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Industrial Revolution
World History
BCA
Mrs. Levy, esq.
I. Introduction
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Industrialism- an economy based on
manual labor is replaced by one dominated
by industry and the manufacture of
machinery.
It Industrialization and Capitalism
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Industrialization arose within Capitalism but is not the
same thing. In the 20th C. there have been many
examples of state industrialization in circumstances
when there was no possibility of the developments in
Europe being followed.
II. The Origins of the Industrial
Revolution
There was no single cause of the Industrial Revolution. Rather a
number of different factors came together.
1) working people are quite conservative about work -- it required a
high degree of social mobility on the part of the population to even
allow the Industrial Revolution
2) people with money had to be willing to invest in new ventures -we need to know where this money came from, and why people
were willing to invest.
We will find that stable government, economic freedoms,
available capital and mobile labor - all encourage growth and all
came together in 18th-century Britain.
As national border controls became more effective, the spread of
disease was lessened, therefore preventing the epidemics common
in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy
rose significantly, leading to a larger workforce.
A. The Agricultural Revolution
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In the 17th century, there was a
(Henceforth, AR)
transformation in Agriculture that
made it much more efficient. This is
traditionally seen to precede the
Industrial Revolution - but was
important in its own right.
Mid 18th Century 89% of Europeans still
farmed for a living
- Human Capital (Labor) drove the
economy dominated by agriculture.
This transformation in agriculture
allows for more productivity.
- Prior to the AR, poverty was caused
by limited output per person.
- The seed drill enabled farmers to get
better crop yields by pushing seeds
farther into the soil out of reach of
wind and birds.
•NOTE: Both the Agricultural and
- Systematic stock breeding was
Industrial Revolutions were
introduced and proven as a
"revolutionary in consequence,
successful way to improve herds.
rather than development“
- Sheep and cattle began to be bred
for food as well as their previous
important values of wool, hide, and
strength.
Holland
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Agricultural. improvements
started in Holland due to
- pop pressure/urban growth
(Amsterdam grows from 30,000
to 200,000 people in 17th C.)
- people wanted to buy stuff
- there was no tied peasantry,
and farmers began to think
about how to profit from their
land rather than just produce
food.
It was more profitable, for
instance, to import wheat from
Poland and use Dutch farms to
grow flax (for linen) or tulips.
- new methods include :
enclosed fields, new rotation,
heavy manuring, new crops
Germany
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Political division stood in the way of industrialization (300 states prior to
1815, 30 states after 1815 - Remember Napoleon?)
Germany was an agriculturally rich and diverse land,
– west – free farmers,
– east - serfdom
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could not compete with British goods
- Had to protect and develop domestic markets and resources
Zollverein: German customs union created to promote effective trade and
industrial development (agreed upon taxes and shared profits while
protecting domestic industry)
Prussian led, froze rival Austria-Hungary out
Helped Prussian industry move goods across northern Germany
and promoted the integration of the Rhineland (industrial heart of Germany)
Precursor to German political unification?
Intro. Of RR dropped the costs of industrial goods (achieved
economies of scale)
Germans became known for high quality metal goods
Was Prussia Germany?
What’s the deal?
Prussia was a former state in north-central Germany. At the height of its power,
Prussia occupied more than half of present-day Germany, stretching from the
Netherlands and Belgium in the west to Lithuania in the east.
During the eighteenth century, Prussia established its independence from Poland,
built up a strong army, and undertook a successful conquest of north-central Europe.
In the nineteenth century, Prussia led the economic and political unification of the
German states, establishing itself as the largest and most influential of these states,
with Berlin as the capital of the German Empire.
After Germany’s defeat in World War II, Prussia was abolished as a state, and its
territory was divided among East Germany, West Germany, the Soviet Union, and
Poland.
Prussians are often depicted as authoritarian, militaristic, and extremely orderly, a
characterization based on the unswerving obedience of their army.
