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APES
Chapter 8
Biodiversity and Conservation
Biology
Different Levels of Diversity
• Species Diversity: Differences in genes…
interbreeding is possible… Looking at Species
and Subspecies levels
• Genetic Diversity: Differences in DNA
composition of individuals w/in species or
populations
• Ecosystem Diversity: the number and variety
of ecosystems w/in an area
Our Planet of Life
• Species: Biodiverstiy
– Numbers- relative numbers within an area; regionally,
globally, etc.
– Species Richness: number of species
• Taxonomy: King Plays Chess On Fat Guys Stomach
• Biodiversity exists BELOW Species:
– Subspecies: populations that occur in different
geographic areas and differ from one another in some
characteristic(s).
• Formed by same process as speciation, but falls short of
divergence that creates new species
– Canus lupus famillarus (dom dog), Canus lupus dingo (dingo)
» Polytypic = many subspecies vs monotypic = no subspecies
Subspecies: the level below a species
• Subspecies = populations of species that occur
in different areas and differ slightly from each
other
– Divergence stops short of separating the species
– Subspecies are denoted with a third part of the
scientific name
Bengal tiger =
Panthera tigris
tigris
Siberian tiger =
Panthera tigris
altaica
Bengal Tiger
Siberian Tiger Panthera tigris altaica
Panthera tigris tigris
Malayan Tiger
Panthera tigris jacksoni
South Chinese Tiger
Panthera tigris amoyensis
Indo-Chinese Tiger
Panthera tigris corbetti
Sumatran Tiger
Panthera tigris sumatrae
Tigers
• You tube it ;)
• You Tube: Planet in Peril
• NY Times
Big Take Home Message:
• Immigration, Emigration, Local Extinctions
may cause increases or decreases in local
Species Richness numbers, however……………
• ONLY speciation and extinction can change
Species Richness globally!!!
Genetic Diversity
• Encompasses differences in DNA composition
among individuals w/in species and populations
• Provides raw material for adaptation to local
environments
– Subspecies w/in tigers: thin coat of the Bengal Tiger,
vs thick coat of the Siberian Tiger
• More genetic diversity, stronger the population
• Populations w/little genetic diversity are
vulnerable to environmental change
– Disease, inbreeding depression (offspring are weak
and/or defective)
Ecosystem Diversity
• Number and variety of ecosystems
– Can also refer to biotic community types or
habitats w/in specified areas.
• Can also refer to geographic arrangement of habitat,
community or ecosystem at landscape level if large area
Monoculture
crop of corn
vs. coral
reef; reef
will have
much more
diversity
Some Hold More than Others
• The number one species on Earth is?????
– Insect
• What type of insect???????
– Beetle……. 40% of all insects are beetles!!!!
• Different reasons for numbers
– Allopatric speciation
– Low extinction rate
– Adaptive radiation
Insects outnumber all other species
Do we know all the #’s?
• No
• We can estimate: from 5-30 million different
species
• Many reasons for this
– Size: many are small and overlooked
– Many have been classified wrong: dolphins
– Exploration of certain areas is very poor
• Entomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle
species living on one tree in C. Amer. 1982used insecticide fog est. ~8,150,000 sp of
beetle worldwide!!
Still Finding Species?
• YES!!!
• 2005 New Guinea:
– 40 Species of vertebrates, plants, butterflies in less than
1 month
– Same area, another 50 species from marine env!!
• Nov 1st 2012, 9 Brazillian Spiders!! Tarantula
• Sept 15, 2012, New African Monkey Monkey
• June 7th 2011, Madagascar critters!! Madagascar
Uneven Distribution
• Latitudinal Gradient: Species richness
increases as you approach the equator:
• Plant productivity
• Climate Stability
Canada has 30–100 species of
breeding birds, while Costa Rica
has more than 600 species
– These factors help ensure biodiversity- many different types of
critters can co-exist here
– These are generally occupied by specialists: generalists occupy
areas of varying change, but stable conditions allow for more
specialized lifestyles
– For any area: diversity increases with increase in
diverse habitats
Activity:
• Biodiversity Extinction Pamphlet: Overharvest
• Due Tuesday, November 20th, 2012
– Choose 7-10 endangered species that are
monitored because they are used as a
food/aphrodesiac/drug/trophy or medicine
– Create a pamphlet (of sorts) including;
• Why its endangered, where it is located, what body
part(s) is used and how it is used (soup, powder,
stuffed, etc.), fines if caught with it, any efforts to
alleviate problem
• Your choice of medium, be sure to include sources!!
Is Biodiversity Important?
• Extinctions
• Red List: updated list of sp. Facing high risk of
extinction.
