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Final/AP Exam Preparation
Chapter 13
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1. How did anti-Semitism in Spain contribute to the development of modern theories of race?
2. The Italian city-states developed a theory and practical forms of international politics which would
eventually be adopted by the great powers of Europe – the balance of power. Describe the basic tenets of
the system of international relations and assess why that system was able to preserve the independence
of the Italian city-states. What were the major deficiencies of the system, and what was the impact on
the Italian city-states.
3. In what ways do Machiavelli’s The Prince, Castiglione’s The Courtier, and Alberti’s “Self Portrait of
the Universal Man” echo the fundamental principles of the Italian Renaissance? Choose one of the three
and explain how that work would have used by a Renaissance person to provide guidance.
4. In many ways, the Renaissance was primarily an artistic movement. Describe Renaissance art. What
were its themes and techniques? How were artists trained? What was their status in society? Who was
their audience? How did Renaissance art reflect the changing attitudes and interests of Europeans?
5. The issue of gender and status for both women and men underwent modification during the Renaissance.
What was the status of women, both upper class and common, in this era? What does this reveal about
Renaissance society in general?
6. During the Renaissance, homosexual relations were an integral component in the shaping of masculine
gender identity. Why?
7. The formation of the modern state by Ferdinand and Isabella resembled, in some ways, the examples of
England and France; in other ways, the Spanish experience was profoundly different. How did the
Spanish experience resemble, yet differ from the other two? What are the implications of this historical
development?
Chapter 14
1. The Christian Church had experienced periodic calls for reform prior to Luther’s rebellion. How can we
explain why Luther’s challenge to the sale of indulgences sparked such a startling revolution in
European history?
2. Although the Protestant Reformation usually is interpreted as a religious movement, it did have a
profound Impact on European civilization in general. Discuss the political, social, and economic
consequences of the Reformation. How did the Reformation affect women?
3. How did the established Christian Church, headquartered in Rome, respond to the challenge presented
by Luther and subsequent Protestant reformers? How successful was this response?
4. How might Martin Luther’s definition of Christian freedom contribute to an unquestioning acceptance
of political authority?
5. According to historians, Luther did not ask new questions but offered new answers to old questions.
What were these questions, and what were Luther’s answers?
6. What were the political motivations for European rulers to join the Protestant Reformation? Give
specific examples of the links between politics and the Reform movement.
7. According to historians, the English Reformation was an act of state, initiated by the king’s emotional
life, as well as by dynastic and political concerns. How accurate is this assessment? What were the longterm consequences of the English Reformation?
8. How do the actions of both Protestant and Catholic leaders exemplify the basic political creed of
uniformity prevalent in Europe in the 16th Century?
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Chapter 15
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1. The period from 1450-1650 witnessed a profound extension of European society beyond the borders of
the Continent. What were factors that facilitated this expansion? What was the motivation, both for the
individual European explorers and the states which supported them?
2. The Reformation and wars of religion that wracked Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries began a process
of conflict and negotiation that ultimately resulted in the institutionalization of religious toleration in
some societies. Describe specific episodes that point toward a developing notion of religious tolerance.
3. In the last third of the 16th and early 17th centuries, European diplomacy revolved around the situation in
the Low Countries. Why? What was the impact of the revolt of the Netherlands on the Low Countries,
Spain, and England? How did the Dutch revolt affect European politics in general?
4. The Thirty Years’ War marked a major turning point in European history. What were the political,
social, economic, and religious consequences of this conflict?
5. The status of women changed dramatically as a result of the Reformation. In what ways were women
affected? How can we explain these changes?
6. The European witch-hunt is one of the most bizarre phenomena of Western history. How do historians
explain the witch-hunt? How did this phenomenon reflect European civilization in the 16th and 17th
centuries?
7. There is much debate about the impact of Columbus. What are the facts about the role of Columbus in
the European incursion into the Americas? How do historians interpret his role? Was Columbus a
typical European explorer?
Chapter 16
1. Explain what is meant by the term mercantilism and provide historical examples of mercantilist policies.
2. In the 17th century, the Spanish monarchy crumbled. Why?
3. Despite the evolution of a strong, centralized, monarchical system of government, France still
experienced periods of civil unrest and war. Describe these periods. How can we explain the discrete
occurrences? Is there an overreaching reason for why France continued to experience civil unrest?
4. What aspects of royal absolutism do the memoirs of the Duke of St. Simon describe? What aspects do
they miss? Why might St. Simon have overdrawn the power of Louis XIV over the French nobles?
5. The 17th century is often called “the Golden Age of the Netherlands.” What was the basis of Dutch
success in the century? What caused the decline of the Netherlands?
6. 17th century France has been called the model of royal absolutism. How did the French crown create an
absolutist state out of the anarchy of the civil-religious was of the last half of the 16th century? How
absolutist was the French monarchy?
