in vocational studies because one can start learning a
vocation from his/her schools days. More coverage in school with proper infrastructure can create a
large technical group in future, which at present is deficient.
Other Government and private bodies providing vocational training in India:
Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC): The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
impart training and awards vocational certificates for the unorganized sectors. The list of such
training has been given in Table 1. KVIC (established in April 1957) is a statutory body established by
an Act of Parliament. It took over the work of former All India Khadi and Village Industries Board.
It has the main objective of generating employment; the other objective of producing saleable
products; and the wider objective of creating self-reliance amongst the people and building up of
strong rural community spirit.

KVIC is assigned with the proper planning, promotion, organizational implementation of
programmes for the development of Khadi and other village industries in rural areas in coordination
with other agencies engaged in rural development and are also charged with the responsibility of
encouraging and promoting research in the KVI sector.

KVIC is also entrusted with the task of providing financial assistance to institutions engaged
in rural development.
According to the Annual Reports of KVIC in the year 2001-02 and 2004-05, three different categories
of training namely, Khadi, Village Industries and EDP training existed. (The details of different
categories are given in Table 1 in Appendix.)
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Fig.10: Percentage of different social group trained by KVIC in the year 2001-02 and 2004-05
Source: India Year Book 2008
It is also observed that women’s participation has also increased for Khadi training from 52% to
82.1%. But the women’s participation fell from 47% to 30.9% and from 41.5% to 20% for Village
industries and Other EAP/EDP trainings respectively. Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttaranchal and UP are the main states where KVIC
imparts maximum number of trainings.
Tool Room & Training Centers (DC, MSME): Govt. of India has set up a few Tool Room & Training
Centers of large size involving estimated cost of over Rs. 50 crores each, in order to provide facilities
for design and manufacture of tools. Govt. of India have decided to assist the State governments by
setting up Mini Tool Room and Training Centers.
The main objective of the Mini Tool Room & Training Centers would be
Manufacturing jigs, fixtures, cutting tools, gauges, press tools, plastic moulds, forging dies,
pressure casting dies and other tools for Small Scale Industries. To provide training facility in tool
manufacturing and tool design to generate a work force of skilled workers, supervisors,
engineers/designers etc.

To work as a Nucleus Centre for providing consultancy, information service, documentation
etc, for solving problems related to tooling of industries in the region. And to act as a Common
Facility Centre for small scale industries and to assist them in product and prototype development.
REFERENCE WEBSITES AND ADDITIONAL READINGS:

National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) Report:Status of Education and Vocational
Training in India 2004-2005 (Report no.517, 61/10/03).India:Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation.

World Bank Report: Skill Development in India: The Vocational Education and Training
System (Report no.-22).The World Bank:Human Development Unit South Asia Region.

India Year Book 2008:A Reference Annual.India:Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.

http://www.vocationalstudies-australia.com.au/

http://dget.gov.in/

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/ampro/cinterfor/news/gasskov.pdf/

http://www.indg.in/agriculture/rural-employment-schemes/kvic-regp/kvic-regp/

http://www.care2.com/news/member/374874447/891201
Challenges of Vocational Education
In North East India
DR.ARVINDBHAI TRIBHOVANBHAI PATEL
B.A.,M.A.,M.ED.,Ph.D.
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: EDUCATION
The challenges of Vocational education in an Open University like ours are many and impinge upon
the very mechanisms and methodologies of a Distance Education and Open University such as
IGNOU. These are: technology aided instruction, the use of broadcasts, telecasts and the internet for
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delivery services. However, in vocational education and, training face to face mode of instruction
and especially skill based activities have also to be emphasized.
Vocational education has to be viewed from different multi-layered practices. One is of course the
hands on training component. The other is employment generation and sustainability, whether the
training programmes or courses can lead to employment/self employment. If so there has to be
follow up measures to see what the participants in a vocational training programme have achieved
and whether there has been a progress in terms of employability and income generation. Also,
whether any industry has employed any participant, especially when there has been in plant or in
house training. Another perspective of VET is studying a course on vocational education in a college
or a university with the hope that the certificate will lead to an acquisition of jobs. The industryeducation alliance which is gradually becoming a force in the country, one reckons that this will play
a significant role in the future, what with a Skills Development Council being set-up under the aegis
of and with the active support of the CII, will also, I hope, shape future events in this regard.
Skill development is one of the components and outcome of VET but training programmes should
also concentrate on unskilled workers thereby giving them an opportunity to learn and earn. The
unorganized sector is also a catchment resource in areas such as retailing, marketing and micro
businesses.
