Download Day 9

9
Conservation of Species
and Habitats
PowerPoint® Slides prepared Stephen Turnbull
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Inc.
© 2010 Pearson Education Canada
9-1
Housekeeping Items
• How’s everyone? Thanks to Chelsea for her help last week.
• How was Jeff’s talk?
• What about Robert Wager, and the segment from the film,
“Deconstructing Supper”?
• The assignment which you did not receive, but which I resent by e-mail, will be due on October 16th. It will take the
place of the mid-term. However, there is a handful of
people who may choose to do the mid-term instead.
• Does anyone know what the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) is? It released its 5th assessment
report on the 27th, with more detailed reports to follow.
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Upon successfully completing this chapter,
you will be able to
• Characterize the scope and value of biodiversity on Earth
• Describe ways to measure biodiversity
• Evaluate the primary causes of biodiversity loss
• Specify the benefits and challenges of conserving habitat
and the role of habitat fragmentation
• Contrast in situ and ex situ conservation approaches
• Compare and contrast traditional and innovative
conservation efforts
• Outline reasons for setting aside parks, reserves, and other
protected areas
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9-3
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9-4
Central Case: Saving the Polar Bear: What
Will it Take?
• “There will be no polar ice by 2060. Somewhere along that
path, the polar bear drops out.”
• Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
(COSEWIC) – for political reasons the polar bear was not be
listed as a “threatened” species, though in the U.S. they are
• Polar bears are coming into contact and interbreeding with
other types of bears
• Polar bears are appearing more frequently in human
settlements
• Traditional Inuit hunting practices are being affected by the
loss of sea ice, a process for which they are not responsible
• What will it take to save the polar bear?
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9-5
Our Planet of Life
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9-6
Biodiversity encompasses several levels
• Biodiversity = sum total of all
organisms in an area at
whatever scale, including
- Ecosystem diversity
- Species diversity
- Genetic diversity
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9-7
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
• Species Diversity = the number or variety of
species in the world or in a particular region
- Species richness = the number of species
- Evenness or relative abundance = extent to
which numbers of individuals of different
species are equal or skewed
- Speciation generates new species and adds to
species richness
- Extinction reduces species richness
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9-8
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
• Species Diversity
- Immigration is the inmigration of a
species to an area
- Emigration is the outmigration of a
species from an area
- Extirpation is the local extinction of a
species
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9-9
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
• Genetic Diversity
- All species consist of individuals that vary
genetically from one another to some degree
(this is as much true for humans as it is for
other species)
- Encompasses the varieties in DNA among
individuals within species and populations
- The raw material for adaptation to local
conditions, though some species can adapt
much more quickly (such as the peppered
moth)
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9-10
Peppered Moth
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Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
• Genetic Diversity
- Populations with low genetic diversity are
vulnerable
- Inbreeding depression = genetically similar
parents mate and produce inferior offspring
(e.g. certain offspring of overly inbred royal
families)
- Genetic bottleneck = limited variety of
genetic material is available to be passed
along by the small number of surviving
individuals to their descendants
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9-12
Biodiversity encompasses several levels (cont’d)
• Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety
of ecosystems
• Also encompasses differing communities and
habitats
• Rapid vegetation change and varying
landscapes within an ecosystem promote
higher levels of biodiversity
• Ecotones = where different types of habitats
intermix
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9-13
Some groups hold more species than others
• Insects predominate over
all other life-forms –
hence a lack of ‘eveness’
- 40% of all insects are
beetles
• Groups accumulate
species by
- Adaptive radiation
- Allopatric speciation
- Low rates of
extinction
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9-14
Insects outnumber all other species
Mammals= 2.7-03%
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9-15
Measuring biodiversity is not easy
• Precise quantitative measurements are difficult
• About 1.8 million species but likely higher
• Incomplete for several reasons
- Some areas of Earth little explored
- Many species are tiny and overlooked
- Many organisms are difficult to identify
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9-16
Biodiversity is unevenly distributed on the planet
• Latitudinal
gradient = species
richness increases
towards the equator
• Plant productivity
and climate stability
play key roles
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9-17
Latitudinal gradient has many causes
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9-18
Biodiversity Loss and Species Extinction
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Biodiversity loss and species extinction
• Canadian Species at Risk Act uses categorizes:
- Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species
dies and the species ceases to exist
- Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular
population from a given area, but not the entire species
globally
- Endangered = species in imminent danger of
becoming extirpated or extinct
- Threatened = species likely to become endangered in
the near future
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9-20
Extinction and extirpation occur naturally
• Paleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever
lived are now extinct
• Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions
for a variety of reasons
• 1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species
would go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years
- 1 extinction per 1 to 10 million species for mammals
and marine species
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9-21
Extinction and extirpation occur naturally
(cont’d)