7. In the 17th century England displayed little political stability. Yet by the end of the century, England had
laid the foundations for constitutional monarchy. What were the political, social, economic and religious
factors and events that ultimately led to the Glorious Revolution?
8. While the monarchs of central and eastern Europe tried to imitate Louis XIV’s absolutism, they were
forced to modify the French model. How and why did this modification take place? How successful was
this modification?
9. Trace the development of absolutism in Austria and Prussia. What factors influenced the development of
each state? What were the similarities and differences in the development of absolutism in these two
states? Which state created stronger and more efficient absolutism, and why?
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10. Absolutism in Eastern Europe was built in large part on the social and economic structures which had
emerged by the 17th century. What were these structures, and how did their evolution affect the
development of absolutism in Eastern Europe?
11. “Art was used by the monarchs of Eastern Europe to support absolutism.” How accurate is this
assertion?”
12. “War – whether civil, international, or both – or the threat of war is critical to the emergence and
development of absolutism.” Assess the validity of this question in relationship to the history of
absolutism in Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
13. “Peter the Great’s reforms were driven primarily by military exigencies, not by any special attachment
to the culture of Western Europe.” Make an argument for this statement.
Chapter 17
1. The Scientific Revolution transformed the way Europeans perceived the world around them. Discuss
this change in detail. How did this new way of thinking spread?
2. Some monarchs of the 18th century have been called enlightened despots. Who were these rulers? What
did their contemporaries mean when they called them enlightened? How have historians treated these
rulers and their policies? Were they really enlightened?
3. The Enlightenment had a profound effect on politics in France and in the rest of Europe. Compare the
impact of the Enlightenment on French absolutism with its impact on the Eastern absolute monarchies.
How can we account for the differences?
4. Certain historians maintain that international competition was the primary motivation behind the reforms
of monarchs such as Frederick II and Catherine II. Is this an accurate assessment? How do the careers of
the Austrian rulers Maria Theresa and Joseph II support or refute this assertion?
5. The scientists of the 17th century constructed a new worldview; the philosophes of the 18th century
popularized t. How? Why did the philosophes pursue this effort?
6. “Although the most well-known Enlightenment thinkers today are the French philosophes, the roots of
the Enlightenment were in England as much as in France.” Make an argument to support this
proposition.
7. Enlightenment political thought was clustered into two distinct schools, epitomized by the beliefs of
Montesquieu and Voltaire. What were those beliefs? What impact did their thinking have on the
governments of western and eastern Europe?
Chapter 18
1. During the 18th century, the population of Europe underwent a sharp increase. What factors influenced
that growth? What were the social consequences of population expansion?
2. What were the most important elements of the agricultural revolution in Europe in the 17th and 18th
centuries? What factors explain the Dutch leadership in this revolution? Why and how did it spread to
England?
3. While England was building the preeminent world empire and greatest economic power base in Europe,
its society was undergoing profound changes. Describe these changes, being sure to identify their causes
and consequences.
4. Despite the success of English mercantilist policies, many chafed under this regulatory system. What
were the criticisms of mercantilism? What was Adam Smith’s answer to mercantilism? Would the
application of Smith’s theories result in English domination of the Atlantic economy? Why, or why not?
Final/AP Exam Preparation
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5. Throughout most of the 19 century Great Britain dominated the world economy, both as the number
one industrial power and as the greatest world empire. Explain the origins of British economic power in
the 17th and 18th century.
Chapter 19
1. In recent years, scholars have successfully challenged many of the old generalizations made about the
past. What were those generalizations, and how have recent studies modified our views of the family in
preindustrial Europe? How and why did the European family begin to change in this period?
2. Although Rousseau’s ideas on the different roles of the sexes may seem patriarchal today, it is possible
to argue that his prescriptions for the education of girls were advanced for his time Compare Rousseau’s
prescriptions to the realities of 18th century child rearing. In what ways were Rousseau’s ideas
revolutionary?
3. One of the most neglected groups in historical study has been children. Correct this oversight by writing
a brief history of children during the 18th century. What was their life like? Be sure to consider
educational opportunities, health, medical care, and diet. What was the attitude of parents toward them?
How would Rousseau’s ideas on child rearing and education have affected them? What would they have
done for entertainment and courtship as they approached adulthood? Finally, what changes had they
experienced in these areas?
4. While the Enlightenment was spreading among the educated elites, religion remained a strong force in
the lives of the common people. What were the patterns of popular religion for both Catholics and
Protestants in the late 18th century? How did church leaders, Protestant and Catholic, respond to popular
religion?
5. The 18th century was an era of improving health and increased life expectancy. Why? What impact did
improving health and longevity have on European society?
6. Trace the growing intervention of the state in ordinary people’s lives in 18th century Europe.
Chapter 20
1. Liberalism inspired the political revolutionaries in both North America and France. How can we define
this political philosophy? How was it manifested in the American and French Revolutions?