The history of VET is not very sanguine in India especially as EDPs and allied training programmes
have not been followed up. Simply leaving a participant with a certificate to fend for himself/herself
has added to the plethora of the unemployed. However, with the Govt. of India’s accent on the
Public Private Partnership model, one can only hope that such tie-ups will give a prod to the
conscience of the industry and corporate houses, especially with Corporate Social Responsibility
being such a major issue of debate today internationally, notwithstanding the polemic on ethics and
CSR.
In North East India there are hardly any industrial houses worth the name and the local industry in
terms of agro based products and raw material remain untapped, the potential being exploited by
middlemen. Jute, rubber, bamboo and cane, ginger, turmeric are grown in the different states but
how are these to be encapsulated as micro units to generate employment? The other business
houses which have come to the region are basically setting up franchisee units in mobile phones,
internet connection, computer courses etc. all for marketing strategies and the youth who are
employed look unsettled and are trying constantly to search for better opportunities.
Coming again to the context of the Region, indigenous knowledge such as weaving, textile making,
music and the arts, performing arts, the oral tradition, medicinal plants can be brought into the
gamut of trades. But with the increasing modernization and the technological wave many of such
indigenous methods are on the verge of becoming extant. One can only strive for a revival. How
many will remember the duitara musical instrument of the Khasis? Technology has no doubt led to
the creation of a global community, one world, but it has exacerbated to the tension between the
local and the global. Local needs are to be addressed perforce as community needs especially in a
country with low literacy rates. Compared to the literacy of the country, the literacy of North East
India is fairly better, thanks to the Mizoram boom and this could be a marginal advantage. Yet
literacy levels for women are strikingly low in some states and it is here that vocational education
training programmes can intervene as basic literacy programmes to earn livelihoods.
Livelihoods have also to do with living in good if not salutary conditions. Floods in Assam every year
are cataclysmic but precious little is done to take long standing measures to combat this problem.
Flood control management ─ how to live intelligently with floods, could well serve vocational and
training needs of the common populace who finally bear the brunt of such disasters.
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VET in the North East Region can be integrated into a whole, a complex process since we have to
trace it to components of agriculture and the current despair of the educated unemployed or even
the plumber or the technicians eking out a living. This is of course true of the entire country but in a
Region where industrial development is in backwaters then education is a strength with the
presence of some very good academic institutions in the Region. These institutions should come
forward in partnership whether they are general colleges or professional colleges to re-appraise
vocational education in the context of the small industries and local habits mentioned above. More
than having vocational education courses, short term training programmes will benefit the people
keeping in mind the changing order of the ‘world’ market such as repair of mobiles and computer
hardware.
IGNOU’s intervention into the area of VET in the form of the establishment of the IGNOU Institute
for Vocational Education and Training (IIVET) could well be a benchmark for revival (indigenous
knowledge) and survival (linking such knowledge with trades) as well as looking into contemporary
realities and needs keeping in mind the training factor. The target group is the youth in particular
and the public in general, taking also into cognizance rural women. And of course the oeuvre of
distance education technology is always there as a ready support system.
Mercury in Medicine – Taking Unnecessary
Risks Valid Concerns About Mercury In
Vaccines Were Ignored by Federal Policymakers
and Vaccine Manufacturers for Decades
DR. GIRISHBHAI A. CHAUHAN
M.Sc.,B.ED., Ph.D.
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY
As early as 1931, scientists were noting adverse reactions to thimerosal. In fact, Dr, Kharasch
filed a new patent application because he reformulated the product to “stabilize merthiolate due to
its tendency to acquire ‘certain burning qualities.
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disinfecting agent, it was noted that another researcher has seen adverse reactions. “Reimann has
reported that some individuals display a sensitiveness to thio [thimerosal] compounds, which is
characterized by reddening of the treated area and the appearance of small papules and vesicles.”
In 1935, in a letter from the Director of Biological Services, of the Pittman-Moore Company
to Dr. Jamieson of Eli Lilly, “we have obtained marked local reaction in about 50 percent of the dogs
injected with serum containing dilutions of Merthiolate varying from 1 in 40,000 to 1 in 5,000...no
connection between the lot of serum and the reaction. In other words,Merthiolate is unsatisfactory
as a preservative for serum intended for use on dogs…I might say that we have tested Merthiolate on
humans and find that it gives a more marked local reaction than does phenol and tricresol.
