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Is there a difference in memory decay for different kinds of information? Graduation Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of English Language and Literature Notre Dame Seishin University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Bachelor of Arts by Maki Fujiwara 2013 Contents Abstract 1 Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What is memory? 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 Models of memory 1.2.3 Kinds of memory 2 4 4 4 5 1.2.4 Sensory memory 1.2.5 Working memory 1.2.6 Long-term memory 1.3 Forgetting 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 Forgetting curve 1.4 Knowledge types 1.4.1 Introduction 1.4.2 Kinds of knowledge 1.5 Focus f thesis 5 7 7 11 11 11 13 13 14 15 1.6 Summary 15 Chapter Two: The experiment 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The experiment 2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment 2.2.2 Method 1) Subjects 2) Test design 3) Procedure 2.3 Results 2.4 Summary Chapter Three: Discussion 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Summary of the results 3.3 Discussion of the results 16 16 16 16 16 17 19 20 35 38 38 38 3.3.1 Discussion of tests 38 3.3.2 Discussion of the tests by groups 40 3.3.3 Discussion of the tests by sections 41 3.3.4 Discussion for Questionnaire 42 3.4 Answering the Research Questions 42 3.4.1 Research Question 1: How long can the subjects remember information? 42 3.4.2 Research Question 2: Is there a difference in memory by kind of information? 42 3.4.3 Research Question 3: What information can students memorize easily or difficultly? 43 . 3.5 Implications from the data 3.6 Limitation of the Experiment 3.7 Further research 3.8 Conclusion 43 43 44 44 References 45 Appendices 47 Abstract People memorize and forget something everyday. Some memories are not held for long time, others are held forever. We use some memory in daily life and store it for the future through experiences. This thesis discusses which information the subjects can memory easily, and investigates how long they can memorize the information. In Chapter One, we looked at what it is generally said about memory, forgetting and knowledge; kinds of memory, relationship between memory and forgetting, or knowledge. In Chapter Two, we looked at the process and the results of the tests and questionnaires. Notre Dame Seishin University students were asked to take some tests. They memorize information and then they answered the questionnaire by using their memory. Then we compared the scores of the tests. Also, we asked the students whether they are good at memorizing or not. In Chapter Three, we discussed the results of the tests and the questionnaire in detail. We found out the scores of some groups were higher than that of first test. It means their memories strengthen by studying again, and it is difficult to forget their memory. On the other hand, some groups scores were lower than the score of first test. It means if the word or information is not recalled, it will be forgotten as time goes by. Also, the research questions were discussed. 1 Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Introduction When people learn unknown information; words, numbers, faces, forms and so on, they write, say or watch the information. However, they cannot remember all the information, and they forget it. Ebbinghaus (1885) researched memory and created the forgetting curve which shows how does human’s memory changes over time. Also, James and Galton (1883) were concerned with conscious attention. Here, we look at differences of the terms related to memory. These words have a relationship with memory, so we need to know about them before reading this thesis. First, memory is a noun and is defined by the Oxford dictionary as follows; 1. the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information example; I’ve a great memory for names of flowers. 2. something remembered from the past example; one of my earliest memories is of sitting on his knee. 3. the part of a computer in which data or program instructions can be stored for retrieval example; the module provides 16Mb of memory. Next is memorize. This word is a verb. 1. Commit to memory; learn by heart example; he memorized thousands of verbs. Next is remember, this word is also verb. 1. [with object] have in or be able to bring to one’s mind an awareness of example; I remember the screech of the horn as the car came towards me. 2. [with infinitive] do something that one has undertaken to do or that is necessary or 2 advisable example; I did you remember to post the letters? Next is recall. This word is a verb and noun. The word is used with an object. 1. bring back into one’s mind (verb) example; I can still vaguely recall being taken to the hospital. 2. officially order to return to a place (verb) example; her action recalled him to the present 1. the action or faculty of remembering something learned or experienced example; people’s understanding and subsequent recall of stories or events 2. an act or instance of officially recalling someone or something example; a recall of Parliament 3. Computing the proportion of the number of relevant documents retrieved from a database in response to an enquiry example; expert systems can produce solutions with the speed, recall, accuracy and consistency that only a computer can provide And retrieval. This word also has meaning of verb and noun. In the case of verb, it is used with object. 1. get or bring something back from somewhere example; I was sent to retrieve the balls from his garden 2. find or extract information stored in a computer example; the police hope to encourage him to retrieve forgetten memories 3. put right or improve example; he made one last desperate attempt to retrieve the situation These words refer to human memory. People use these words unconsciously in daily life, but in memory, we need to know the meanings of them. 3 1.2 What is memory? 1.2.1 Introduction This chapter will summarize the previous research on memory and forgetting. In daily life, people have things to memorize, but they sometimes cannot memorize. So, how long they can memorize things? What kinds of things they memorize easily or difficultly? But first let us find out what researchers say memory is. “The use of a single term might seem to suggest that memory is a unitary system, albeit a complicated one such as the heart or the liver. It is not one system but many. The systems range in storage duration from fractions of a second up to a lifetime and in storage capacity from tiny buffer stores to the long-term memory system that appears to far exceed in capacity and flexibility the largest available computer.” (Baddeley, 1990 p.4). People can remember many things but they also forget them. They can also remember something for a long time but forget something quickly too. For example, people will not forget their family name, greetings and so on. They are called “long term memories” On the other hand, it is difficult to remember unknown items, friends’ phone number and so on. It is generally called “short-term memory” or “working memory”. Basically, Squire (1980) divided memory into three types; sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory as we shall see in the next section. 