Map of German
Confederation in
1815
Present
Day Germany
France:
French Flag From 1814-1830
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French Flag 1830-present
Industrialization keyed to domestic market (avoid competition with the British), but slowed by
two factors:
Slow population growth: less population pressure meant that France could continue
to embrace traditional agricultural techniques
French Revolution:
Napoleon’s Continental System failed and destroyed French foreign markets
Politics of the revolution strengthened peasant right’s to land, preventing enclosure
and the agricultural revolution
Destruction of guild system in manufacturing
Economy remained largely regional
Stages of Progress:
- French challenges were developing effective transportation and raising capital
- Govt. stepped in to lead the development of railway system, ironworks and coalmines
- Railways drove French industrialization
- French industrialize at a slower rate and focused more on quality goods, rather than mass
produced goods (Britain)
England
• England
-Dutch techniques were
copied in England
-Charles "Turnip"
Townshend (1674-1738)
a landlord from Norfolk.
began work in 1710s
Encouraged new crop
rotation.
- Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
encourages horses over
oxen plowing. promoted
seed drill.
Charles Townshend,
The lands that Time Forgot:
- Rest of Europe developed “pockets” of industrialization,
but failed to reach economies of scale and largely
remained pre-industrial societies.
Why?
- Regional problems:
- poor resources – Naples / Poland
- poor transportation – Spain / Austria-Hungary
- Common problems:
- agricultural structure perpetuated impoverished
peasantry (sharecropping / serfdom)
- prevented a surplus labor force from forming
- Tariffs protected traditional economies, stifled
innovation
Crops
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End of the medieval three field and fallow
system, which allowed one field to "recover"
each year.
-use of soil enriching root crops - wheat, turnips,
barley, clover
-increases food for animals - more manure better crops - a beneficial circle was established.
-The potato becomes increasingly important.
-- Accounts of the "Potato Revolution" 1695 1845
Livestock & Enclosures
• Livestock
- breeding techniques for better bigger animals.
• Enclosures
English landowners have a craze for improvements in
1740s - Enclosure acts after 1760 took public land and
put it under private control. (but much of England already
enclosed in 17th C.)
-Enclosures - harmed small farmers/landowners
-probably did not harm landless laborers
-actually gave them more wages to earn - and they were
the majority.
-So now in England you had a large mobile wage labor
force. [If factories paid more, the workers would go and
work there.]
Long Term Results of
Agricultural Revolution
• Smaller and smaller proportion of pop.
engages in agriculture in the West - frees
them to engage in Industrial work - which
creates commodities and realities
impossible in a purely agricultural
economy.
By 1870 England produces 300% more
food than in 1700, but only 14% of
population worked on land by 1870.
Short Term effects
• A period of bountiful crops 1700-1760
meant English people had some income to
spend on more than just survival.
• They probably lived better than any other
poor people in Europe outside Holland.
• Also most people in England were wage
laborers rather than tied to land like free
peasants or serfs - i.e. people would go
where the jobs were.
B. Population Growth
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Population Increases in 18th C.
1700
1800
Europe: 100/120 mil 190 mil
England 6 mil (1750) 10 mil
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Population as deterministic?
There is a big debate as to whether increased
population lead to the Agricultural and Industrial
revolutions, or those revolutions permitted the
increased population.
Malthusian Controls
- Rev. Thomas Malthus had predicted a disaster
with rising population..
-His theory was that population could rise
"geometrically" while resources could only rise
"arithmetically." At some point population would
overtake resources. At that point "Malthusian
Controls -- war, famine, disease -- would kick in to
reduce the population.
-It was, at least for a few centuries, avoided by
industrial and agricultural revolution.
Agricultural Revolution and Population
-a. Increased pop. capable of being fed - more
people survive.
-b. Enclosures send people off countryside to live
in Cities
The Power Crisis
• Human and Animal Muscle
Main power sources up to 18th C.
relation to wealth - Poverty caused by limited output per person.
• Use of Wood
Europe was once covered in forests
Wood - heat/smelting Iron
England out of Wood by 18th C. (Lord Nelson was so worried about
implication for the Navy, he went around Acorns in his pocket.)
• Coal
Provides the solution.
Used for Heat in London before 1700
was to be used for steam.
But was very hard, and expensive, to extract.
• Water power - used first
Results of Power Crisis
• led to search for new sources of power and was to use it - Very important in
Industrial Revolution
• In some respects it was the application of
new forms of power that defines the
Industrial Revolution. (steam, coal,
electricity)
Politics of England
• After a period of unstable government,
stable government - there was a one party
state run by the Whigs. Relatively little
government interference with economy.
• No Feudalism - there was no large
privileged "feudal" class to hold back
change or population movements.
• Very large class of free landless laborers.
The Commercial Revolution
• Pre Industrial Capitalism
-The Putting-out system/ties in with population
-mostly wool until late 18th C. The production of
cloth was done largely in the home, not in
workshops or factories.
