Download Session 3: understanding motivation

Session 3: understanding
motivation
The session contents:
Significance of motivation.
Motivation theory: human needs and
satisfaction.
The psychological contract.
The main aims of this
session are:
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To stress the linkage between
motivations, needs, and
desires.
To highlight the connection
between outcomes, rewards
and motivation.
Identify the relationship
between motivation and
psychological contract.
1- The significance of
motivation:
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Motivation: what leads people
to work well and hard, to persist
and overcome obstacles, to
engage with and be enthusiastic
about their work.
Example 3.1 changing
motivation
Activity 3.1
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Critical incident analysis:
analysis particular events from
the past to help explain and/or
predict reactions, behaviors or
opinions related to things that
are happening currently or might
happen in the future.
Example 3.2
2- Motivation theory: Human
needs and satisfaction
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Once managers understand
human needs, they can arrange
the workplace in such a way that
workers are motivated and can
move towards satisfying these
human needs.
Individual needs are social and
not economic.
Hawthorne studies and the
social needs model:
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Hawthorne studies carried out at the
Hawthorne works of the Western Electric
Company in Chicago between 1924 and
1932, by the Australian academic Elton
Mayo 1933 to demonstrating the overriding
influence of social factors on workplace
behavior.
First stage: show relationship between the
amount and quality of lighting and the
efficiency of workers.
Second part: was the relay assembly test
room study which focused on a small group
of female workers with changes were made
to the hours of work, tea breaks and rest
periods, the results initially production was
increased and this increase was
maintained.
A social model was based on at
least two pivotal assumptions:
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Work represents an important mechanism
through which people basic social needs
are met. It provides a source of identity and
an opportunity to meet other people,
develop status and establish social
relations.
Individuals respond more to pressures
created within their social group.
Managerial controls are effective only to
the extent that they influence the
achievement of social needs.
Managers need to help employees to
meet their social needs
Hierarchy of needs by
Maslow 1954:
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He suggested that there are five
categories of need which apply
to people in general and which
should be met if they are to
develop a meaningful
relationship with their work.
Maslow hierarchy from a
basic level upwards is:
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Physiological needs: food, drinks
and shelter.
Safety needs: protection against
danger and threat.
Social needs: love, affection and
acceptance as part of a social group.
Esteem needs: to have high selfesteem and the respect of others
(prestige, status).
Self-actualization needs: to realize
our potential and develop skills, to
become what we believe we are
capable of becoming.
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This suggests that the pattern of rewards
should be shaped to help people progress
through these levels. Practically, it
suggests that the role of management
should be concerned with enabling
individuals to find meaning in their work
and develop to the best of their abilities.
Example 3.1
More information check
www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm.
Herzberg theory (1959):
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They asked people to recall times
when they had felt especially
satisfied and motivated by their work
and times when they had felt
particularly dissatisfied and
demotivated.
The researchers found that two
entirely different sets of factors
emerged.
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Hygiene factors : help to
remove dissatisfaction but it
would not increase satisfaction.
According to Herzberg hygiene
factors play little part in
motivating employees.
Supervision.
Working conditions.
Interpersonal relationships.
Pay and job security.
Company policies.
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Motivation factors:
Achievement.
Recognition.
The work itself.
Responsibility.
Advancement and growth.
Herzberg raises some important
general points about motivation at
work:
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You can increase satisfaction by enabling
people to take responsibility for what they do
and how they do it, and by giving them scope
to achieve and advance in their roles.
You can reduce dissatisfaction by having
effective organizational policies and
procedures, paying workers well, improving
the working environment and so on. But
improvement of these factors will not
motivate people at work better except
perhaps in the very short term.
The distinction between motivators and
hygiene factors is helpful to managers
because it demonstrates the potentially
powerful role of intrinsic rewards that evolve
from the work itself.
More information: icdl.uncg.edu/ft/062000-03.