1.2.2 Models of memory Memory consists of encoding, storage and retrieval. Encoding means that we take our experience as memory; it means that changing information of stimuli from the outside to take in ourselves as memory. For example, when someone tells us their name, and a few seconds later you have no idea what their name is. This is an example of failure of encoding. Storage means that it is keeping encoding. It means we experience previous words and 4 pictures, we confirm that we did the experience before, and we reenact with elements of the experiment. It is process of forming a memory code in order to get information into memory. For example, we may emphasize the shape of a dog's nose to identify the breed (e.g., a German Sheppard has a longer, more pointed nose than a bull dog) and subsequently make a code for "German Sheppard" according to the dog's nose. Retrieval refers to the subsequent accessing again of events or information from the past, which have been encoded and stored in the brain before. When you are taking an exam, you need to retrieve learned information from your memory in order to answer the test questions. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) produced a dual storage model. They explained the storehouse of memory, a theory model related to short-term memory and storehouse of long-term memory. They concluded that short-term store was a place to keep information from sensory organs, and some parts of information by rehearsal and encoding send to long-term store. 1.2.3 Kinds of memory Memory was divided into three groups by Squire (1980) - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. These memories basically are determined by the length of time. Furthermore, he proposed the two notions of declarative memory and episodic memory as we can see in Figure 1. Let us look at these in detail. 5 Figure 1; A taxonomy of the different types of short and long-term memories and associated brain structure 1.2.4 Sensory memory Sensory memory maintains information received by our eyes, ears and so on – the sensory organs. It is remembered for some seconds in working memory which is the first level of memory. So if we did not pay attention to information especially, we forget it in our daily life. For example, the sound of the wind, and the smell of evergreen trees. We do not usually pay attention these feelings, so they leave working memory within a few seconds. In short, much information comes in and out of sensory memory, but only some meaningful information is sent to working memory. There are two kinds of sensory memory; iconic memory and echoic memory. Iconic memory means sensory memory of visual stimuli, and is kept about in five hundred milliseconds according to Sperling’s experiment (1959). Echoic memory means sensory 6 memory with an auditory stimuli, and it is kept about in five seconds according to Glucksberg and Cowan’s experiment (1970). 1.2.4 Working memory Information in working memory is kept for about twenty seconds. It is a short-term memory is temporary storehouse to send information to long-term memory. Working memory carries out cognitive activities and storage. We call working memory as we forget the memory of after we did action. For example, mental arithmetic. Miller (1920) showed that quantity of information that we can keep in working memory is only 7±2 (5 to 9) items. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a model of working memory. It consists of three systems; the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive. The phonological loop falls under short-term store in the dual storage model, because this is a system to keep language information temporarily using Broca’s area. The Visuo-spatial sketchpad is a system which works with the phonological loop; in short, it is function to rehearsal visual and spatial information. And, the central executive is the nucleus of the working memory. This controls the previous two systems and does high-level cognitive activities. These roles were confirmed by Baddeley’s experiment of dual-task method. He made sure of the experiment by doing two things at the same time. For example, examinees memorize some numbers, and he shows an inference; “A is not before B, then are A and B correct?” He did the two things at the same time, and if they remember the numbers, it shows working memory is a function. 1.2.5 Long-term memory This memory has infinite capacity and it is saved until people die as permanent memory. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and 7 unconscious. This memory was identified by two scholars. First, Tulving (1972) divided long-term memory into three types; episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory. Second, Squire (1980) divided it into two types largely; declarative memory (explicit memory), and non-declarative memory (implicit memory). He thought explicit memory involves episodic memory and semantic memory, and implicit memory involved priming, procedural memory, and non-unified memory. Episodic memory Episodic memory is personal memory which they can know when and where they did something; “ I studied English for two hours in my room” In short, it is memory of experiments in their life and it is memorized naturally. “I studied English for two hours yesterday.” This is episodic memory as defined by Tulving (1972). Semantic memory Semantic memory is related to general knowledge and information. For example, “one plus one equal two.”, “ringo is apple in English”, “doctor: a person who has been trained in medical science, whose job is to treat people who are ill/ sick or injured”. This is semantic memory supposed by Kilian (1966). Procedural memory Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. For example, riding a bicycle, cooking omelets, and so on. This memory is the memory that the body remembers rather than the mind. It’s not a specific memory you can recall, but rather the memorizing and automatizing of the a process such as swinging a baseball bat.. Finally, non-unified memory happens by getting used to repetition stimuli. In a class suddenly, a teacher beats a desk loudly, students are surprised. But it continues twice or third time, they get used to sound, so they do not react. This is an example of non-unified memory. 8 Table 1: The features and examples of episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory concerned with concerned with ideas, reflects a memory facts and meanings and concepts system that involves information. which are not related knowledge that may personal to personal not be expressed in memories experiences words Feature, definition your first day of knowledge of historical play the piano school events and figures your brother’s jokes using a pen meaning of “apple” driving a car examples graduation you had a salad for a last night We can distinguish between declarative memory or non-declarative memory. Declarative memory is memory of facts and events, and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled. This memory is sometimes called explicit memory. On the other hand non-declarative memory is memory of their skills, and repetition in their life, and in this memory, we are difficult to tell with using words. 