• Earth has experienced five previous mass extinction episodes
• In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have
eliminated at least 50% of all species
• Today’s mass extinction is caused by humans and humans
will suffer as a result of it
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9-22
Some species are more vulnerable to
extinction than others
• In general, extinction occurs when environmental
conditions change so severely that a species cannot
adapt to the change
• Vulnerable = species that are of particular concern
because of characteristics that make them particularly
sensitive to human activities or natural events
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9-23
Humans may have started the sixth mass extinction
Extinctions followed human arrival on islands and continents
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Humans may have started the sixth mass
extinction (cont’d)
• Global extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times greater than
background rate
• The Red List = an updated list of species facing high
risks of extinctions
- 23% of mammal species
- 12% of bird species
- 17% to 75% of all other species
• Extinction is only part of the story of biodiversity loss,
the larger part of the story is decline in population sizes
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9-25
Endangered
Species
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Humans may have started the sixth mass extinction (cont’d)
• The Living Planet
Index quantifies
biological
degradation
- Between 1970
and 2007, the
Index fell by
30%
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9-27
There are several major causes of
biodiversity loss
• Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted
and factors may interact synergistically
• Causes of population decline:
- Habitat alteration
- Invasive species
- Pollution, including pesticides
- Overharvesting
- Climate change
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9-28
There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
• Habitat alteration
- The greatest cause of biodiversity loss
- Farming simplifies communities
- Grazing modifies the grassland structure and
species composition
- Clearing forests removes resources organisms
need
- Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into reservoirs
upstream
- Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce
natural communities
- A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from
changing habitats
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9-29
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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
• Invasive species
- Introduction of non-native species to new
environments
- Accidental: zebra mussels
- Deliberate: food crops
- Island species are especially vulnerable
- Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or
parasites
- Cost billions of dollars in economic damage
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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
• Pollution
- Harms organisms in many ways
- Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems
- Water pollution adversely affects fish and
amphibians
- Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and
aquatic species
- The effects of oil and chemical spills on
wildlife are dramatic and well known
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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
• Overharvesting
- Vulnerable species are large, few in number,
long-lived, and have few young (K-selected
species)
- The Siberian tiger (The 1989 political
freedom in Soviet Union brought the freedom
to hunt)
- Atlantic gray whale has gone extinct
- Thousands of sharks killed just for fins
- Gorillas killed for their meat
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There are several major causes of biodiversity loss (cont’d)
• Climate change
- Global impact on habitat and biodiversity
- Greenhouse gases modifies global weather
patterns and increases the frequency of extreme
weather events
- Increases stress on populations and forces
organisms to shift their geographic ranges
- Most animals and plants will not be able to cope
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• Over 2500 amphibian species worldwide are in decline
• Some may be lost before they are even discovered
• Amphibians are regarded as “biological indicators”
• Habitat loss, especially draining of wetlands, is the
leading threat to amphibians in Canada
- Pollution, fragmentation also problems
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9-35
Benefits of Biodiversity
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Biodiversity provides ecosystem services
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Provides food, fuel, and fibre
Provides shelter and building materials
Purifies air and water
Detoxifies and decomposes wastes
Stabilizes and moderates Earth’s climate
Moderates floods, droughts, wind, and temperature extremes
Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients
Pollinates plants, including many crops
Controls pests and diseases
Maintains genetic resources as inputs to crop varieties,
livestock breeds, and medicines
The annual value of just
• Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits
17 ecosystem services =
$16 to 54 trillion per
• Gives us the means to adapt to change
year
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9-37
Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem
integrity
• Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of
communities and ecosystems
- Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s ability
to function and provide services to our society
• The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently
- If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it
may make little difference
- Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species
to decline or disappear
• Precautionary principle: “To keep every cog and wheel is
the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” (Aldo Leopold)
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Biodiversity enhances food security
• Genetic diversity within crops is enormously
valuable
- California’s barley crops annually receive $160
million in disease resistance benefits from
Ethiopian strains of barley
• Wild strains provide disease resistance and have
the ability to grow back year after year without
being replanted
• New potential food crops are waiting to be used
- Serendipity berry produces a sweetener 3,000
times sweeter than sugar
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9-39
Biodiversity provides drugs and medicines
• Each year
pharmaceutical
products owing
their origin to wild
species generate
up to $150 billion
in sales
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9-40
weighing
the issues
How Best to Conserve Biodiversity?