Out comes: Expectancy
theory:
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Expectancy theory focuses on the link
between effort and reward.
Figure 3.2 (link between effort and reward
and how that link could be probabilistic and
not direct).
Figure 3.3 add a third element to the chain
which is called performance. This is
needed to take account of the fact that
when a reward is given it is usually for the
results of the effort rather than for the effort
itself.
Note: that we added costs in figure 3.3, this
takes account of the fact that results of, for
example, low effort and poor performance
could be punishment rather than reward.
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Expectancy theory is concerned less
with the nature of the particular
rewards/costs as a way of explaining
motivation and more with the links with
performance and effort.
If the links are clear and strong, a
reward/cost will have a powerful
motivating effect, if the links are weak
or absent, it will have no power to
motivate.
Expectancy theory implies that you
need to consider three distinct factors:
The link between effort and
performance.
The link between performance and
rewards/costs.
The types of reward/cost available.
Linking effort and
performance:
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Figure 3.4 illustrate the factors
that affect the strength of the
link between effort and
performance.
The weaker link between effort
and performance the less
motivation will be in an
organization.
Factors that effect the strength of the
link is:
 Ability: the person is capable of the
required performance.
 Goals: clear, agreed and measurable
goals.
 Resources: appropriate tools,
materials, equipment and the
necessary information.
 Time: adequate time available and
deadlines are clearly specified.
 Job design: will discuss next
session.
Intrinsic rewards/costs: the
rewards and costs derived from
work. Such outcomes depend
on the perceptions, values and
interests of the individual, and
come from within rather than
from any other person.
Examples: satisfaction,
enjoyment, challenge and
learning.
Extrinsic rewards/costs: the
rewards and costs incurred by
an employee that are provided
by some other person. They
include the offer or withholding
of such benefits as pay
increase, development and
training opportunities and
promotions.
For more formation:
Chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/
motivation/motivate.html
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Adams (equity theory):
Adams has proposed in his
development of equity theory that
individuals compare the relationship
between their inputs and the
outcomes with those of other people
and their own past experience.
In summary, expectancy theory
assumes that people at work are
motivated by the desire to maximize
the value of the exchange with their
organization.
4-The psychological
contract:
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Psychological contract: agreement
between two parties, such as an
employer and an employee, that
covers terms and conditions of the
employment relationship. These will
include the expectations that each
one has of the other and may form
part of a formal contract of
employment. A psychological
contract usually also covers other
aspects of the relationship, which
may or may not be documented.
Is a (met expectations) model that
considers the fit between
expectations of employees and
employers.
These expectations can be
transactional or relational:
Transactional expectations: as part
of the psychological contract
between employer and employee,
expectations that the relationship
between them will include such
factors as pay and other conditions
of employment in return for the work
undertaken.
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Transactional expectations: as
part of the psychological
contract between employer and
employee, expectations that the
relationship between them will
include such factors as pay and
other conditions of employment
in return for the work
undertaken.
Session 4: Job design
The main aims of this session are the
following:
 To evaluate the job characteristics
model and its implications for job
design.
 To explain that job develops overtime
and that this has implications for
motivation.
 Examine critically current practice in
job design.
1-Are jobs really designed:
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Job design: is concerned with
how tasks are co-coordinated in
order to create complete jobs. It
looks at how work might be
organized or reorganized to
meet the social needs of
individuals and the operational
needs of organizations.
Activity 4.1
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It is good practice for a manager
to be proactive and to review
jobs periodically to see how they
have developed rather than
waiting until problems arise.
There are certain critical times for
reviewing jobs and their content:
 When major organizational
changes are taking place.
 When recruitment is about to
take place.
 During an annual appraisal, this
gives employees an opportunity
to review their jobs with their
managers or colleagues.
2-The job characteristics
model :
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A method of describing jobs, originally
developed by Hackman and Oldham
(1976), by analyzing its key dimensions,
how these contribute to the psychological
states of the job holder, and how these
states in turn affect the outcomes for the
job holder of doing the work.