9 Table 2: The features of declarative and non-declarative memory Feature, definition Declarative memory Non-declarative memory conscious memory knowledge of facts and events known as explicit memory involve the conscious cannot be accessed consciously include motor learning, habits and conditioning. recollection of memories our knowledge of the world’s skills and habits capital cities examples types of food simple classical conditioning lexical knowledge non-associative learning Explicit memory Explicit memory involves recalling information and experiences consciously, and it is used every day when we remember things we have to do later on that day or else we recall past experiences. The example of explicit memory is a content of a lecture. For example, remembering a specific driving lesson. Implicit memory Implicit memory is also known as non-declarative memory involves recollection of skills, things you know how to do, preferences and so on.. This memory does not need to recall consciously. For example, remembering how to ride a bike effortlessly for most people, even after going years without riding one. Priming Priming means a primary thing has an effect to following things. For example, if people hear “doctor”, they recall “nurse”, or if an sees watches a card written “ocean”, after a 10 time he takes fill holes test “oc n”. He writes “ocean” This is priming. 1.3 Forgetting 1.3.1 Introduction Memory has a relationship with forgetting. Forgetting can be reduced by repetition or more elaborate cognitive processing of information. Reviewing information in ways that involve active retrieval seems to slow the rate of forgetting. The functions of forgetting (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a power function provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function. Ebbinghaus (1885) researched forgetting, and as a result of his experiment, he produced the forgetting curve, and he concluded that a human’s brain is made to forget. In this section, let us explain about forgetting having deep relationship with memory. 1.3.2 Forgetting curve Ebbinghaus (1885) was the first person to plot out systematically what subsequently became known as the ‘forgetting curve’. He measured how long he can remember information which was placed meaningless alphabet, or how they forget as time go out. The result was that after twenty minutes, he forgot 42 percent of the information. After one hour, he forgot 56 percent, after nine hours, he forgot 64 percent, and after six days, they forgot 76 percent. He made the graph based on the number and called it the forgetting curve. The below figure is a forgetting curve by Ebbinghaus. 11 Figure 2: The forgetting curve Most of the time, the forgetting curve is predictable. However, Bahrick and Wittlinger (1975) tested the memory of subjects for the names and photograph of high-school classmates. The results are shown in Figure 2. It is clear that most forgetting curves were linear until about thirty-four years passed but for only name and picture recognition. So, he concluded that it is impossible to tell what is happening from the available information. 12 Figure 3: Memory for high school classmates as a function of retention interval and method of testing. From Figure 3, we found that it is difficult to recall memory as time goes. However, human memory is influenced to event, relationship between people and so on. 1.4 Knowledge types 1.4.1 Introduction “Knowledge is the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas” John Locke (1689). First, there is content: this includes a number of things we have within us, such as person’s experiences, beliefs, values, motivation, and information. The second part defines the function or purpose of knowledge, that provides a framework for evaluating and within 13 new experiences and information. We can say knowledge has relation to memory, so in this section, we show about knowledge. Knowledge is defined in the Oxford English dictionary as... 1. Special skills people get through experiences or educational. Theoretical or practical understanding about a subject. 2. Facts and information 3. Recognition through people get through facts or situations. 1.4.2 Kinds of knowledge There are three types of knowledge; declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the factual information that one knows; it can be declared. For example, Washington D.C. is the capital of America. Declarative knowledge is further divided into episodic knowledge and semantic knowledge. Episodic knowledge is memory for “episodes. It is usually measured by accuracy measures, has autobiographical reference . For example, graduations, birthday parties, wedding and so on. Semantic knowledge is memory for knowledge of the world, facts, meaning of words, and so on. For example, a spinster is an unmarried female. Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to do something, of how to perform the steps in a process. As an example, how to ride a bike. Conditional knowledge is knowledge about when to use a procedure, skill, or strategy and when not to use it; why a procedure works and under what conditions; and why one procedure is better than another. For example, students need to recognize that a word problem requires the calculation as part of its solution. 14 1.5 Focus of thesis We have seen what memory and forgetting is, and the differences of kinds of memory and knowledge. However, the students may not know how long they can memorize unknown information, and whether there is difference depending on unknown various information when they create memories. Chapter Two will research what kinds of information they can remember easily or difficultly, and how long their memory last. Therefore, we will focus on the length of the memory and various information in Chapter Two and Three. There are three research questions for this thesis. 1. How long can the subjects remember information? 2. Is there a difference in memory by kinds of information? 3. What information can students memorize easily or difficultly? 1.6 Summary People memorize many things consciously or unconsciously, and they forget things everyday. Especially, memorizing unknown information is difficult and even if we can remember some information, we cannot keep in their memory for long time; they forget in some seconds or minutes. However, they store other information for their lifetime and they use the memory to avoid danger, to bring things efficiently and so on. Memory is divided into some kinds but the distinction is not important for the memory. It is important for them to send information to long-term memory and they use in appropriate situations. In Chapter Two, we will look at the process and the results of the tests and questionnaire. 15 Chapter Two: The Experiment 2.1 Introduction In this chapter, we will find out whether there is difference when memorizing different kinds of information, and how long the memory would last by looking at three kinds of information. 