• 2012: 25% of mammals, 33% reef-building coral,
13% birds, 44% amphibians, 30% conifers.
UNACCEPABLE!!!
• In the US over the last 500 yrs: 237 fauna, 30
flora
– Bali Tiger: 40’s, Caspian Tiger: 70’s, Javan Tiger: 80’s
Biodiversity Loss and Extinction
• When the last member of a species dies, the
species is thought to be EXTINCT
• When a particular population disappears, but
not the entire species it is EXTIRPATION
– This can lead to extinction
• Tigers have been extirpated, and are on their way to
extinction
• Is this a natural process?
– Of course; 99% of all sp that have ever lived are
extinct
Add Humans and You Get….
• Before humans, extinctions occurred at a
relative pace
– Background Rate of Extinction
• Typically it has an annual rate of one
extinction per 1 – 10 million species
• In the past 440 million years, there have been
5 mass extinctions
• Each eliminated more than 1/5th of families,
and @ least ½ of the species
6th Extinction is Upon Us
• 2 differences:
– Humans have caused it
– We will suffer as a result of it
Humans and Extinctions
Outlook
• Scientists calculate that the current rate of
extinction (man induced) is 100-1,000 X that
of the background extinction rate
– 1 extinction per 1-10 million species
• Projected rate will increase 10 fold or more in
future decades!!!
• Since 1970, 58 fish species, 9 bird species, and
1 mammal species have gone extinct.
• UNACCEPTABLE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Activity
• Page 166-167: explain what IUCN is, what the
RED LIST is, and what the 2007 report states.
• Page 167-168: what is the UNEP, and what
does it measure
• Page 168-171: what are the major causes of
biodiversity loss? Give exaples and details of
each.
• EXTRA CREDIT!!!
– Research and decide how much one Mountain
Gorilla is worth (hint: we are not talking about on
the black mrkt; factor in his niche, trophic level,etc
Lets Review
• From yesterday,
– What is IUCN?
– How does the 2008 red-list differ from 2012?
– What is UNEP?
– What are the major causes of Biodiversity Loss?
• Living Planet Index: UNEP (United Nations Env
Programme), summarizes trends in pop. Of
887 t. sp, 458 fw sp, 341 m sp
– 1970-2005, Index fell by 28%.
• Most biodiversity on Tropical regions.
Causes of Biodiversity Loss
• Reasons for biodiversity losses are
multifaceted, complex, and hard to determine.
• Four primary causes of population decline are:
– Habitat alteration
– Invasive species
– Pollution
– Overharvesting
• Global climate change now is the fifth cause.
• Each factor is intensified by human population growth and resource
consumption.
Habitat Alteration
• The greatest cause of biodiversity loss
– Farming simplifies communities
– Grazing modifies grassland structure and species composition
– Clearing forests removes resources that organisms need.
– Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into upstream reservoirs and
affect floodplains downstream.
– Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural
communities.
• A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats.
Less than 1% of North America’s Great Plains remains, and
grassland bird populations have declined 82–99%.
Invasive Species
• Introduction of non-native species to new environments
– Accidental: zebra mussels
– Intentional: food crops
• Island species haven’t evolved defenses and are very vulnerable.
– Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites.
• Cost billions of dollars in economic damage each year
Pollution
• Harms organisms in many ways
– Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems.
– Water pollution adversely affects fish and
amphibians.
– Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic
species.
– The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are
dramatic and well known.
• Although pollution is a substantial threat…
– It tends to be cause less damage than habitat
alteration or invasive species.
Overharvesting
• Vulnerable species are large, few in
number, long-lived, and have few
young (K-selected species).
– The Siberian tiger is hunted
without rules and regulations.
– The early 1990s saw increased
tiger poaching because of
powerful economic incentives.
– Many other species affected:
Atlantic gray whale, sharks, gorillas
Today the oceans contain only 10% of the large animals
they once did.
Climate Change
• Our manipulation of earth’s climate system is
having global impacts on biodiversity.
• Emissions of greenhouse gases warm
temperatures.
– Modifies global weather patterns and increases
the frequency of extreme weather events
– Increases stress on populations and forces
organisms to shift their geographic ranges
• Most animals and plants will not be able to
cope.
Warming has had Greatest
Effect in the Arctic
The polar bear has been listed on the U.S.
endangered species list.
Biodiversity loss has causes and
consequences
Benefits of Biodiversity
• Provides ecosystems services for free 
– Food
– Fuel
– Fiber
– Shelter
– Building materials
– Purification for water and air
– Stabilizes Earths climate
– Controls pests and disease
– Etc.
• Transplants
– Elephants to America
Activity
• List the Remainder of “Benefits to Biodiversity”
from Your Text
• Weighing the Issues: Single Species
Conservation, pg. 180.