This model remains significant till now
because of the inclusion of job
characteristics that looks at the relationship
between core job characteristics,
Employee’s psychological states and key
outcomes.
Figure 4.1
Core job dimensions: three elements
defined by Hackman and Oldham in their
job characteristics model, which enable job
design to be undertaken in a structured
and rational way.
They are Skill variety, Task identity, Task
significance.
1-Skill variety: the degree to which a job
includes a variety of activities and therefore
requires the jobholder to use a number of
different skills and talents.
2-Task identity: the degree to which a job
requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work. It is about doing
a job from beginning to end.
3-Task significance: the degree to which a
job has an impact on the lives or work of
other people, whether within the
organization or in the external environment.
Meaningfulness at work: combining
the above three factors: the core
job dimensions Skill variety, Task
identity, Task significance together
shape the extent to which work is felt
to be meaningful, valuable and
worthwhile to the individual.
 4- Autonomy: the degree to which a
job provides freedom, independence
to the individual.
 5- Feedback : help people to form
an image of themselves and how
well they are doing.
Feedback can be either intrinsic or
extrinsic
 Extrinsic feedback: comes from
outside the job, such as praise from
manager when a difficult situation
has been handled.
 Intrinsic feedback: when people
are aware of their own performance,
recognize their strengths and
weaknesses and take appropriate
action to modify them as they feel
appropriate.
Calculating the motivating
potential of a job:
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(MPS) motivating potential
score developed by Hackman
and Oldham.
MPS= (Skill Varity+ Task
identity+ Task significance) / 3
×Autonomy ×feedback
Three principles of job design
emerge from this model:
1-People with high scores on all dimensions
are generally speaking –more motivated,
satisfied and productive than those who
do not.
2-Job dimensions influence personal and
work outcomes by shaping psychological
states.
3-In the model, one zero score leads to an
overall score of zero.
Job enrichment: adding variety to a job to
make it more interesting, demanding,
challenging and developmental for the
job holder.
3- The social-technical
systems approach:
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An approach to job design and job
analysis developed by the Tavistock
institute, which suggests that each
job exists within a broader context
consisting of, the technology and the
culture of the group and
organization.
This means that any actions relating
to designing or redesigning jobs
need to take account of this broader
context, and to recognize the social
and technical factors that influence
the work and the way it is done.
Socio-technical systems indicates that
job design sees organizations as
open systems that balance social
and technical needs, these open
systems have the following
characteristics:
1-They are able to self-regulate.
2-They are flexible and adaptive.
3-They only survive through their
interactions with external
environment from which they obtain
resources.
Principles of the sociotechnical approach:
1-As the parts of the system are
independent, the design of one
part of the system should not
dictate the design of other
parts.
2-Changing one part of the open
system has implications for
other parts.
3-Redesign should involve
employees.
Semi-autonomous work
group:
A group of people working
together, who to a large extent,
monitor and control their own
activities, with little control
imposed of them from outside.
Semi-autonomous work group are
part of the humanization of work
movement approach to job
design, although they have their
limitations.
4- Employee involvement
and empowerment:
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Employee involvement:
An approach to management whereby the
opinions and ideas of employees are
sought and their participation is
encouraged the ultimate manifestation of
such involvement is the delegation of some
authority to employees for taking action or
marking decisions.
Empowerment: the transfer of
responsibility and decision making power
to individual through the delegation of
authority and resources.
Quality circles: A group of employees who
meet regularly to identify and try to resolve
issues relating to the quality of the products
or services provided to customers.
Quality circles have the
following seven characteristics:
1-Membership is voluntary.
2-Meetings are regular.
3-Group usually small < 15.
4-Membership is drawn from people
who do the same or similar tasks.
5-Leadership and structure can be
decided by the group.
6-Group identifies problems and
causes.
7-Group develops and produces
solutions.