2.2 The experiment 2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment The experiment was designed to find out whether there are some differences in the way people memorize different kinds of information, and how long it takes for people to memorize unknown information, and whether it is influenced by kinds of unknown information through productive, recognition, and receptive tests. The immediate post-test was to find out how easily people can memorize information, and the delay test was to find out whether there is difference between different kinds of information. 2.2.2 Method 1) Subjects Twenty-seven third or fourth grade subjects in Notre Dame Seishin University participated in this experiment. They had studied English, linguistics and literature for two years and their major is English linguistics or literature. They were divided into three groups at random and each group had nine subjects. 16 2) Test design In this experiment, three kinds of information were tested. The first was the words section, the second was numbers section, and the third was gestures. In all three sections, everybody memorized some information and answered the questions and all questions were designed by the researcher. First, they were asked to memorize ten Italian words with Japanese translations. On the next page, they were asked to write the Italian words with matching Japanese on the productive test, and the next page, they were asked to circle the ten Italian words they memorized on the first page. On the next page, they were asked to write the ten Italian words with Japanese. Here is an example. Memorize the words and the meaning. pino : 松 Q. Write the word in Italian (the productive test) 1) 松 : Q. Circle the word you memorized. (recognition test) blanc notte pino Q. Write the word in Japanese. (receptive test) 1) pino : The second test was the numbers test. The numbers in this test were separated into those with meaning or no meaning. For example, there were 64873249 and 1945/08/15 in eight columns. In this case, 64873249 has no meaning but 1945/08/15 has meaning as a date. The numbers test was designed to find out whether there is difference for their memory in the same columns. Here is an example. Memorize the number. 419538 Q. Write the number. (the productive test) 17 1) Q. Circle the number you memorized. (recognition test) 438516 419538 698547 The third test was the gestures test. This test had pictures with their meaning. In this case, the productive test was to choose a picture for the meaning. The recognition test was the same as the word section, and the receptive test was to write the meaning with matching the pictures. Here is an example. Memorize the picture and the meaning. Good Q. Choose the Hungry number of pictures to match a meaning. (the productive test) Good : ② ① ② ③ Q. Circle the pictures you memorized. (receptive test) Q. Write the meaning of the picture. In the second and third test, the subjects were divided into three groups; the groups were A, B and C and were assigned at random as shown in the following list. 18 Table 3: the three groups and the test style of questionnaire Initial learning Hints or study before delay test Hints or study after the delay test A Yes No No B Yes Yes Yes C Yes No Yes Table 3 Group A answered the questions with the help of only their own memory, Group B studied the words again before the test like the first test and then answered the questions, and Group C was to answer the questions like Group A and remember then answer the questions again. This test was to find out differences of scores depending on the type of learning done. The aim of the experiment was to find out how long a memory would last, and whether there were differences when memorizing different kinds of information and if re-learning made a difference. The reason why the students were asked to take a memory quiz was to find out how easily or difficult it was to memorize different kinds of information. 3) Procedure The tests had eighty questions in total and each section had ten questions. The students were asked to write their student number and their names on the test book. There was no time limit. The students were asked not to use the dictionaries and go back to the previous page because if they had been allowed to go back to the previous page, it would have become easier to answer the questions. All the students took about 10 to15 minutes to take the test. After they finished, all the test books were collected. On the second test, the test 19 was taken one week later and the third test was taken one month after. 2.3 Results Table 4 and 5 show the results of the tests. The scores of these tables are the average of collected answers. These scores of tables are all scores without groups. Table 4: Average of the first test words numbers gestures mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. productive 6.15 2.36 3.26 2.12 8.70 1.92 recognition 7.37 2.65 4.85 2.36 8.26 1.91 receptive 7.00 2.57 7.11 2.14 From Table 2, we can see the highest score (8.70) was the gestures the productive test, on the other hand, the lowest score was the numbers the productive test (3.26). The scores having a difference in most (s.d. scores) are recognition test of words section (2.65). 20 Table 5 :Percentage of the first words data Italian productive recognition receptive words gotto 92.6% 85.2% 92.6% pino 88.9% 96.3% 92.6% salire 44.4% 70.4% 59.3% grande 85.2% 92.6% 92.6% domani 33.3% 59.3% 59.3% vino 77.8% 81.5% 70.4% piedi 44.4% 59.3% 59.3% dire 48.1% 66.7% 59.3% bianco 55.6% 74.1% 70.4% amdare 44.4% 51.9% 44.4% From table 5, on this test, most of the subjects could answer questions easily especially gotto, pino and grande. In case of gotto, the productive test was 92.6%, the recognition test was 85.2%, and the receptive test was 92.6%. In pino, the productive test was 88.9%, the recognition test was 96.3%, and the receptive test was 92.6%. The word grande got 85.2% on the productive test, 92.6% on the recognition test, and 92.6% On the other hand, the lower scores were domani, piedi and andare. In case of domani, the productive test was 33.3%, the recognition test was 59.3%, and the receptive test was 59.3%. In piedi, the productive test was 44.4%, the recognition and receptive test were also 59.3%. In case of andare, the productive test is 44.4%, the recognition test was 51.9%, and the receptive test was 44.4%. From the data, the higher score is about twice than the lower score. 21 Table 6: Percentage of the first numbers data productive recognition 59315 66.7% 77.8% 38167 33.3% 51.9% 091087 33.3% 55.6% 419538 14.8% 22.2% 711-0911 55.6% 74.1% 9672431 14.8% 25.9% 1945/08/15 59.3% 81.5% 64873249 14.8% 18.5% 090-5695-1678 29.6% 55.6% 513764821 3.7% 22.2% On the numbers test, it was difficult for them to memorize on the whole. Especially, when the numbers are long, it was difficult to memorize for them. In the numbers section 59315, 711-0911, and 1945/08/15 were high, but 419538, 64873249, and 513764821 were low. 59315 was 66.7% in the productive test and 77.8% on the recognition test. It was the highest score on the productive test. In case of 711-0911, this score was 55.6% on the productive test, and 74.1% on the recognition test. And the productive test of 1945/08/15 was 59.3%, recognition test was 81.5%. It is the highest score on the recognition test. However, 419538 was 14.8% on the productive test, and 22.2% on the recognition test. The score of 64873249 was 14.8% on the productive test, and 18.5% on the recognition test. It was the lowest score on the recognition test. And productive score of 513764821 was 3.7%, this was the lowest score on the productive test, the recognition score was 22.2%. 