• Testing Comp. q’s, 1-3, Seeking Solutions, 1 & 2
Biodiversity benefits: maintain
ecosystem function
• Biodiversity increases the stability and
resilience of communities and ecosystems.
– Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s
ability to function and provide services to our
society.
• The loss of a species affects ecosystems
differently.
– Extinction of a keystone species may cause other
species to decline or disappear.
Biodiversity Benefits: Enhanced Food
• Genetic diversity in crops is
enormously valuable.
– Turkey’s wheat crops received
$50 billion worth of disease
resistance from wild wheat.
• New potential food crops are
waiting to be used.
– Serendipity berry produces a
sweetener 3,000 times
sweeter than sugar.
– Salt tolerant grasses can be
irrigated with seawater.
Drugs & Medicines
• Each year
pharmaceutical
products owing their
origin to wild species
generate up to $150
billion in sales.
– The rosy periwinkle
produces compounds
that treat Hodgkin's
disease and leukemia.
Economic benefits
• Biodiversity provides a source of income through tourism.
– Ecotourism: people visit natural areas, creating
economic opportunity for residents living near those
areas
– Costa Rica: rainforests
– Australia: Great Barrier Reef
– Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests
• A powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce
impacts on the landscape and species
• But too many visitors to natural areas can degrade the
outdoor experience and disturb wildlife
People Value Nature
• Biophilia: connections that humans
subconsciously seek with life
– Our affinity for parks and wildlife
– Keeping of pets
– High value of real estate with
views of natural lands
• Nature deficit disorder: alienation
from the natural environment
– May be behind the emotional and
physical problems of the young
Do we have ethical obligations to
other species?
• Many feel that living organisms have an innate
right to exist.
– Biodiversity conservation is justified on ethical
grounds.
– “If tigers aren’t worth saving, then what are we all
about? What is worth saving?”
• Despite our ethical convictions, and biodiversity’s
many benefits, the future of biodiversity remains
far from secure.
Conservation Biology
APES
Complete Ch 8
Why did it Arise?
• ………. We have begun to turn in our role from
local conqueror to global steward.
– E.O. Wilson: Naturalist, 1994
• Conservation Biology: scientific discipline
devoted to understanding the factors, forces
and processes that influence loss, protection,
and restoration of biological diversity
Disciplines W/In the Field
• Conservation Geneticists
– How small can a pop become, how much genetic
variation it can lose before problems such as
inbreeding depression
• Minimum viable population size
Island Biogeography Theory
Distance
Effect
The farther from
a continent,
fewer species
can locate and
inhabit it. Thus,
the more
remote the
island, the lower
the immigration
rate
Target Size
The larger
the Island
the more
room for
immigrants
Differential
Extinction
The larger the
island, the less
likely organisms
are to go extinct;
larger areas
allow for larger
populations,
who are less
vulnerable to
extinctions
Island Biogeography Thoery
• explore_island_biogeogrphy_START
Why does this matter?
• The Island Biogeography Theory shows:
– Larger islands show more equilibrium than smaller
ones due to factors such a more habitats,
resources, etc.
• Area Effect
– This data holds true for fragmented areas
• Forests fragmented by logging
– Diversity is lost quickly, starting with large animals 1st
– Usually your top predators
» Few numbers to begin with
What about Endangered Species?
• Endangered Species Act (1973)
– Govt and private industry cannot destroy endangered
species or their habitat
• Orange River Power Plant in Lee County
– Forbids trade in products made from end sp.
• 2008: 1,046 in US Endangered, 307 Threatened
Issues
•
•
•
•
Manatees in Florida
Spotted Owl in Pacific NW
Florida Panther in Florida
Gopher Tortoise in Florida
What can we do?
• Captive Breeding and Reintroduction
– Pros
– Cons
• Cloning?
– Pros
– Cons
• Umbrella Species: If this critter is in the area,
the area becomes protected ;)
– Flagship species:
• Pandas
• Panthers
• Bald eagles
Despite opposition, the ESA has
had successes
• Peregrine falcons, brown pelicans, bald eagles, and others have
recovered and are no longer listed as endangered.
• Intensive management has stabilized other species.
– The red-cockaded woodpecker
– 40% of declining populations are now stable.
• These successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.
– Recently, political forces have attempted to weaken the ESA.
– In 2006, 5,700 U.S. scientists wrote letters of protest to
Congress.
The ESA is controversial
• Most Americans support protecting endangered species.
• Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms
more than the livelihood of people.
– Private land use will be restricted if an endangered species
is present.
– “Shoot, shovel, and shut up”: landowners conceal the
presence of endangered species on their land
• But the ESA has stopped few development projects.