•Most people view national parks and ecotourism as
excellent ways to help keep ecological systems intact.
Yet the golden toad went extinct despite living within a
reserve established to protect it, and climate change
does not pay attention to park boundaries.
•What lesson can we learn from this about the
conservation of biodiversity?
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Biodiversity provides additonal economic
benefits
• Ecotourism is particularly beneficial in
developing and developed countries alike
- Costa Rica: rainforests
- Australia: Great Barrier Reef
- Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests
• Incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce
impacts on the landscape and on native species
• However, too many visitors can degrade the
outdoor experience and disturb wildlife
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People value and seek out connections with
nature
• Biophilia = connections that humans
subconsciously seek with life
- Our affinity for parks and wildlife
- Keeping of pets
- High value of real estate with
views of natural lands
• Nature deficit disorder = alienation
from the natural environment
- May be behind the emotional and
physical problems of the young
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Approaches to Conservation
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Conservation biology addresses habitat
degradation and species loss
• Conservation biology = understanding the factors, forces,
and processes that influence the loss and protection, and
restoration of biological diversity
• Conservation biologists choose questions and pursue
research with the aim of developing solutions to the
problems of habitat degradation and species loss
- Applied and goal-orientated science, with implicit
values and ethical standards
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Conservation biology arose in response to biodiversity loss
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Conservation biology addresses habitat
degradation and species loss (cont’d)
• Use field data, lab data, theory, and experiments to
study impacts of humans on other organisms
• Design, test, and implement ways to mitigate impacts
• Minimum viable population = how small a
population can become before it runs into problems
• Organisms distributed as a network of subpopulations
- Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction
and need special attention
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Island biogeography can help address
habitat fragmentation
• Equilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains
how species come to be distributed among oceanic
islands
- Also applies to “habitat islands” – patches of one
habitat type isolated within a “sea” of others
- Explains how the number of species on an island
results from an equilibrium between immigration and
extirpation
- Predicts an island’s species richness based on the
island’s size and distance from the mainland
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Island biogeography can help address habitat
fragmentation (cont’d)
• Species richness results from island size and distance
• Fewer species colonize an island far from the mainland
• Large islands have higher immigration rates
• Large islands have lower extinction rates
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Island biogeography can help address habitat
fragmentation (cont’d)
• Species-area curves
- Large islands contain more
species than small islands
- They are easier to find
and have lower
extinction rates
- They possess more
habitats
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9-50
Island biogeography can help address habitat
fragmentation (cont’d)
• Habitat fragmentation
- Forests are fragmented by
roads and logging
- Small forest fragments lose
diversity fastest
- Starting with large
species
- Fragmentation is one of the
prime threats to biodiversity
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Captive breeding and cloning are
single-species approaches
• Captive breeding – individuals are bred and raised with the
intent of reintroducing them into the wild
- Zoos and botanical gardens
• Some reintroductions require international cooperation
- Whooping cranes in Wood Buffalo Park (Canada) and Gulf
coast of Texas (U.S.)