-Free Trade area in England - largest in Europe
• Internal Trade Growth in 18th C.
Internal - more important in economy
- England not poor - peasants did have some
surplus income (due to Ag. Rev.)
- pop. growth accentuates this demand.
Commercial Revolution continues
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External Trade Growth - Navigation Acts
-Mercantilism - government efforts to keep a positive trade balance.
-Navigation Acts - gave Britain a trade monopoly with its colonies
-1652, 1674 - vs. Dutch
-there were also other struggles vs. The French culminating in Seven Years
War.
-march of trade and empire led to Industrial Revolution
-Other countries put up similar barriers but English new markets in America
and Caribbean kept up demand.
-led to London as a large trading center and a lot of CAPITAL to invest.
The West Indian trade did not provide the money for the Industrial
revolution. (Research has shown that the people who invested in the new
factories in the north of England were distinct from those who made money
in trade with the West Indies.)
But it did contribute to the amount of capital that was swirling around
England, and to the creation of a society in which some rich people were
looking for ways to make money apart from just buying land (which was
what the rich had almost always done in the past).
Exports
Graph: Total UK Exports compared to
Exports to North America, W Indies,
West Africa, Spanish America [mostly Caribbean.]
Supply and Demand
• Explain notion of Demand.
There was both HOME and FOREIGN
DEMAND FOR ENGLISH GOODS.
• Trade socially acceptable in England.
-By time of Industrial Revolution England
had an experienced business class, and
fairly advanced economic structure.
Climate and Geography of
England also Helped
• Transportation (tied to trade)
Natural waterways in England - nowhere
more than 20 miles from water.
Canal system built up before Industrial
Revolution -from 1770s
• Coal resources (tied to power needs)
• Damp climate
- good for cotton
Scientific Revolution's Effects
► A.
Practical
Early inventions not `scientific' - but science
soon comes to play a role.
-B. Different World View
Change in attitude - the can-do approach
to innovation was approved of.
India and Cotton
 It might have been India and Cotton which
gave the final push.
-A. Seven Years War 1756-1763
France and England.
England gains control of India
-The East India Company
B. Cotton
Advantages as a textile
Cleaning/wearing/
England First Nation to Industrialize
• All the above strands come together in the mid
18th century
• demand/free trade area/scientific
attitude/geographical possibilities/new textiles
-emphasize Ag. Rev and Commercial Growth
• -led to creation of factories and a new social and
economic world.
• England had to face new situation - and evolve
new social and economic and political system.
II. What Happened During the
Industrial Revolution?
• The term was only used at the end of the
19th Century -so this is revolution in an
odd sense of the word :
• Urbanization
• Massively increased production
• Factories
a. Urbanization of the population
•The Industrial Revolution changed social
patterns with an increase in population and
urbanization.
•The population growth was dramatic, fueled by
improved food supplies and medical knowledge.
•People began moving to the cities until roughly
half of each country's population was living in
urban settings, where previously over half of the
population had been in the rural areas.
• New social classes were created.
•Old problems were solved and new ones
created.
Slum in London
b. Industrial Technology
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Introduction
Think of of Industrial Rev. as a Process.
-one invention leads to another, which leads to new situations which call for yet other
changes. Once the economy gets bigger, it also becomes more diversified. For instance, big
factories begin to require payroll clerks, and canteen workers. The whole process is like a
snowball running down a hill.
Why textiles were first?
Demand-led growth.
In pre-modern economies people buy only a few things: food, housing, and clothes. Because
producing all these takes so much effort, many aspects of the modern economy are either
miniscule, or do not exist at all.
Clothing was very hard to make, and so was the area in which, if you could come up with a new
cheap method, there would be a real demand for what you produced.
Why Steam engines quickly became essential
Rapid growth - need for iron and power.
The initial use of water power could not keep up with demand.
Move of population and industry to the North of England.
Investment
By merchant capitalists at first. Later most money came from expanding areas themselves.
-profit promoted search for new methods
-only an already rich country like England could afford the first machine age.
King Cotton and Manchester
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Cotton Machines (one Machine leads to another)
Cotton was first industry to change - It was still new in 1760. There were many putterouters looking for a more efficient way to produce cotton.