In 1942, an Army doctor in Baltimore, Maryland published a journal paper in which he raised
concerns about thimerosal: “Some investigators claim that if a patient’s skin is sensitive to one of
the mercurials he may be sensitive to any compound containing mercury. We have investigated 5
patients with dermatitis due to Merthiolate and found that four were sensitive to Merthiolate and
not to any other organic or inorganic mercury compounds with which they were tested…Sulzberger
found that in performing routine patch tests with 10 percent ammoniated mercury ointment and 10
percent salicylic acid ointment he obtained relatively few positive reactions; but if the two ointments
were combined so that the concentration was five percent of each, then 50 percent of all patients
tested gave positive reactions.” Dr. Elliss further explained in his paper, “Dr. J. H. Mitchell in a
lecture before the American Academy of Dermatology in New York in December 1941, stated that he
had observed a number of cases of severe dermatitis following the treatment of dermatophytosis
with preparations of Merthiolate.In 1943, Dr. Elliss published a case report in the Archives of
Opthalmology, which states:
“The positive results of patch tests demonstrated that the two patients were sensitive to tincture of
merthiolate were also sensitive to 1:5000 merthiolate ophthalmic ointment and that merthiolate is
capable of causing an inflammation of the mucous membrane in patients who are sensitive to the
drug. In view of these facts it is recommended: 1. That Merthiolate ophthalmic ointment should not
be used in or about the eye unless it has been previously demonstrated by patch tests that the
patient is not sensitive to the ointment. 2. That the package should be labeled to warn the
consumer that such tests should be made previous to the use of merthiolate ophthalmic ointment in
or about the eye. Since a patient may become sensitized to Merthiolate while using the ophthalmic
ointment, it may be advisable to withdraw this product from the market before a case of permanent
ocular damage occurs, in spite of the fact that no cases of ocular injury due to merthiolate have been
reported.
Taken from an October 1978, letter from William R. Gibson to Dr. Alan Baskett, of the
Commonwealth Laboratories in Victoria Australia regarding a concern that thimerosal in the
Australian pertussis vaccine was linked to intersucception in mice:
“I discussed the possible effect of ethylmercury with Bordetella pertussis to supplement ßadrenergic blockade. Again, it was not believed that this blockade should predispose toward
intessusception, although it was recognized that increased motility resulted and that this could be
causative. As with other In August of 1998, an FDA internal “Point Paper” was prepared for the
Maternal Immunization Working Group. This document, prepared almost a full year before the
Public Health Service – American Academy of Pediatrics joint statement made the following
recommendation:
“For investigational vaccines indicated for maternal immunization, the use of single dose vials should
be required to avoid the need of preservative in multi- dose vials…Of concern here is the potential
neurotoxic effect of mercury especially when considering cumulative doses of this component in early
infancy…”
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On September 8, 1998, the Safety Working Party of the European Agency for the Evaluation
of Medicinal Products is sued its working paper, “Assessment of the Toxicity of Thimerosal in Relation
to Its Use in Medicinal Products.” The Working Party concluded:
“There is ample evidence from the literature that thiomersal (thimerosal) may cause sensitization and
subsequent allergic reactions…the use of thimerosal is vaccines given to infants in accordance with
various national vaccine programs may in certain cases result in approximately two times higher
intake of ethylmercury during the first year of life than what can be considered reasonably safe.
Given the great uncertainty of the estimations of safe levels in young children, it is suggested to
restrict the use of thimerosal in vaccines.”
In June of 2000, the CDC convened a closed meeting86 to discuss research evidence that showed a
connection between thimerosal in vaccines and neurological injury. Dr. Thomas Verstraeten, a CDC
employee who has since left the agency to work in Belgium for a vaccine manufacturer, utilized the
Vaccine Safety Datalink to evaluate any possible connection between thimerosal- preserved vaccines
and neurological or renal impairment. He found, “a statistically significant positive correlation
between the cumulative exposure at 2 months and unspecified developmental delay; the cumulative
exposure at 3 months and tics; the cumulative exposure at 6 months and attention deficit
disorder...1, 3 and 6 months and language and speech delay…1, 3, and 6 months of age and
neurodevelopmental delays in general.
He concludes:
“This analysis suggests that in our study population, the risks of tics, ADD, language and speech
delays, and developmental delays in general may be increased by exposures to mercury from
thimerosal-containing vaccines during the first six months of life.”
This issue will be discussed in more detail in another section of this report.
The Committee and the public have been frustrated by the Department of Health and
Human Services reluctance to accept that all forms of mercury are toxic and that children have likely
been harmed from the FDA’s negligence in assuring the safety of thimerosal and in not monitoring
the increased exposure to mercury through vaccines
During the July of 2000 hearing on mercury, Congresswoman Helen Chenoweth- Hage (R-ID)
eloquently expressed the views of many.
Mrs. Chenoweth-Hage:
“...I have a staffer who is in the Navy Reserve right now, but he used to be active with the airborne
divisions, and he was in for a test in one of the medical military hospitals, and upon taking his
temperature, they broke a thermometer, and mercury splattered across his glasses and some got in
his eye. Well, the first thing they did was cutoff his clothes. The second thing was call in OSHA to
clean up the mercury. And then they worked on him to make sure his eyes were irrigated, and you
guys, you witnesses, absolutely amaze me. I wonder where the disconnect is, for Pete's sake.