• Some habitat is so fragmented, a species cannot survive once
reintroduced
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Captive breeding and cloning are singlespecies approaches (cont’d)
• Cloning – a technique to create more individuals and
save species from extinction
- Most biologists agree that these efforts are not
adequate to recreate the lost biodiversity
• Even if cloning can succeed, ample habitat and protection
in the wild are needed to save species
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Some species act as “umbrellas” to protect
communities
• Conservation biologists use particular umbrella species
(e.g. tigers, bears, and elephants) as tools to conserve
communities and ecosystems
- helps protect less-charismatic animals
• Flagship species – large and charismatic species used as
spearheads for biodiversity conservation
- The World Wildlife Fund’s panda bear
• Some organizations are moving beyond the single species
approach to focus on whole landscapes
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Conservation efforts are both national and
international
• 2002: Species at Risk Act stresses cooperation with
landowners and governments to avoid hostility
- Some say SARA is too weak
• COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered
Wildlife in Canada) = expert committee that reports the
status of species at risk
• 1973: UN Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) – protects endangered species by banning
international transport of their body parts
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Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity
• Biodiversity hotspots – prioritizes
regions most important globally
for biodiversity
- Support a great number of
endemic species = species
found nowhere else in the world
- The area must have at least
1500 endemic plant species
(0.5% of the world total)
- It must have lost 70% of its
habitat due to human impact
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Hot spots highlight areas of high biodiversity
(cont’d)
There are 34 global biodiversity hotspots
2.3% of the planet’s land surface contains 50% of the world’s
plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species
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Community- based conservation is
increasingly popular
• Community-based conservation = conservation
biologists actively engage local people in
protecting land and wildlife
- Protecting land deprives people access to
resources
- Can guarantee that these resources will not be
used up or sold to foreign corporations and can
instead be sustainably managed
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Innovative economic strategies are being
employed
• Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization
pays off a portion of a developing country’s international
debt
- In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside
reserves
- Fund environmental education, and
- Better manage protected areas
• Conservation concession = conservation organizations
pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources
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Parks and Reserves
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Why do we create parks and reserves?
• Enormous, beautiful, or unusual features inspire people to
protect them – monumentalism
• Protected areas offer recreational value to tourists, hikers,
fishers, hunters, and others
• Protected areas offer utilitarian benefits and ecosystem
services
• Parks make use of sites lacking economically valuable
material resources or that are hard to develop
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Why do we create parks and reserves (cont’d) ?
• There are 43 national parks in Canada
• Many sites in a parks system also serve as
wildlife refuges
• Some find hunting in parks objectionable
- Hunters often in forefront of conservation
- Ducks Unlimited Canada
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Why do we create parks and reserves (cont’d) ?
• Not everyone supports land set-asides
• Wise-use movement – dedicated to protecting
private property rights; opposing government
regulation; transferring federal lands to state,
local, or private hands; promoting motorized
recreation on public lands
- Farmers, ranchers, trappers, mineral
prospectors, as well as groups representing
industries that extract timber, mineral, and
fossil fuels.
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Parks and reserves are increasing
internationally
• Many nations have established national park
systems and are benefiting from ecotourism
• Parks in developing countries do not always receive
the funding, legal support, or enforcement support
they need to manage resources
• Many of the world’s protected areas are merely
paper parks
- Costa Rican parks initially received little funding
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Parks and reserves are increasing
internationally (cont’d)
• World Heritage Sites – under national sovereignty but
are designated or partly managed internationally by the
United nations
• Biosphere reserves – tracts of land with exceptional
biodiversity that couple preservation with sustainable
development to benefit local people
- Core area
- Buffer zone
- Outer transitional one
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Conclusion
• Loss of biodiversity threatens to result in a mass
extinction
• Primary causes of biodiversity loss are:
- Habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution,
overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate
change
• Human society cannot function without biodiversity’s
pragmatic benefits
• Science can help save species, preserve habitats,
restore populations, and keep natural ecosystems
intact
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QUESTION: Review
Which level is NOT included in the concept of
biodiversity?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Species
Genetics
Ecosystems
All of the above are included in this concept
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QUESTION: Review
What happens when a species experiences “inbreeding
depression”?
a) The species becomes too large for the resource base
b) Genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior
offspring
c) Genetically similar parents mate and produce
superior offspring
d) The number and variety of species increases
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QUESTION: Review
According to the concept of “latitudinal gradient,”
which of the following happens?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Species richness increases towards the equator
Species richness decreases towards the equator
Species richness decreases over time
Countries like Canada have many more species than
expected
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is the major cause of extinction?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Invasive species
Pollution
Habitat loss
Overharvesting
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QUESTION: Review
Biodiversity does all of the following, except…
a)
b)
c)
d)
Provide ecosystem services
Decrease food security
Maintain ecosystem function
Provide aesthetic benefits
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QUESTION: Review
According to the theory of island biogeography, which
island would have the highest species richness?
a)
b)
c)
d)
A large island, close to the mainland
A large island, far from the mainland
A small island, close to the mainland
A small island, far from the mainland
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QUESTION: Review
A “biodiversity hotspot” is…?
a) An area located near the equator
b) An area that supports few, but large, species
c) An area that contains naturally high numbers of
people
d) An area that contains a large number of endemic
species
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QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Where would ecotourists go to view the maximum species
richness on these islands?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Redonda
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Hispaniola
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