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1 The Organization and Financing of Terrorism Chapter 3 Learning Objectives: Chapter 3 Summarize rural, urban, and insurgent models of terrorism. Trace the evolution of terrorist organizational structures. Discuss the challenges involved in leading a terrorist group. Describe the issues involved in terrorist financing. Describe legal and illegal sources of income. Learning Objectives: Chapter 3 Explain the ways funds are disbursed in an underground economy. Describe the hawala system. Summarize views on the political economy of terrorism. Outline the manners in which drugs and terrorism overlap. Models of Terrorism After 1945, the first wave of terrorism appeared in Africa and Asia Nationalistic Struggles for independence After 1965, a more urban model emerged 1980s, Same urban model Religious Anticolonial movements (Kenya, Algeria) Ideological Three models represent general trends from 1945 to the present: Rural Urban Insurrection Models help to explain the evolution and practice of contemporary terrorism They embody the philosophy behind particular types of terrorist movements Guerrilla Warfare Guerrilla revolutions based on the Cuban experience are typified by three phases Phase one begins with isolated groups Phase two merges groups into guerrilla columns Phase three brings columns together in a conventional army Che guevara Argentinian-born, medical degree Guerrilla warfare theorist Fidel Castro’s assistant Advocated revolutions throughout Latin America Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War Was killed in 1967 while trying to form a guerrilla army Evolution toward Marxism Revolutionary process in Cubs Structure and strategy of Castro’s forces Philosophy of the Cuban Guerrilla war 2 Guerrilla Warfare Guerrilla revolutions based on the Cuban experience are typified by three phases Phase one begins with isolated groups (revolutionaries) join indigenous population to form guerrilla foco Phase two merges groups into guerrilla columns and control rural areas Phase three brings columns together in a conventional army to overthrow government Guerrilla Warfare Commando-type tactic Main purpose of terrorism Strike at the government’s logistical network Secondary purpose Demoralize the government REGIS DEBRAY French socialist who popularized Guevara’s work Revolution in the Revolution? (1967) Dominating issue in Latin America is poverty U.S. responsible for maintaining the inequitable class structure Caused Latin American poverty Revolution an affair for Poor peasants Could only begin a rural setting Terrorism had no payoff Revolution begins with guerrillas fighting for justice Revolution ends with a united conventional force Urban Terrorism The model for modern urban terrorism was intellectually championed by Frantz Fanon A Martinique-born psychiatrist Leading anticolonial thinker of the 20th century He produced two works as a result of his Algerian experiences: The Wretched of the Earth (1961) Indicts colonial powers Calls on colonized to practice terrorism A Dying Colonialism (1965) Frantz Fanon Western powers have dehumanized non-Western people by destroying their cultures and replacing them with Western values Decolonization was destined to be a violent process Achieving freedom was inherently violent Frantz Fanon Guerrilla warfare and individual acts of terrorism as tools of revolution Fanon argued that terrorism should not be used against the native population in general His proposed two targets for terrorism: White settlers Native middle class Used brutality to bring on governmental repression, which would bring more natives to the cause Carlos Marighella 3 Brazilian legislator Nationalistic Communist Party leader Revolutionary terrorist Designed practical guides for terrorism that have been employed for more than 40 years The Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla Wanted to move violence from the countryside to the city Carlos Marighella Most original concept was that all violence could be urban-based and controlled by a small group of urban guerrillas Two distinct phases Bring about actual violence Basic weapon of the urban guerrilla: Armed revolutionary cells “Firing Group” 4 to 5 terrorists each Small size ensures both mobility and secrecy Several groups need to construct a terrorist organization Can join as necessary to concentrate power Carry out the most deplorable acts of violence Carlos Marighella Give that violence meaning Targets should have symbolic significance Violence designed to be frightening Those who supported the revolution would not need to fear terrorist violence Revolutionary terrorism in an urban setting would destabilize governmental power Psychological assault would convince the government and the people that the status quo no longer held Insurgency Focus on insurgency due to a small group of officers who began looking at military failures during the Vietnam War General David Petraeus, U.S. Army General James Amos, U.S. Marine corps Impossible to fight insurgencies with military tactics designed for terrorism or guerilla war Insurgency At the end of the Cold War, various insurgencies began growing in the vacuums left by the superpowers Technology and weapons helped many insurgencies grow New political atmosphere made the rise of organizations like al Qaeda possible COUNTER INSURGENCIES The nature of counter insurgencies is paradoxical Security forces follow the model of community policing 4 They need to be highly visible and embedded in neighborhoods This puts security forces at risk Creating a secure environment for military forces is counter