22 Table 7: Percentage of the first gestures data productive recognition receptive let’s go 70.4% 74.1% 44.4% angry 92.6% 77.8% 88.9% what? 74.1% 91.5% 48.1% good 88.9% 96.3% 92.6% hungry 96.3% 88.9% 92.6% what a smell! 88.9% 81.5% 51.9% cool 96.3% 88.9% 88.9% forget it 88.9% 81.5% 70.4% long time ago 92.6% 81.5% 66.7% alone 81.5% 74.1% 66.7% The gestures test got high scores as a whole. Especially, good, hungry, and cool were higher in all sections. The gesture of good was 88.9% on the productive test, 96.3% on the recognition test, and 92.6% on the receptive test. Hungry scored 96.3% on the productive test, 88.9% on the recognition test, and 92.6% on the receptive test. And the productive score of cool was 96.3%, the recognition score and receptive score were both 88.9%. However, let’s go, what?, and alone were lower. The score of let’s go was 70.4% on the productive test, 74.1% on the recognition test, 44.4% on the receptive test. The productive score of what? was 74.1%, recognition test was 85.1%, and receptive test was 48.1%. In the case of alone, the score of the productive test was 81.5%, recognition test was 74.1%, and receptive test was 66.7%. Some subjects took mistake good and cool. 23 Table 8: Average of the second test (one week after) words numbers gestures mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. productive 5.00 3.08 2.37 2.13 6.96 3.29 recognition 6.44 3.20 4.26 2.97 7.93 3.21 receptive 6.26 3.25 6.48 3.33 Table 8 shows average of the second test. From this table, on the words and gestures test, subjects could answer over half scores, but on the numbers test, they were not able to answer over half questions. The second and third test had re-test for Group C, but in these below graph, re-test involve Group B. So previous test means Group A and previous test of Group C, and re-test is Group B and re-test of Group C, because in case of re-test, subjects study before tests. 24 Table 9: Percentage of the second words test data productive productive recognition recognition re-test receptive receptive re-test re-test gotto 64.7% 94.1% 70.6% 76.5% 58.8% 94.1% pino 64.7% 94.1% 82.4% 100.0% 47.1% 88.2% salire 5.9% 64.7% 52.9% 64.7% 41.2% 88.2% grande 76.5% 88.2% 47.1% 64.7% 94.1% 94.1% domani 23.5% 64.7% 76.5% 94.1% 35.3% 88.2% vino 58.8% 82.4% 70.6% 82.4% 35.3% 76.5% piedi 11.8% 82.4% 47.1% 94.1% 70.6% 100.0% dire 41.2% 82.4% 47.1% 82.4% 35.3% 70.6% bianco 52.9% 76.5% 41.2% 70.6% 58.8% 82.4% andare 5.9% 47.1% 82.4% 88.2% 70.6% 94.1% On the second words test, re-test was higher score than previous test. On the productive test, salire was 5.9%, but re-test was 64.7%, and piedi was 11.8% on the productive test, but re-test was 82.4%. These were very higher. On the recognition test, gotto and andare changed little. On the receptive re-test, the percentage of correct answer was over 75%. It was very high. As we found from this table, the most different score between previous test and re-test was on productive test. 25 Table 10: Percentage of the second numbers data productive productive recognition recognition re-test re-test 59315 23.5% 82.4% 47.1% 94.1% 38167 11.8% 58.8% 23.5% 82.4% 091087 29.4% 58.8% 35.3% 58.8% 419538 5.9% 35.3% 29.4% 41.2% 711-0911 23.5% 88.2% 58.8% 88.2% 9672431 5.9% 5.9% 29.4% 35.3% 1945/08/15 47.1% 82.4% 76.5% 94.1% 64873249 5.9% 11.8% 17.6% 35.3% 090-5695-1678 0.0% 41.2% 41.2% 64.7% 513764821 0.0% 11.8% 11.8% 29.4% On the second numbers productive test, only less than 20% of the subjects answered correctly. But in case of re-test, they could answer correctly more than 40% on average. The recognition test was higher than the productive test on the whole. 26 Table 11: Percentage of the second gestures data productive productive recognition recognition receptive receptive re-test re-test re-test let’s go 41.2% 88.2% 70.6% 94.1% 82.4% 100.0% angry 82.4% 100.0% 70.6% 82.4% 35.3% 70.6% what? 41.2% 94.1% 100.0% 100.0% 29.4% 94.1% good 70.6% 94.1% 64.7% 82.4% 64.7% 100.0% hungry 76.5% 100.0% 64.7% 100.0% 58.8% 94.1% what a smell! 76.5% 100.0% 70.6% 94.1% 76.5% 100.0% cool 64.7% 94.1% 64.7% 88.2% 58.8% 88.2% forget it 52.9% 88.2% 88.2% .100.0% 23.5% 58.8% long time ago 52.9% 100.0% 82.4% 100.0% 58.8% 100.0% alone 47.1% 82.4% 76.5% 94.1% 58.8% 94.1% From table 11, most of questions were answered correctly, especially re-test. Some questions were answered correctly perfectly. Table 12: Average of the third test (one month after) Words Numbers Gestures mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. Productive 5.70 3.11 2.63 2.31 8.04 3.37 Recognition 7.22 2.74 4.48 2.97 8.41 2.63 Receptive 7.44 2.65 7.59 2.94 On the third test was higher than the second test on the whole. And the s.d. score was smaller than the second test. 27 Table 13: percentage of the third words data productive productive recognition recognition re-test receptive receptive re-test re-test gotto 76.5% 94.1% 82.4% 82.4% 70.6% 76.5% pino 76.5% 94.1% 76.5% 100.0% 64.7% 94.1% salire 17.6% 76.5% 70.6% 76.5% 82.4% 88.2% grande 76.5% 88.2% 58.8% 88.2% 94.1% 100.0% domani 41.2% 76.5% 82.4% 100.0% 58.8% 82.4% vino 52.9% 82.4% 76.5% 82.4% 52.9% 82.4% piedi 41.2% 82.4% 64.7% 88.2% 94.1% 100.0% dire 41.2% 88.2% 58.8% 88.2% 41.2% 76.5% bianco 52.9% 64.7% 35.3% 76.5% 76.5% 94.1% andare 17.6% 64.7% 94.1% 88.2% 88.2% 100.0% On the third test, salire and andare were very different between previous test and re-test on the productive test. On the recognition test, bianco was higher, on the receptive test, dire was higher than previous test. And the percentage of correct answers of the recognition and receptive test had correct answers in pino, grande, domani, piedi, and andare. 28 Table 14: percentage of the third numbers data productive productive recognition recognition re-test re-test 59315 17.6% 88.2% 41.2% 82.4% 38167 11.8% 70.6% 23.5% 76.5% 091087 29.4% 47.1% 47.1% 52.9% 419538 0.0% 41.2% 23.5% 52.9% 711-0911 35.3% 70.6% 70.6% 70.6% 9672431 0.0% 17.6% 29.4% 35.3% 1945/08/15 52.9% 82.4% 88.2% 88.2% 64873249 5.9% 17.6% 23.5% 41.2% 090-5695-1678 11.8% 58.8% 52.9% 82.4% 513764821 0.0% 5.9% 23.5% 17.6% On the numbers test, meaningless numbers were lower score than meaning numbers, especially over seven places. From the table, this productive test was very difficult to memorize for them. 29 Table 15: Percentage of the third gestures data productive productive recognition recognition re-test receptive receptive re-test re-test let’s go 52.9% 88.2% 82.4% 100.0% 94.1% 100.0% angry 88.2% 100.0% 76.5% 100.0% 47.1% 100.0% what? 52.9% 94.1% 100.0% 100.0% 52.9% 94.1% good 88.2% 100.0% 58.8% 82.4% 82.4% 100.0% hungry 88.2% 100.0% 100.0% 94.1% 70.6% 94.1% what a smell! 