– Habitat conservation plans and safe harbor agreements:
landowners can harm species if they improve habitat for
the species in other places
International Level
• CITES (Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species)
– Protects trade in ES body parts
• Convention on Biological Diversity
– Conserve biodiversity
– Use biodiversity in a sustainable manner
– Ensure the fair distribution of biodiversity's benefits
• To date, 188 nations have signed on. US did NOT
• Conservation International
– Hotspots are located and focused upon
Hotspot: area with 1500 endemic plant species, and must have
already lost @ 70% of its habitat due to man. 34 total
These areas used to make up 15.7% of the planet; now it is
only 2.3%! Unacceptable 
This area is home to 50% of the worlds plant sp, 42% of
terrestrial vertebrate sp.
Think Globally, Act Locally ;)
• Community Based Conservation; making
conservation beneficial to local people
– Ecotourism
– Park rangers
– Parks and recreation areas
Conclusion
• Human induced habitat alteration, invasive
species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic
resources, and climate change are primary
reasons for biodiversity loss.
• Human society can not function without
biodiversity’s benefits
• We must care!!!
Activity
• Testing Comprehension Q’s: 6-10
• Calculating Ecological Footprints, 1-4 and data
table
– Above 2 due tomorrow
• Go to my web-page and follow the links for
the Endangered Species Assignment
– Due Tuesday, November 27th, 2012
• Review Tomorrow
• Exam Next Day
QUESTION: Review
Which level is NOT included in the concept of
biodiversity?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Species
Genetics
Ecosystems
All of the above are included in this concept.
QUESTION: Review
What happens when a species experiences
“inbreeding depression”?
a) The species becomes too large for the resource base
b) Genetically similar parents mate and produce
inferior offspring
c) Genetically similar parents mate and produce
superior offspring
d) The number and variety of species increases
e) An ecosystem’s biodiversity increases
QUESTION: Review
According to the concept of “latitudinal
gradient,” which of the following happens?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Species richness increases toward the equator
Species richness decreases toward the equator
Species richness decreases over time
Countries like Canada have many more species
than expected
e) People in warmer climates protect species better
than people in colder climates
QUESTION: Review
Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Very small species are often overlooked.
Remote areas may have unidentified species.
We have identified almost all species on Earth.
There are more insect species than any other type
of species.
e) Ecotones often have high biodiversity.
QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is the major cause of
extinction?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Invasive species
Pollution
Habitat loss
Overharvesting
These are pretty much equal in causing extinction.
QUESTION: Review
Biodiversity does all of the following EXCEPT:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Provide ecosystem services
Decrease food security
Maintain ecosystem function
Provide aesthetic benefits
Provide economic benefits
QUESTION: Review
According to the theory of island biogeography,
which island would have the LOWEST species
richness?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
A large island, close to the mainland
A large island, far from the mainland
A small island, close to the mainland
A small island, far from the mainland
None of these; islands don’t really have species
QUESTION: Review
A “biodiversity hotspot” is:
a) An area located near the equator
b) An area that supports few, but large, species
c) An area that contains naturally high numbers of
people
d) An area that contains a large number of
endemic species
e) An area where the wealthy can go on vacation
QUESTION: Review
Which statement about the U.S. Endangered
Species Act is FALSE?
a) It forbids the government, but not private
citizens, from harming endangered species.
b) It lists endangered and threatened species.
c) It is designed to prevent extinction.
d) It is designed to enable populations to increase.
e) It is designed to stabilize declining populations.
QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
If a pharmaceutical company produces a medicine from a plant
found in Costa Rica that will earn millions of dollars, who should
reap the financial benefits?
a) The company, because it had to pay millions of dollars to
discover and produce the drug
b) Costa Rica, because it had the plant that produced the drug
c) Taxpayers, because they fund lots of research through their
tax dollars
d) Native people in Costa Rica, because the company would not
have found the drug without their help
e) The native people, the company, and Costa Rica, because all
played a vital part in the drug’s discovery and development
QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
Have you ever personally experienced
evidence of the biophilia hypothesis?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Yes, I frequently feel a connection to other
living things and nature
Yes, sometimes, on a particularly lovely day
Maybe, but I’m not sure
No, because I don’t get to experience nature
often enough
Definitely not, unless I was going to earn
money from using nature
QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs
and Data
Where would ecotourists go to view the maximum
species richness on these islands?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Redonda
Montserrat
Puerto Rico
Hispaniola
Jamaica
QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs
and Data
Which biome lost the most area by 1950?
Which biome lost the most area in recent
decades?
a) Temperate
grassland, tropical
dry forest
b) Desert, savanna
c) Chaparral, tundra
d) Temperate
grassland, desert