productive The use of force may increase the power of insurgents IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS The invention of dynamite was one of the most important developments in the history of modern terrorism. By Alfred Nobel (a “pacifist”) Patented in 1867 “Dyna,” from Greek word dunamis for “power” The Evolution of Cells Fraser and Fulton Top of the pyramid Group responsible for command Make policy and plans Second level Active cadre or the people responsible for carrying out the mission of the organization May have one or more specialties Third level Most important level Active supporters; critical to terrorist campaigns Keep terrorists in the field Maintain communication channels Provide safe houses Gather intelligence Ensure logistical needs are met The Evolution of Cells Fraser and Fulton Last level Passive supports; difficult to identify and characterize Complements active support Political support The Evolution of Cells The Cell The basic unit of a traditional terrorist organization Composed of four to six people Members of other cells seldom know one another Usually has a specialty; may be a tactical unit or an intelligence section The Column Semiautonomous conglomerations or groups of cells with a variety of specialties and a single command structure Primary function is combat support ABU NIDAL GROUP Started in 1974 Split from PLO Total liberation of Palestinian people only acceptable alternative 5 Only method is armed struggle Use hijackings and killing Umbrella Organizations Several small pyramids gather under a sheltering group that manages supplies, obtains resources, creates support structures, and gathers intelligence Northern Ireland Unionists & Republicans Maintain legitimate political organizations Violent paramilitary groups have operated under the umbrella of legitimate organizations OTHER MODELS Virtual organizations Created through computer and information networks Developed through communications, financial, and ideological links No central leadership Chain organizations Small groups linked by some type of communication Members periodically cooperate, come together for a particular operation, then disband Modern Piracy Today’s pirates are armed with global positioning systems, satellite phones, machine guns, rockets, and grenades Terrorist networks established links with maritime pirates Horn of Africa Gripped by internal and external struggles Piracy caused by the multifaceted conflict in Somalia accompanied by the breakup of legal authority and social systems (Battle of Mogadishu) Modern Piracy http://www.marad.dot.gov/news_room_landing_page/horn_of_africa_piracy/horn_of_afri ca_piracy.htm - Horn of Africa Piracy http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/p/piracy_at_sea/index.html Piracy at Sea Managing Terrorist Organizations It is possible to chart the structure of any organization Terrorist leaders have special organizational problems Terrorism demands secrecy Secrecy prevents effective communication While this is the greatest strength, it is also the greatest weakness Subgroups have a high degree of autonomy The larger the group the grater the degree of decentralization Managing Terrorist Organizations Decentralization offers relative security Very few people know many other members of the organization. Decentralization paves the way for potential splintering or misunderstandings Managing Terrorist Organizations 6 Another problem of terrorist management is that of gaining immediate tactical support for operations. There is a need for active supporters Consequently, the majority of time is spent creating networks of active supporters, not launching headline-grabbing operations. INTERNAL DISCIPLINE Prevents factionalism and excessive autonomy Commanders continually threaten to terrorize the terrorists Two Opposing Dynamics One pushing for cohesion and cooperation through fear One pulling for autonomy through decentralization and secrecy PAKISTAN TRIBAL AREAS Several differing organizations have been able to establish their presence in the border region with Afghanistan They are isolated and protected, so they can develop command structures This facilitates better control of attacks Seven different Pashtu tribes have control of the region by agreement with the central government Group Size and Length of Campaign The size of a terrorist organization affects its ability to operate over time. Large groups last longer than small ones. Terrorists need to create a large following to conduct a lengthy campaign. However, terrorism almost always involves violence from an unpopular political fringe movement Terrorists are often unable to form a large constituency to support the campaign. Group Size and Length of Campaign A terrorist campaign promises the greatest opportunity for success Political revolutionary and radical groups, however, do not have the popular appeal needed to gain support for their activities Results in many terrorist activities remaining isolated – never growing into a campaign Radicalization Ideology is one of the most important factors attracting recruits to a small group Financing Modern Terrorism “Capone Discovery” How the IRA entered into organized crime Used organized crime networks to finance its operations Petty crime Money laundering Transfer of illegal contraband Financing Modern Terrorism A terrorist operation does not cost a lot of money The overall budget for a campaign is quite high It takes a lot of money to run a terrorist group for any length of time (holding the organization, such as al Qaeda together) 7 Financing Modern Terrorism Terrorists need money They use by legal and