2. Compare the origins of the American and French Revolutions. In what ways do the factors behind each
revolution reflect the situation in each country? How did these factors influence the course of each
revolution?
3. The era of the French Revolution also witnessed the birth of the modern feminist movement. Who were
the leaders in the movement? What were their beliefs? What was the role of average women? How did
the men of the Revolution react to these women?
4. “The primary impetus for action during the Revolution came from the common people of France, both
rural and urban.” Assess the role of sans-culottes and peasants in the French Revolution. What impact
did popular participation have on the success (or failure) of the Revolution?
5. In 1799, when Napoleon seized power, France had been in political turmoil for a decade, with mass
violence, coup d’etats, and multiple constitutions. How did Napoleon stabilize French politics? What
were the specifics of the “Napoleonic Settlement”?
6. What seem to have been the greatest effects of the French Revolution on the life of ordinary people all
over Europe?
7. It has been argued that the financial problems of the royal government were the major cause of the
French Revolution. What were these problems? How did Louis XVI’s government attempt to deal with
the financial crisis? How did these problems precipitate the Revolution?
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8. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era produced profound change in Europe. What were the gains
and losses of the various social groupings – nobility, bourgeoisie, workers? peasants, women – in this
era? Who gained the most? Who benefited the least?
9. In 1792, the revolutionary government of France executed the former king, Louis XVI. Upon
Napoleon’s abdication in April 1814, another Bourbon monarch, Louis XVIII, took the French throne.
Did the French Revolution effect long-term changes in French politics and society? If so, what were
they?
Chapter 21
1. Technological innovation played a critical role in the industrial development of Britain. Assess the
impact of technology on the British economy by examining innovations in textile production.
2. Britain was the first industrial nation. Why?
3. The Industrial Revolution profoundly affected the British working classes. Describe the impact of the
Industrial Revolution on working class men, women and children. What is meant by the concept of class
consciousness, and how did this reflect the reality of the situation in Britain during this period? Overall,
was the Industrial Revolution beneficial or harmful for the working class?
4. Explain how available forms of credit catalyzed or inhibited the Industrial Revolution in different
countries.
5. What was the impact of industrialization on the women of Britain? How have historians interpreted
these changes? Were these changes positive or negative? Why?
6. Britain was the “workshop of the world,” but soon after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, industrialization
began to spread to the Continent. Trace the course of industrialization on the Continent. What were the
key features of this development? What were the positive and negative aspects of being a “follower”
nation?
7. How did the Industrial Revolution impact political and economic thought in the 18th and early 19th
century Europe?
8. The Industrial Revolution not only transformed British industry and society, it also called forth a
multifaceted reform effort to cope with the societal problems created by industrialization. What were the
goals and motivations of both the parliamentary reform movement and the labor movement in 19th
century Britain? What were their successes and failures?
9. The railroad has been called the “crowning glory” of the Industrial Revolution. Describe the impact of
the railroad on the development of industry in Britain and on the Continent.
Chapter 22
1. “The Congress of Vienna represented the highest achievements of European balance of power politics:
faced with the task of creating a lasting peace following a generation of warfare, the statesmen at Vienna
succeeded admirably.” Assess the validity of this quotation. Who wee the leaders at the Congress? What
principles guided their actions? What were the primary elements of the peace settlement? How
successful was the Congress at creating a stable Europe?
2. The years 1815 to 1848 witnessed the rise and evolution of the ideology of socialism. Describe this
evolution, being sure to emphasize the principle components. How did socialism reflect the attitudes and
aspirations of working class people of the time? How did the Revolution of 1848 reflect the impact of
socialist ideals?
3. Although the Revolutions of 1848 took place at roughly the same time and in reasonable proximity to
one another, in certain ways they were very different from each other. Compare the 1848 uprisings in
Final/AP Exam Preparation
France and Austria, in terms of causation, participants, goals, and outcomes of each revolution. What
were the key differences? In what ways were they similar?
4. Is there a difference between Giuseppe Mazzini’s use of the term country and the term nation?
According to Mazzini, what is the ultimate origin of nations/countries?
5. Austrian chancellor Metternich and other conservatives fought a tenacious battle to resurrect and
maintain the pre-revolutionary ancien regime. What were the motivations, methods, successes, and
failures of Metternich and the conservatives?
6. The uprisings of 1848 enjoyed early success, only to see their gains destroyed by counterrevolution.
How do we account for the early success and later collapse of the revolutionary movements of 1848?
7. 19th century nationalists generally argued that “nations” were preexisting entities based on natural
geographic boundaries, common language, and cultural unity. Yet in reality things were far more
complex. Geographic boundaries did not necessarily correspond to linguistic boundaries, and many
areas of Europe were not culturally or linguistically homogeneous. How did nationalist thinkers and
politicians set out to “invent” nations? To what does the term imagined communities refer?
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