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Flying Shuttle 1733 - John Kay -led to a demand for more yarn
Spinning Jenny 1765 - James Hargeaves
The Water Frame 1769 - Richard Arkwright -led to a need for more weaving
The Mule 1790 - Richard Compton
-combined best features of other two -demanded more power than humans could provide led to factories by water. Weaving still done by Hand - high wages now paid for weavers.
-These machines revolutionized industry.
-By 1790 10 times more yarn was being made than in 1770. By 1800 it was main
Industry in UK.
-Spinning was now done in factories.
-First modern factories grow up in Eng. textile industry.
Other Machines: Looms and the Cotton Gin
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Power Loom 1785 - Edward Cartwright invents a power loom - but these were not perfected
until about 1800 -led to need for more cotton
Cotton Gin 1800 - Eli Whitney -Led to economic revival of the Old South. [A bad effect was
that it made slavery economically viable for another 65 years.]
Lancashire - Birthplace of the
Industrial Revolution
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Weather - damp climate for cotton spinning
Manchester - entrepot
Growth
1811-1821 - 40%
1831-1831 - 47%
-cotton towns/spinning - Rochdale
-cotton towns/weaving - Burnley
Wool Machines
Wool old industry of England still important
Yorkshire/Other side of Pennines - Drier weather
The new cotton machines were soon adopted in the older woolens industry.
Power Machines
Recap power shortage
-the Mule made need for more power acute.
Early Machines dependent on water power -located near rivers.
Thomas Newcomen's Engine 1702 - highly inefficient
Use at Mines - but coal was the solution to the power problem.
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Thomas Newcomen: The Newcomen Engine, [At Exeter.ac.uk] [Sketch picture]
James Watt (1736-1819)
• 1760's Studied Steam Engine 1763 - saw principal while repairing a
Newcomen Engine.
-to make something better he need precision tools.
Steam engine is the fundamental technological advance of the
Industrial Revolution.
Matthew Boulton and Watt - apply steam engines to
textile machines 1769
- begins to produce Steam engines (need for Sci. Rev. knowledge
here)
• James Watt (1736-1819): The Steam Engine, c. 1769, [At
Museon.nl] [Picture]
• James Watt (1736-1819) and Matthew Boulton: An Industrial Steam
Engine [with a 64 inch bore!], 1820, [At Kew Bridge Steam Museum]
[Picture]
• James Watt (1736-1819): The Steam Engine, c. 1769 [Picture]
"Steam is an Englishman"
• -absolutely fundamental to the Industrial Revolution
-united Industrialization and Urbanization
-there were a series of Great Engineers who extended
the simple steam engine to railroad engines, steam
ships, and hundred of other uses.
• Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859): The S.S. Great
Britain, 1839 was the first ocean-going steam propeller
ship.
• Results of Steam Power.
For first time virtually unlimited power available to
people. Was to be used in Factories first, then in
Transportation.
Steel and Sheffield
• Iron Furnaces
– a. Need for intense heat - Charcoal or coke.
– b. Steam power made coking process available.
1780s - Henry Cort improves pig iron making.
– c. Development of Steel.
1740 17,000 tons
1788 68,000 tons
1796 125,000 tons
1806 260,000 tons
1840 3,000,000 tons
– d. Heavy industry - concept
• Sheffield
Manchester located due to its usefulness in cotton manufacture
(west coast/damp etc) Sheffield - in middle of a coal field + near iron
ore, + lots of cooling water.
• What is Steel used for ?
Machines, railways, ships, iron buildings
c. The Factory System - The
Social Effects of Industry
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The Factory System
Move to factories demanded by Machines
-Water power - Country factories
-Steam power - allows growth of Cities
-Rapid urbanization of a new type.
Early Stages
Whole families work/Use of child labor
Kinship ties preserved.
Factory Discipline
Rural Life - set own pace, but do not idealize it. Discipline made factories hated
-Hours were long
-had to eat at set hours
-Monotony of Factory work
Factory Acts - 1830s
Humanitarianism
ended child labor, and limited women's hours to 12.
Worker Response
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Leeds Woolen Workers' Petition, 1786
Attacking the effects of machinery.
Leeds Cloth Merchants' Letter, 1791
Defending machinery.
Observations on the Loss of Woollen Spinning, 1794
The Ideology of the Manufacturers
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Andrew Ure (1778-1857): The Philosophy of the Manufacturers, 1835
III. Spread of Industrialization
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A. Introduction - Other Countries Compared to England
England got a massive head start. France had begun to copy by 1780's but
revolution stopped it.