You listened to the testimony just as I did, and you are willing to, with a straight face, tell us that you
are eventually going to phase this out after we know that a small baby's body is slammed with 62
times the amount of mercury that it is supposed to have, and OSHA reacts like they did in the case of
this accident of this naval man. It doesn't make sense. No wonder people are losing faith in their
government. And to have one of the witnesses tell us it is because mothers eat too much fish? Come
on. We expect you to get real. We heard devastating testimony in this hearing today, and we heard
it last April. And this is the kind of response we get from our government agencies?
I am sorry. When I was a little girl, my daddy talked to me about something about a duck test. I
would ask each one of you to read this very excellent work by Sallie Bernard and Albert Enayati, who
testified here today. My daddy used to say if it walks like a duck and talks like a duck and sounds like
a duck, for Pete's sake it is a duck.
I recommend that you read this, side-by-side, page after page of analysis of the symptoms of people
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who are affected with mercury poisoning compared to autism, this is the duck test, and you folks are
trying to tell us that you can't take this off the market when 8,000 children are going to be injected
tomorrow; 80 children may be coming down, beginning tomorrow, with autism? What if there was
an E. coli scare? What if there was a problem with an automobile? The recall would be like that.
We are asking you to do more than analyze it. We are asking you to tell this body and the American
people that it is more inconclusive. It passes the duck test, and we need you to respond. We need that
to come off the market now because you think that this is--do you think that we are elevating the
case today? Just wait until it gets in the courts. This case could dwarf the tobacco case. And we
would expect you to do something now before that circus starts taking place. Denial is not proper
right now.
You know, I still go back to the fact --I still want to talk about the duck test. Mr. Egan, [FDA] I will
address this to you. You know, it was shown in the last panel that autistic symptoms emerge after
vaccination. It was shown that vaccines contain toxic doses of mercury. It was shown that autism and
mercury poisoning, the physiological comparison is striking. There is altered neurotransmitter
activity, abnormal brain neuronal organization, immune system disturbance, EEG abnormalities. It
goes on and on and on, the comparisons. That is why I say, I back up what the Chairman and the
ranking member are all asking you, that we cannot wait until 2001 to have this pulled off. You know,
if a jury were to look at this, the circumstantial evidence would be overwhelming. Let's do something
before we see it in the courts.” In 2003, thimerosal remains in some vaccines.
Many Parents of Autistic Children Believe That Adverse Reactions to Vaccines are Responsible for
Their Children’s Condition
Based on their personal experiences, many parents believe that the autistic condition of their
children is related to an adverse reaction to a childhood vaccine, or a series of vaccinations. This is
particularly true of parents of children who have developed “late onset autism,” in which symptoms
do not begin to emerge until the child is between one and two years old. This time period coincides
with a number of vaccinations on the childhood schedule. While this belief is not universal, many
parents hold it passionately.
Dr. Jeffrey Bradstreet, when testifying before the Committee in 2001, made the following statement:
“At a recent autism conference in Chicago, and prior to either my own presentation or that of Dr.
Wakefield, I asked the audience of 500 parents if they felt their child regressed following a vaccine. In
that obviously non-scientific survey, approximately 90 percent the parents raised their hands to
affirm vaccines were what they suspected had caused their child’s symptoms. When I asked for how
many had reported the event under the VAERS 90 system, fewer than 15 said they had. Then I asked
if their pediatrician had offered to report this, they just laughed. I have now conducted this simple
survey with over 5000 parents at conferences around the world with similar findings. Yes, media
attention creates bias. But despite the informal nature of this survey, it does tell us something about
this debate we are currently engaged in: 1) parents of children with autism suspect vaccines
damaged their child, 2) parents are not reporting this using VAERS forms, 3) pediatricians are not
reporting to VAERS either, 4) and despite efforts by policymakers at CDC, FDA, AAP, IOM and
elsewhere to reassure parents of the safety of vaccines, they remain unconvinced.
The Committee has heard moving testimony from parents in support of this belief, as well as
from parent-advocates. Shelley Reynolds is a mother of two from Baton Rouge, Lo uisiana. When she
testified before the Committee in April of 2000, her autistic son, Liam, was four years old. Her
testimony left no doubt as to her views: “Liam was a normally developing baby until June 27, 1997,
when he received his MMR and Hib vaccines. He did everything he was supposed to do. He cooed,
rolled over, crept, crawled, pulled up and walked on time. He said ‘Mama,’ he said ‘Daddy,’ he said
`Love you.’ He learned how to sing `Itsy Bitsy Spider.’ He played finger games with us. He loved to
interact, and he especially loved to show off for his grandparents.”