100.0% 94.1% 76.5% 100.0% 82.4% 100.0% cool 76.5% 94.1% 58.8% 88.2% 76.5% 82.4% forget it 52.9% 88.2% 94.1% 100.0% 47.1% 88.2% long time ago 70.6% 94.1% 88.2% 94.1% 94.1% 100.0% alone 52.9% 82.4% 88.2% 100.0% 58.8% 94.1% On the gestures test, the percentage of correct answers had 100.0% on some questions, especially re-test. And from the table, most of the students could answer correctly. The following tables show scores on each type of information across the three tests. Through these tables, the scores are high on gestures section all the time, on the other hand the scores are low on numbers section. These below graphs divided by the types of the tests show the change of the score. 30 Figure 4: The productive test Figure 5: Recognition Test 10 Score 8 Words Numbers Gestures 6 4 2 0 First Second Third Time Figure 6: Receptive Test 10 Score 8 6 Words 4 Gestures 2 0 First Second Third Time 31 From these figures, the scores of the second test were low and the scores of the third test were higher than second test in all types of the tests. These blow figures are divided by types of information and show the change of scores. Figure 7: Words Test 10 Productive 6 Recognition 4 Receptive 2 0 First Second Third Time Figure 8: Numbers Test 10 8 Score Score 8 Productive 6 Recognition 4 2 0 First Second Third Time 32 Score Figure 9: Gestures Test 10 8 6 4 2 0 Productive Recognition Receptive First Second Third Time From these data, the subjects were good at memorizing gestures, but they were not good at memorizing unknown numbers. Table 16, 17 and 18 show data divided three groups. Table 16: Data of Group A First test Second test Third test Words Numbers Gestures Productive 5.67 2.89 7.89 Recognition 7.44 5.22 7.89 Receptive 7.00 Productive 3.78 1.33 5.33 Recognition 6.00 3.22 6.89 Receptive 4.78 Productive 4.22 1.22 6.44 Recognition 6.89 3.67 7.44 Receptive 6.44 6.44 4.44 6.00 The scores decreased in the second test but increased in the third test on the words section. Also, we can say same thing on the gestures section. However, on the numbers scores decreased, especially in the productive test. 33 Table 17: Data of Group B First test Second test Third test Words Numbers Gestures Productive 7.11 3.67 7.89 Recognition 8.44 4.44 8.33 Receptive 8.67 Productive 7.87 4.22 9.44 Recognition 8.56 5.78 9.56 Receptive 9.11 Productive 7.89 4.78 9.33 Recognition 9.22 5.44 9.67 Receptive 9.33 6.78 9.11 9.44 In Group B, this table shows the scores increased in most from the first test. The test having risen scores most was the receptive test of the gestures section; the scores increased over two points. 34 Table 18: Data of Group C First test Words Numbers Gestures Productive 6.88 3.25 9.75 Recognition 7.88 5.13 8.38 Receptive 6.88 Productive 4.38 1.75 6.88 8.25 5.38 9.38 6.38 4.25 8.25 8.75 6.75 9.13 8.00 Productive (re-test) Recognition Second test Recognition (re-test) Receptive 6.25 6.63 9.13 8.88 Receptive (re-test) Productive 5.75 2.13 8.13 8.50 5.25 9.38 7.13 4.88 9.13 9.13 6.63 9.50 Productive (re-test) Recognition Third test Recognition (re-test) Receptive 8.13 8.25 9.25 9.63 Receptive (re-test) From Table 7 the scores of Group C increased the most. This group had a re-test, 35 which meant they had seen the items again. On the second and third test, their scores had risen two to three points on the average on the each re-test especially in words and the numbers section. In numbers section on the third test, these groups had higher score than other groups. We will discuss these data in more detail in Chapter Three. Table 19: asking about memorizing Q1) Do you like memorizing information? 63% Q2) Are you good at memorizing new words? 26% Q3) Are you good at memorizing numbers? 15% Q4) Are you good at memorizing gestures? 48% Q5) Are you good at matching names with things? 37% The data in Table 17 show almost all of the subjects were not good at memorizing especially, numbers. It also showed results of the questionnaire; numbers section is low score in all tests compared with words and gestures sections. 2.4 Summary In this chapter, the experiment was conducted. In the experiment, 27 subjects were divided into three groups and they took three type tests three times. Those types were words, numbers and gestures section. On each test, the score of the gestures section were high scores, on the other hand, the score of the numbers section were low score. Also, the questionnaire on the first test asked about their memorizing. It was interesting that comparing the first test with second test, the scores decreased, but comparing the second test with the third test, the scores increased in some tests or section. The reasons for these data and others will be analyzed in the next chapter. 36 Chapter Three: Discussion 3.1 Introduction We looked at the kinds of memory and forgetting in Chapter One. In Chapter Two, we looked at whether there are differences depending on the types of information, whether how long time they memorize unknown information, by asking the students to take tests. Their capacity will be revealed by comparing the data of three tests in Chapter Two. Now we will look at the results of test and discuss the data in detail. Finally the answers to the research question will be presented, and the limitations of the research will be started. 3.2 Summary of the results In Chapter Two, we looked at the results of the tests and questionnaire. Most of the subjects took tests twice or three times. The scores of the gestures ware higher than the others on average, but the scores of the numbers were the lowest. In addition, from result of Group A and C, we can see they cannot remember unknown information so long time. 3.3 Discussion of the results In this section, we will look at the results of test in detail and discuss them. 3.3.1 Discussion of tests The subjects took the same first test. In the words section, they answered correctly gotto, pino grande. These words were easier to memorize than others, because they have heard or seen similar words in their daily life. For example, gotto is a part of got in English, pino is the name of goods in Japan, and grande is like to grand in English and is a name for 37 coffee sizes in Starbucks. These words are short letters and short syllables. On the other hand, it is difficult to memorize domani, andare, piedi. Some students may have mistakenly written not domani but domain in English. The words which were easy to memorize got high score in all sections. However, the words which are difficult to memorize scored lowly in all sections. The numbers 59315 and 38167 both have five decimals, but the score of 38167 was 33.3% on the productive test, and 51.9% on the recognition test. In case of seven decimals, 711-0911 was the third high score, but 9672431 was the second lowest score on the productive test. On the receptive test, 711-0911 was the third highest score on the recognition test, but 9672431 was 25.9%. And 1945/08/15 was the second highest score on the productive test, it is the highest score on the recognition test. However, 64873249 was