Napoleonic Wars, and reaction afterwards held Europe back. They also
damaged the economy and killed millions of potential workers.
By 1815 England was way ahead - other countries did not even understand
the technology.
Steam power made big initial investments needed in a way that had not
been the case in England to start with. Britain tried to retain its technology:
until 1843 it was illegal to export textile machinery
Other countries had advantages:
--They could avoid England's mistakes
--They could copy the latest techniques without having to go through all the
trial and error in development.
--They had strong governments to promote industry.
Other governments made conscious efforts to acquire this know-how industrial espionage.
B. Sketch Chronology of
Industrialization
• 1760-1850 - England
1830- - Belgium
1840- - France,
Germany, USA
1890- - Austria, Russia,
Japan
C. Railways: The Essential
Invention for Industrial
Expansion
• Invention in England
Rail used in mines - with animal power.
• There were steam powered cars in early 19th C. - too noisy.
• Rail capable of supporting a locomotive by 1816.
• George Stephenson - The Rocket (1825) - 16 mph
• Stockton and Darlington 1825 - first commercial steam railway.
• Manchester-Liverpool line 1830 - first passenger line. (Also first
fatality: the British trade minister Canning fell off the platform into the
path of a train, and was killed.)
• England's Railway Rush (1830-1850)
• First line 1830. By 1850 almost all UK rail network in place competing lines, and even a speculative bubble.
• 6125 miles of railways built.
Map of GB railroads as of 1850
Importance of Railways
1. Economic effects
Lower Transportation costs, Larger markets = cheaper goods.
Created a "beneficial circle" of expansion.
2. Social effects
Population movement to cities.
Railway created strong demand for unskilled labor - often came from
country side - but did not return.
Seaside vacations became possible for the working class.
Navigators - immigrants to cities after finishing work on railroads.
Outlook of society of the world changed.
In Art - the sight of the moving landscape.
D. Spread of Industrial
Revolution in Europe
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Railways and Industrialization the Continent.
Belgium has railways 1835
France 1832 - serious construction 1840s
Germany - 1835
By 1850 you could travel from Paris to Berlin by rail.
Makes water transport less important
Cuts down geographic advantages of Britain.
Free Enterprise was NOT the model outside Britain and
Germany.
– George Friedrich List (1789-1846): National System of Political
Economy
– Robert Franz: The German Banking System, 1910
Belgium
• First European state to industrialize
• British Input: John Cockerill - established 1817
a large plant in Liege which produced
machinery, steam engines and later
locomotives. Skilled British workers came
illegally to work for Cockerill.
• A lot of information from this plant spread across
Europe.
• 1830s - two Belgian banks pioneer financing
industry
France
• Banks lead the Way - all over Continent -Credit Mobelier of Paris
• The industrial revolution was late in
coming to France. One can understand
the reluctance to convert to mass
production when the work of artisans is
so highly prized.
Germany
• Early Failure - need for Govt. Support:
Fritz Harkort from 1816-32 tried to build up
industry in Ruhr. Failed as he could not
invest enough + lack of infrastructure.
• Prussian government introduces tariffs,
builds roads + finances railways.
• 1834 - Zollverein -- Goods can move freely
in Germany, Tariffs against others leads to
German economic unification.
Japan
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Forcibly opened by Cmdr Perry
1853
Unequal treaties + humiliation of
the Shogun
The Meiji Restoration 1867 -- a
political coup d'etat (a non-violent
take over of government) leaders
were modernizers: they saw what
happened to China and so copied
German and American Industry
very deliberately. Also copied
German authoritarian Government
in 1880s Japan becomes an
industrial power
- first non- European nation to do
so.
• Japan is the only country of
E Asia that may be said to
have had a real Industrial
Revolution
Dissent
• Cartoons were used to
talk about inequality
• A Punch cartoon of 1844
entitled Capital and
Labour contrasts the
luxurious life of a
mineowner with the harsh
working conditions in the
pits. Although the
Industrial Revolution
brought Britain as a
whole greater material
prosperity, it also caused
massive social
upheavals.
Voices of Dissent
Friedrich Engels: went to England to learn
about industrialization, worked in a
Manchester cotton mill
- Wrote: The Condition of the Working
Class in England 1845
- Condemned working and living
conditions