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“But when he was 17 months old, shortly after he had received the shots, he started exhibiting some
different behaviors. He was constantly taking off his shoes; he screamed if we dressed or undressed
him; he would stare for hours in front of the television and would not move if you blocked the view.
He could not tolerate playing in the sandbox anymore. He did not want to sing any of his favorite
songs; he would cover his ears and scream `No.’“In Liam's case, we have no doubt that he developed
his autism as a direct result of an adverse vaccine reaction.”
“Many in the medical community continue to dismiss this as mere happenstance because autism
often coincides with the time of vaccination, and state that there is no scientific evidence to back this
up. My question to you is: How long does it take for a coincidence to surface time and time and time
again, case after case after case, before it can become a viable hypothesis, especially when the
solution to solving the problem seems so apparent?”
At the same hearing, the Committee heard testimony from Jeana Smith of Denham Springs,
Louisiana. At the time, she was the mother of five-year-old twins, one of whom was autistic. Her
testimony made equally clear her conviction that her son’s autism was related to a series of
vaccinations given on the same day: “Jacob met every developmental milestone that first year, right
along with Jesse. They were two little peas in a pod and went everywhere together. At only 16
monthsof age, Jacob and Jesse received their first MMR vaccine. On this same day, they also received
their fourth DTP, their fourth Hib, and their third hepatitis B. The following 24 hours, both twins slept
most of the time, with over 100-degree temperatures, in spite of receiving the recommended Tylenol
dosage every 6 hours. Immediately following that, Jacob began exhibiting strange behaviors. He was
no longer excited or responsive when Daddy would come home from work. He began to become
preoccupied with certain toys. He would spend long periods of time studying the way their wheels
would spin or whether or not they were lined up just right. Any attempt to interrupt or distract him
was met with great resistance and an eventual fit. During this time, Jesse continued to progress,
starting to talk and interact with all the children around him.”
“For us, there is no denying that in Jacob's case of autism, the answer does not lie in genetics, but in
a catalyst. The thousands of hours of research that we have spent searching and retracing his
regression continue to point to the fact that the road of Jacob's autism began when his immune
system was damaged by the hepatitis B vaccine he received when he was ill. The final blow was the
adverse reaction to the host of vaccines he received 16 months later. We are certain that for Jacob,
the catalyst was his vaccine.
GLOBAL TRENDS IN HIGHER
EDUCATION, ADULT AND
DISTANCE LEARNING
PRANAVKUMAR R. UPADHYAY
VINAY MANDIR SECONDARY SCHOOL – ANERA(HIMMATNAGAR)
KEYWORDS:
SUBJECT: EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Reflecting its roots in distance education, the International Council for Open and Distance Education
(ICDE) was, until 1982, known as the International Council for Correspondence Education. However,
distance education has undergone a significant transformation from its origins in independent or
correspondence study. Until recently, that transformation has been best characterized by the
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creation and growth of more than 50 open universities since the 1970s.Open universities may be
viewed, from many respects, as forerunners in tackling the challenges that now confront higher
education systems worldwide.
In addition to the growth of open distance learning universities, however, we are now witnessing the
growth of corporate involvement in education, including distance education. Pearson plc, an
international media company and world leader in educational and consumer publishing, is but one
example. In the last few decades, the open and distance concepts of education have also spawned or
resonated with other movements which have created their own terminology, some drawn from
popular culture (e.g., the knowledge society, the new knowledge economy, open courseware, open
source, wikieconomics, and technology enabled learning).
Embedded in all of these concepts and, it could be argued, emerging from them is the belief that
access to knowledge and learning is a universal right, one of the key rights of the global community.
In fact, knowledge is increasingly regarded as the solution to individual and collective social and
economic problems: it has become a new global religion. However, this new solution may soon be
embroiled in the inevitable discussions of the new knowledge imperialism and the new
marginalizations.
3
According to ICDE President Frits Pannekoek, those who are successful in the new global
knowledge economy may harvest great wealth and exert an inordinate influence on the world’s
future. Ensuring equity, ensuring respect for all cultures, ensuring that everyone has access to
learning, ensuring that economic opportunity is open to all, and ensuring that the planet survives the
economic and technological struggles among regions, nations, and the corporate sector represent,
he argues, the great challenges of the coming decades. Pannekoek regards the distance, open, and
technology enabled learning movement as one of a few movements that show a convergence of
interests and knowledge that might be capable of meeting these challenges. But the questions, he
believes, are as profound as the hint of solutions:
• How can worldwide equity of access be ensured?
• Can technology respect unique cultures?