the second lowest score on the productive test, and the lowest score on the recognition test. From the numbers, so in the numbers test, meaning numbers tend to memorize easily, but no meaning numbers tend to do difficulty. Gestures test is high score as a whole. Most of the subjects answered correctly in gestures test. Especially, good, hungry, and cool were higher score in all section. On the other hand, “what?” had a lower score than others, especially the receptive test. From the data, subjects can memorize gestures which they use in daily life or they can image phrases with pictures. The subjects took second and third test by groups. However, in this section, we look all sections without relation of groups. In the result of the second test, it was lower than first test. The reason is thought that Group A and C did not study before the test, in short, they took tests with only their memory, so the scores decreased in the second test. In the result of the third test, the scores were higher than second test. In also this test, Group A and C did take the test as same the second test. However, their scores were higher. The reason is thought their memory left, so their whole scores were a little higher than second test. 38 In all tests, high and low score questions were similar. In the words question, high score was gotto, pino, and grande, but low score was domani, piedi, salire, and andare. In the numbers question, high score was 59315, 711-0911, and 1945/08/15, but low score was 9672431, 64873249, and 513764821. In gestures question, good, hungry, angry and cool were high score, on the other hand, let’s go, what? and alone were low score. In the whole of the tests, recognition and receptive tests tend to be high score than the productive test. 3.3.2 Discussion of the tests by groups The subjects were divided three groups. Group A could study only the first time, so second and third time, they did not study; they answered only from their memory. Group B took the same tests three times. And Group C could study after their tests and took tests again (re-test). The result of words section of Group A was 5.67 on the productive tests, 7.44 on the recognition test, and 7.00 on the receptive test of the first test. The scores of second test were lower than the first test. The second productive score was 3.78, recognition score was 6.00, and receptive score was 4.78. However, on the third test, the scores were a little high. The score of the productive test was 4.22, the recognition test was 6.89, and receptive test was 6.44. Also in the numbers and gestures test, the second score was lower than the first score, but the scores of the third test were higher than the second test except numbers the productive test. In the case of Group B, most of the scores were a bit higher. On the productive score of the words section, the first test was 7.11, the second was 7.87, and the third time was 7.89 points in average. Also, on the receptive test of the gestures section, first time was 6.78, second time was 9.11, and third time was 9.44 points in average. Group C’s second test scores decreased in all section, but re-test scores increased. In the third test, the scores of not re-test were higher than second test, and the most of re-test 39 scores were higher than second test. Especially, the first words receptive score was 6.88 points but 8.50 points in the third re-test, and the first numbers productive score was 3.25 points but the third test was 5.25 points. So these scores increased over two points. On the other hand, the gestures scores changed little, but most scores were over eight points. 3.3.3 Discussion of the tests by sections On the productive, recognition, and receptive test, the second test was lower than first test, and third test was higher than second test. In the scores, it was the receptive test that there were little different, on the other hand, it was the productive test that there were most different. On the productive test, there were about 3.4 points on average in each section. On the recognition test, the differences between each section were about 2.4 points on average. In case of receptive test, there were differences little; it was less than 1 point. In all tests were almost parallel translation. This means that even if they took same test many times, their capacity had limitation to memorize for once. On words section, the subjects were good at receptive test, but they were not good at the productive test. So, this result means they can translate Italian into Japanese, but they cannot write Italian words from Japanese. They felt it was easy to translate or recall Italian words (foreign languages) into Japanese (mother tongue), because receptive test was taken last. On numbers test, it was difficult for them to memorize the numbers. However, the some numbers had meaning. Those are 59315 (kokusaigo; a pun), 091087 (students number in Notre Dame Seishin University), 711-0911 (a post code), 1945/08/15 (a date of the end of the WWⅡ), and 090-5695-1678 (phone number). From the result of the number section, they can memorize the meaning of numbers easier than meaningless numbers. And, the productive test was very hard for them, especially long numbers. In the case of gestures test, recognition test kept high score three times. 40 3.3.4 Discussion for Questionnaire The questionnaire asked about memorizing. Over sixty percent of the subjects answered they like memorizing information, but less than fifty percent of them said they are not good at memorizing words, numbers and gestures. And over half of them answered that they are not good at matching names with things. This data shows that they like memorizing but not good at. Especially, in numbers section and gestures receptive test, this data is matching. 3.4 Answering the Research Questions In this section, we will discuss the answers of the research questions. 3.4.1 Research Question 1: How long can the subjects remember information? It is difficult to say how long they remember information in detail. However, in the result of Group A, the subjects almost forgot information on the second test. This means Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve is correct. And they cannot remember long words and numbers or meaningless for long time. 3.4.2 Research Question 2: Is there a difference in memory by kinds of information? Most of the subjects answered many words and gestures questions. However, over half of them could not get more than five points in numbers question, especially on the productive test. In other words, we had information to memorize easily or difficultly, 41 3.4.3. Research Question 3: What information can students memorize easily or difficultly? From the result, it is difficult to memorize for most of the subjects enumeration of numbers, but when numbers have meaning or are divided two or three groups, they feel easy to memorize. And with pictures, they are easy to bring the words and their image or pictures, therefore, they feel easy to memorize, and they are difficult to forget or easy to recall. 