illegal mehtods to get it Forensic Accounting One aspect of counter terrorism involves tracing money and using the information with other intelligence to produce a comprehensive picture of terrorist operations. Financing Modern Terrorism ILLEGAL Criminal enterprises Drug trade Conducting illegal business activities under a legal cover Smuggling money Identity theft Security fraud Extortion LEGAL Charitable contributions Nongovernmental organizations Banks Wire transfers Normal employment Financing Modern Terrorism Terrorists need money They use by legal and illegal mehtods to get it Forensic Accounting One aspect of counter terrorism involves tracing money and using the information with other intelligence to produce a comprehensive picture of terrorist operations. Financing Modern Terrorism “Expropriation” Carlos Marighella believed that “urban warfare” begins with a campaign of expropriation— robbery Shining Path of Peru Practiced extortion and protection rackets Taxed farmers for protection Networks and Systems FBI estimates that the underground economy produces $500 billion per year Terrorists not only move funds but also smuggle stolen goods and contraband Globalization terrorism has created opportunities for profits in diamond trade “conflict diamonds” Terrorists take advantage of political instability in regions like central Asia and the Triborder region Hidden Transfers Black Market Peso Exchange 8 Drug dealers sell their products in the US and accumulate large amounts of US currency The drug dealers end up with “clean” Colombian pesos, and the US currency accumulated from illegal drug sales is hidden from formal audits Hidden Transfers Hawala System A network based on long-term trust relationships and the knowledge that each dealer is reliable for all debts Caravan leaders would visit merchants and pay for goods with a promissory note When the caravan reached its destination, the leader sold goods and the distributors would pay the caravan leader with promissory notes The leader returned home, presented the note, and the local chit dealer paid the debt HEZBOLLAH Most of its funds comes from state funding Iran acts as the principal sponsor It receives an estimated $200 million per year from Iran It receives money from direct donations from members of the Lebanese diaspora A scattered population It has an extensive protection racket Legitimate businesses are forced to pay a “Hezbollah tax” Also involved in narcotics trafficking and cigarette smuggling in North America and Africa Political Economy of Terrorism Globalization is based on the belief that international trade barriers should be removed so that commerce and industry can develop in an international free market New economy of terrorism produced after the fall of the Soviet Union and subsequent globalization Modern Jihad has evolved as an economic entity Political Economy of Terrorism ETA tried to gain control of the economy They forced Spanish businesses out of the Basque areas of northern Spain Basque region became a failed state An area outside a government’s control Operating under warlords, criminal groups, or competing governments ETA established an illegitimate economy in a shell state Nominal government control Large regions are anarchic or under the control of others Government is unable to enforce law or provide other forms of social order Political Economy of Terrorism Macroeconomic theory Suggests that counter terrorism policies should be aimed at providing the world’s peoples with economic stability, opportunity and participation in the mainstream economy Barber When economic globalization threatens the ability of ordinary people to meet their needs, they will find other ways to survive Narcoterrorism 9 Terrorists using either terrorist tactics to support drug operations or drug-trade profits to finance terrorism Terrorists are involved in the international production and distribution of drugs Narcotics trade is one of their primary sources of money Drugs and Terrorism Hezbollah and Hamas use the Latin American drug trade to raise funds Islamic groups get most of their money through the drug trade in central and Southeast Asia Seven drug trafficking organizations dominate the political landscape in Northern Mexico Los Zetas uses Hezbollah to launder drug profits while Hezbollah uses the payoffs from Los Zetas to finance terrorist operations Narcoterrorism Controversies Critics say combining drug problem with terrorism confuses two different issues The 9/11 Commission dismisses that drugs were linked to al Qaeda’s attack Saudi money can be traced to violence; spread of militant Islam is not about drugs al Qaeda’s use of heroin to finance the jihad ranges from believable to fantastic Chapter Take Aways Terrorist organizations are as complex as any other social organization designed to accomplish a mission. They are hampered in their effectiveness due to the secret nature of their operations. Most organizations are designed to either support guerrilla movements or to operate as a terrorist movement. Chapter Take Aways The former organizations use terrorism selectively while terrorist groups simply terrorize as a strategy. All groups require funding. This caused some analyst to focus on the fiscal aspects of terrorism, believing that terrorists used money in the same way as other organized criminals. Chapter Take Aways Investigations revealed that the money trail in terrorism differs from the flow of funds in other criminal enterprises because special structure of terrorist operations. It is important to understand the financing of terrorism because it is an important intelligence tool.