• How can the tension between the need to create economically sustainable systems and the need
for shareholder return on investment, which so dominates capitalist societies, be reconciled?
• How will the resolution of these issues affect the ownership of knowledge?
• How will the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and regional economic alliances
affect open learning?
• How can open learning be reconciled with a world that increasingly demands credentialed
proof of knowledge?
All of these questions arise, Pannekoek points out, in the context of a world that, some will argue,
has never existed before- World 3 enabled and driven by Web 2.0 and all that it implies.
While the transformation of distance, open, and technology based learning continues in these new
contexts, it is important to understand that challenges exist and how learning institutions that have
adopted the principle of equity of access will meet them. These new learning models can meet the
challenges posed by the new environment, but learning institutions may have to use them
resolutely, vigorously, and collaboratively. Such an approach will likely require new partnerships
among post-secondary institutions, regional national groupings, the corporate sector, and nongovernmental organizations. No one can address global or technological issues alone.
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the key global trends in higher education, adult and distance
learning. An examination of these trends will facilitate the identification of some of the issues
confronting higher education in general, and open and distance learning in particular. It will provide
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ICDE with a framework within which its strategic plan can be developed.
KEY TRENDS
Increasing Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education
Globalization, defined as the flow of technology, economy, people, values, and idea across borders,
is having a profound impact on most aspects of society and is a significant factor impacting the
nature and function of higher education.
In relation to higher education, globalization can be defined, on one hand, in terms of the economic,
technological, political, and societal forces opening access to twenty-first century higher education,
which has for much of the past century been owned by the upper and, to a lesser degree, the middle
classes of the developed world. On the other, it can mean increasing the exposure of traditional
learners to international experiences. One definition focuses on increasing the massification of
learning throughout the world, the other on increasing understanding and connection. The two are
not mutually exclusive, but whatever the perspective, it is now accepted that globalization has
increased the rate of internationalization in higher education.
In traditional post-secondary institutions, internationalization initiatives include creating a more
international curriculum, fostering opportunities for students to study abroad, encouraging faculty
and student exchanges, increasing international student recruitment efforts, and exporting or
importing programs. Capacity issues are also sometimes factored into the discussion;
internationalization does increase capacity at lower cost, particularly for graduate students, and it
should create greater cultural awareness. Many nation states believe that it also fosters economic
competitiveness.6 A contrary view, held by many in developing countries, is that capacity building
through the temporary export of brains ultimately results in the removal of the best and brightest
from their own futures.
Evidence of increasing internationalization is generally manifest in a significant increase in the crossborder activities of higher education institutions. Cross-border higher education is fueled in part by
the growing worldwide demand for higher education and is characterized by increased mobility of
students, courses and programs and increased mobility of institutions across national borders. As
stated by UNESCO, cross-border higher education encompasses a wide range of modalities from
face-to-face instruction (such as students travelling abroad and campuses abroad) to distance
learning (through a range of technologies and including e-learning).
Student mobility has increased significantly over the past two decades. Four million students studied
abroad in 2004, a three-fold increase over the number in 1980. African students are proportionately
the most mobile, with one in 16 studying abroad, and central Asian students are next in line. The
trend toward studying abroad is likely to grow for both groups.9 Australia is one of the primary
destinations for international students in OECD members countries. In 2005, 17.3 per cent of all
higher education students in Australia were international students.
The question, of course, is the meaning of this new gold rush of internationalization. It might be
argued by some that it is a manifestation of the changing demographics of the developed world’s
post-secondary environment. Without an influx of students, institutions may have difficulty coping
with decreasing demand and costs exceeding the average cost of inflation. The soporific messages of
internationalization overlie issues of survival.
Within the open university movement, internationalization has manifested itself through direct
distance delivery, partnership arrangements (e.g., two-plus-two agreements), franchising, the sale of
curriculum, and the opening of branch campus operations. Other opportunities may emerge as
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private sector deliverers, national governments, and public institutions reflect on how fiscal and
social mandates can be met in the new economic and technologically enabled environments.
Most post-secondary institutions believe that a cross-border or international experience is valuable
to students in an increasingly globalized world. A survey on the internationalization of higher
education, conducted by the International Association of Universities in 2005, drew responses from
11
universities on most continents and from national university associations.
A majority of
respondents identified internationalization as important to their institution. Institutional
respondents ranked the increase in international knowledge and intercultural skills in university
students, faculty and staff members as the greatest benefit of internationalization. They ranked
commercialization and commodification of higher education, in a context of eroding national
boundaries, as the key risk.
While internationalization initiatives are occurring in most countries, the large English-speaking
developed countries are the biggest providers of international education services, a fact that is
causing some alarm. Consumer countries, including middle-income Asian and Latin American
countries and, to a lesser extent, poorer developing nations that lack the capacity to meet the
growing demands for higher education, are increasingly concerned about their ability to control the
internationalization agenda. The continuing pressures of globalization exacerbate this concern.