3.5 Implications from the data People memorize and forget something every day. In this time, the subjects take the tests three time, some people could answer correctly three times. But some people could take correct answer in first time, but on the second time they could not take correct answer. These may depend on their feeling, physical condition, and so on. However, to memorize for long time, they study again and again because people memorize many things in our daily life and forget them. 3.6 Limitation of the Experiment There are some limitations to the experiment. First, the number of subjects was small, it was 27. This number is not so enough to get good results. So, in order to make stronger evidence, it would have been better to ask many more students to take the test, and collect more data. Secondly, the subjects were in the English department, but only juniors and seniors in the university. It would have been better to research a wide range of ages, not only the university students. In thee case, there may be a difference in the results of test, and we could compare different age groups. Thirdly, the number or words, numbers, and gestures used in the test was limited. If 42 there is more information, we could get more elements to analyze. Also, to add pictures with word test may have been a good idea. 3.7 Further research To follow up this research, there are some ideas. First, if they listen to words and numbers, how are different in their memory. In the case, we can analyze the data of only listening, listening and watching, and only watching, because this research focused on watching. If they know there are the relations, it may be easier to memorize information. Secondly, is there different in memory, in case of scattered about not listing when they memorize information? If they know the result, they may change their ways to memorize. 3.8 Conclusion From this experiment, it can be said that the students have the ability to memorize many things at time but they cannot memorize for long time, and they have things to memorize easily or not. Of course, everyone has different the things, so if some of them are good at memorizing words. However, most of the subjects are not good at memorizing numbers, especially, no meaning numbers, but some of them tried to memorize the numbers by writing. 43 References Atkinson, R.C. & Shiffrin, R.M. 1968. Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K.W. Spence (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: advances in research and theory Vol.2 (pp.89-195). New York: Academic Press. Baddeley, A.D. 1986. Working memory. Oxford: OUP Baddeley, A.D. 1990. Human memory. Newbury House Bahrick, H.P. 1984. Memory fir people. In H.E. Harris & P.E. Morris (Eds.), Everyday memory, actions and absent mindedness (pp. 19-34). London: Academic Press Ebbinghaus, H. 1985. Uber das Gedachtnis. Leipizi: Dunker. (Translation by H. Ruyer and C.E. Bussenius, 1913, Memory.) Galton, F. 1883. Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Everyman Edition, London: Dent. Glucksberg, S., & Cowan, G.N. Jr. 1970. Memory for nonattended auditory material. Cognitive Psychology , 1, 149-156 Hitch, G. J. 1978. The role of short-term working memory in mental arithmetic. Cognitive Psychology, 10, 302-323 44 Memory – Structures and Functions (State University). Acessed October 1, 2012 〈 http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2222/Memory-STRUCTURES-FUNCTIONS.ht ml〉 Miller, G.A. 1956. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97 Monica G.M. 1996. Types and Qualities of Knowledge, Educational Psychologist, 31(2), 105-113 Smith, E.E. 1978. Theories of semantic memory. In W.K. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, Vol. 63 Sperling, G. 1963. A model for nisual memory tasks. Human Factors, 5, 19-31 Squire, L.R. 1982. Comparisons between forms of amnesia: Somme deficits are unique to Korsakoff’s Syndrome. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 8, 560-571 The Human Memory Works (How Stuff Works) Accessed September 16, 2012 〈http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/human-memory.htm〉 Tulving, E. 1976. In J. Brown (Ed.), Recall and recognition. London: John Wiley & Sons. 45 Appendices Appendix A: Words test Memorize these words ・salire:乗る ・vino:ワイン ・bianco:白 ・grande:大きい ・dire:言う ・gatto:猫 ・domani:明日 ・andare:行く ・piedi:足 ・pino:松 ①Write the words in Italian 1)猫: 2)松: 3)乗る: 4)大きい: 5)明日: 6)ワイン: 7)足: 46 8)言う: 9)白: 10)行く: ②Circle the words you memorized blanc mattina dire nero pino notte domain notte salire casa vent gatto bianco rosso ciel arrivare vino porte lac cane piedi salice andare grande ③Write in Japanese. 1) bianco: 2) dire: 3) piedi: 4) grande: 5) salire: 6) domani: 7) pino: 8) andare: 9) vino: 10) gatto: 47 Appendix B: Numbers test Memorize these numbers ・59315 ・38167 ・091087 ・419538 ・711-0911 ・9672431 ・1945/08/15 ・64873249 ・513764821 ・090-5695-1678 ①Write the numbers 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 48 ②Circle the numbers you memorized 78543 51595 59315 091087 091071 101058 700-0822 711-0911 710-0146 1945/07/04 1945/08/15 1865/08/15 090-5695-1678 090-3785-1684 090-5695-1647 46851 38167 68217 438516 419538 698547 2197854 4876349 9672431 64873249 74698524 60834682 465701359 540096148 513764821 Appendix C: Gestures test Memorize these gestures and meanings. Hungry Good Alone 49 Long Time Ago What? Angry Forget it! Let’s Go What a smell! Cool ⑥Choose the number of picture to match a meaning. 1) Let’s Go 2) Angry ① ② ③ 3) What? 4) Good 5) Hungry 6) What a smell! 7) Cool! ④ ⑤ 8) Forget It 9) Long Time Ago 10) Alone 50 ⑥ ⑦ ⑨ ⑧ ⑦Circle the pictures you memorized. 51 ⑩ ⑧Write the meaning of these pictures. 1) 2) 5) 6) 9) 10) 3) 7) ④ 8) Thank you very much. Maki Fujiwara 52 Appendix Aa: Words test (Japanese version) 以下の単語を覚えてください ・salire:乗る ・vino:ワイン ・bianco:白 ・grande:大きい ・dire:言う ・gatto:猫 ・domani:明日 ・andare:行く ・piedi:足 ・pino:松 ①イタリア語で書いてください 1)猫: 2)松: 3)乗る: 4)大きい: 5)明日: 6)ワイン: 7)足: 8)言う: 9)白: 10)行く: 53 ②覚えた単語を○で囲んでください blanc mattina dire nero pino notte domain notte salire casa vent gatto bianco rosso ciel arrivare vino porte lac cane piedi salice andare grande ③Write in Japanese. 1) bianco: 2) dire: 3) piedi: 4) grande: 5) salire: 6) domani: 7) pino: 8) andare: 9) vino: 10) gatto: 54 Appendix Bb: Numbers test (Japanese version) 以下の数字を覚えてください ・59315 ・38167 ・091087 ・419538 ・711-0911 ・9672431 ・1945/08/15 ・64873249 ・513764821 ・090-5695-1678 ④覚えた数字を書いてください 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 55 ⑤覚えた数字を○で囲んでください 78543 51595 59315 091087 091071 101058 700-0822 711-0911 710-0146 1945/07/04 1945/08/15 1865/08/15 090-5695-1678 090-3785-1684 090-5695-1647 46851 38167 68217 438516 419538 698547 2197854 4876349 9672431 64873249 74698524 60834682 465701359 540096148 513764821 Appendix Cc: Gestures test (Japanese version) 以下のジェスチャーと意味を覚えてください Hungry Good Alone 56 Long Time Ago What? Angry Forget it! Let’s Go What a smell! Cool ⑥意味に合うように右の番号からジェスチャーを選んでください 1) Let’s Go 2) Angry ① ② ③ 3) What? 4) Good 5) Hungry 6) What a smell! 7) Cool! ④ ⑤ 8) Forget It 9) Long Time Ago 10) Alone 57 ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ ⑦覚えたジェスチャーに○をつけてください 58 ⑩ ⑧以下のジェスチャーの意味をかいてください 1) 2) 5) 6) 9) 10) 3) 7) ④ 8) ご協力ありがとうございました。 藤原 麻希 59