While these countries might enjoy benefits such as increased choice, improved quality, and lowered
costs, developing countries (in particular) face risks associated with opening the sector to
international competition.
Importance of Physical
Education, Games & Sports
Activities
VANRAJKUMAR RAMANLAL DAMOR
L.R. RAO P.T.C. COLLEGE- BHILODA
KEYWORDS: Physical Education, Games & Sports.
SUBJECT: PHYSICAL EDUCATION
ABSTRACT
Physical Education including games and sports plays a tremendous role in the development of our
youth. It enables an individual to live a healthy life in an ever-changing world. Physical Education
makes the children psychologically, physically and physiologically active. It helps in the
development of character building, reduction of rowdiness, and serves on the basis of group unity
and solidarity. It introduces team work, self- discipline, sportsmanship, leadership and socialization
among the youth. Regular physical activity provides numerous health and cognitive functioning. The
surgeon general recommends daily participation in physical activity for taking maximum health
benefits because inactivity has been found to be significantly related to coronary artery disease,
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obesity, hypertension and diabetes mellitus. It also helps the people to improve their physical
fitness. Five basic components of fitness are important for good health: cardio-respiratory
endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility in joints and body composition. It is
clear from the literature that the development of an acceptable level of physical fitness helps to
attain healthy personality and physio- psychological characteristics. Hence, a better healthful living
is universally accepted as a goal of a physical education programme. As quoted by Swami
Vivekananda, a great saint of India: “you will be nearer to heaven through and physical activities.”
1. INTRODUCTION
Generally young boys and girls of colleges are expected to be academically brilliant, emotionally
stable, physically strong and spiritually sound. We can achieve this requirement through the
physical education. To support this statement, the views/studies of a number of professionals and
researchers are as under:Physical education has a special obligation of preparing the youth for work and socially useful
activities. It contributes to the development of the individual through planned movement on
physical activities. Children are naturally active and physical education provides an enjoyable way to
them to enhance their over development. If physical education is to be responsive to the demands
of a changing world, it must reflect its demands in its content organization and relationship with
other subjects through physical education children become more active.1
Commenting on the importance of physical activities Robinson and Shaver (1969)2 had shown
that sports participation in general is positively correlated with the development of psychological,
physical and physiological well-being and the people who are active in a variety of ways in such
activities tend to report a higher degree of emotional well being, life satisfaction, perceived
happiness and physical fitness. Kenyon (1968a3, 1968b4) also observed that physical activities
including games denote various functions and are articulated as social experience, an exercise of
improving physical health and fitness, as a means of providing thrills through relatively controlled
risk taking, as a mode of aesthetic expression, as tension release and in the context of selfexpression, as tension release and in the context of self denial and building self discipline. Betts
(1974)5 cited the importance of sports and benefits of competitions in development of character
building, reduction of rowdiness and the healthy development of physical, physiological and mental
healths. Avente (1976)6 suggested that participation in sports provides an additional criterion for
social prestige and adjustment. Coakley (1978)7 summing up the importance of sports, said that it
is popularly believed that sports build character and provide cutlet for aggressive energy, sports
teams serve on the basis of group unity and solidarity. The analysis of the functions of sports depict
that participation in sports brings various physical, physiological, psychological and sociological
changes among the participants.
Describing the benefits of physical activity, the U.S. Deptt. of Health and Human Services (2000)8
suggested and stated as: Participation in physical activity and sports can promote social well-being,
as well as physical and mental health, among young people, Sports and physical activity programs
can introduce young people to skills such as teamwork, self-discipline, sportsmanship, leadership,
and socialization. Lack of recreational activity, on the other hand, may contribute to making young
people more vulnerable to gangs, drugs, or violence.
One of the major benefits of physical activity is that it helps people improve their physical fitness.
Fitness is a state of well-being that allows people to perform daily activities with vigor, participate
in a variety of physical activities, and reduce their risks for health problems. Five basic components
of fitness are important for good health: cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular
endurance, flexibility, and body composition (percentage of body fat). A second set of attributes,
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referred to as sport-or skill-related physical fitness, includes power, speed, agility, balance, and
reaction time.
Kapri, Gaur, Tyagi and Vashistha (2006)9 pointed out that when we are taking part in various games
and sports, it increases the level of fitness of the individuals. In every game we have to run a little
or more distance while playing and total body parts are exercised which also improves the strength,
endurance, speed, flexibility and neuromuscular co-ordination of our body which ultimately help us
to increase the fitness, only due to the participation in games and sports. To maintain fitness
level, an individual has to take part in any sports regularly. If he/she is not taking part in any
games and sports regularly, his/her fitness level will influence negative.
It is further added that the behavioral and attitudinal differences that are cited in the literature may
be attributed to an interaction of the socialization process that takes place within sport where
specific values associated with sport are emphasized. It is also available in the literature that
participation in physical education activities including sports have been considered very
important rather essential to build up body strength (physical fitness), social, emotional and
spiritual integration and good health. This fact is very clear from the “evaluation theory” which
throws some light on the nature and type of activities man does for his progress. Commenting on
this ill health and physical education activities, Swami Vivekananda, a great Saint of India, pointed
out in 1948:“Physically weakness is the source of one-third of our misery. First of all, our young men must be
strong. Religion and other human activities will come after words. You will be nearer to heaven
through games and physical activities than through the study of the Gita…… You will understand
Gita with your biceps, your muscles a little stronger….. Strength is garners, and weakness a sin,
infinite strength is religion.”
The society in general has realized the head for keeping fit and healthy through original physical
activity programmes. Scientific evidence has made it clear that unless man engages in organized
vigorous physical activity programmes, the real benefits would not come (Kapri, 20050.
Physical Education has a vital role to play as an integral part of General Education. It aims at
enabling an individual to line an enriched and abundant life in an ever changing world.12
Education Commission (1964-66) emphasised that physical education activities and sports contribute
not only to physical fitness and health but also to physical efficiency, mental alertness and
development of certain qualities like perseverance, team spirit and many other values of life
processes and high achievements. Regular physical activity provides numerous health benefits- from
learned bodies and lower blood pressure to improved mental health and cognitive functioning.
One of the most emphatic recommendations in report from numerous federal and health
promotion agencies is to increase the levels of physical activity among children and youth. Physical
inactivity results in substantial, negative health consequences. Obesity, high blood glucose, high
blood pressure and high blood lipids all occur more often among sedentary adults. These problems
increase the risk for chronic disease such as cardiovascular disease, various cancers, type II diabetes,
and hypertension. Indeed, a direct relationship exists between leading a physically active life and
developing long-term good health. Each year, physical activity contributes to nearly 260,000 deaths
in the United States. Unhealthy behaviours take many years to present themselves clinically, but
there is a compelling reason to believe that helping students learn to be active early in their lives will
provide an important foundation for lifetime physical activity.
CONCLUSION
Physical education plays a vital role in the personality development of our youth. It makes them
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physically healthy, active and mentally alert, and also reduces their risk for health problems. It
enables them to live in a healthy and competitive environment. It develops in them team-work, selfdiscipline, sportsmanship, leadership and socialization.
REFERENCES
[1] Wakharkar, D.G.. Reconstructing Physical Education for Students. Report of Seminar on Service
to Society through Sports, Rayalaseema College of Physical Education, Proddatur, 1900.
[2] Robinson, John, P. and Phillip, R.S., The Science of Educational Research, Eurasia Publishing
House Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 1969; p.505.
[3] Kenyan, G.S. A Conceptual Modal for Characterizing Physical Activity, Research Quarterly,
1968 a; 39 (1): 96-105.
[4] Kenyan, G.S., Values Held for Physical Activity by Selected Urban Secondary School Students
Status, Wisconsin: Medicine University, Deptt. of Physical Education, 1968b.
[5] Betts, John R., America’s Sporting Heritage : 1850-1950, Reading Mass : Addisno Wesley, 1974.
[6] Aveni, A.F., Alternative Stratification System: The Case of Interpersonal Respect Among Leisure
participants, The Psychological Quarterly, 1976; 17 : 53-64.
[7] Coakley, Joy, Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies, The C.V. Moby Compay, Saint Louis,
1978.
[8] U.S. Deptt. of Health and Human Services, Promoting Better Health for Young People through
Physical Activity and Sports: A Report to the President, 2000, cited on 15-06-2007,
http://cdc.gov/healthyyouty/physicalactivity/promoting_health/.
[9] Kapri, B.C., Gaur, M.K. Tyagi, V. and Vashitha, M., Question Bank in Physical and Health
Education, Nav Bharat Prakashan, Meerut, 2006; p.6.
[10] A Swami Vivekananda’s comment on the Importance of Health and Physical Education Activities,
cited by Gautam, G.P., A Study of Effectiveness of Games and Sports as Related to the
Development of High School Students’ Personality, Attitude and Values, Doctoral Tehesis, C.C.S.
University, Meerut, 1988; p.2,3.
[11] Kapri, B.C., Physical Education & Sports, B.R. International Publication, Delhi, India, 2005; p.1
[12] Charles, A.B. and Reid, E.M., Physical Education and Health in the Elementary School, New
York, The
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