Download astronomy - Jiri Brezina Teaching

NSCI-100
Introduction to
KL-KAPAUN, Bldg. 2784 EdC, Rm. 202
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
23 Jan - 12 Mar ‘08
MoWe (Sa), 17:00 – 19:45h
LECTURER: Dr. Jiri Brezina
phone/fax (civilian):
06223-7014/3421
Heidelberger Str. 68 Waldhilsbach
e-mail:
[email protected]
D-69 151 Neckargemünd
web:
http://teaching.grano.de
his GPS:
N 49° 22’ 40.3687” = 49.377880205°;
E 8° 46’ 08.5719” = 8.769047770°
TEXTBOOK: Conceptual Physical Science, by Paul G. Hewitt, John Suchocki & Leslie A. Hewitt, Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, CA; 3rd ed., 2003
NS0GdHew.dot
printed:.Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
eSubject beginning:
“N_KAP_JM8_MW: “

Meeting:
# Date
1
TG = this Textbook Guide
Numbers refer to the textbook pages,
Bold numbers indicate chapters & sections
Decimal numbers indicate figures of the Textbook
.
TEXTBOOK GUIDE
Encyclopaedia Britannica:
Mo, 23 Jan 08
http://www.britannica.com/
1 The World Around You (1 – 20)
MEASUREMENT, UNITS & SCIENCE (14 - 18; Latin: scientia = knowledge), The New Columbia
Encyclopedia (NCE), 4th edition of The Columbia Encyclopedia, Columbia University Press, New York
+ London, 1975, 3052 pages: For many the term science refers to the organized body of knowledge... but
a proper definition would also have to include the methods through which this body of knowledge is
formed and attitudes.
The scientific method has evolved over many centuries and has now come to be described in terms of a
well-organized and well-defined series of steps (3). But what about the attitudes (5-7)? Does science
produce truth? The scientist strives to arrive at truth but the way to it may not be clear and
straightforward. Even the well-recognized scientific method does not guarantee success; many times the
result which obviously has been proven and accepted as truth is later disproved and discarded. The road
to the truth is only possible when an impartial attitude is maintained. Science must be impartial because
the truth is impartial.
Science is human (Jacob Bronowski: The Common Sense of Science; Random House, New York 1953, 152 pages, especially p. 102-3, 126-35): “The
requirement of an impartial attitude can never be absolutely fulfilled by a human who is subject to political, economic, social and cultural influences, to his
experience, prejudice etc.” (see also Jacob Bronowski: Science and Human Values; 1956, rev. ed. 1965). But does the inseparability of the human influences
justify their exaggeration? In other words, does the human attribute of science justify its partiality? The positive answer is used by the Communistic
(Marxist-Leninist) doctrine as argument for science partiality: in countries ruled by Communistic parties, science must be partial. The requirement of
partiality forces one to lie and disqualifies that “science”. For example, the second edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (“Bolshaia Sovetskaia
Entsiklopedia”, 1st edition 1927-1947, 65 volumes, 2nd edition 1950-1958, 51 volumes; 3rd edition 1970-1979, 30+1 volumes; English translation of the 3rd
edition, MacMillan+Colliers, 1973-present) was necessarily keyed to Marxism-Leninism in conformity with a Party Decree of 1949:
“The plight of the Soviet historian and encyclopedist who labors under a flexible standard of truth may be graphically demonstrated by the dilemma posed
by the liquidation in 1953 of Lavrenti P. Beria, who had been accorded an extensive and fulsome biographical sketch in one of the early volumes of the new
edition of the Bolshaia [vol. 5, pp. 22-3]. The Encyclopedia, ostensibly in response to the overwhelming demand of its 250,000 subscribers, produced a
special section expanding the adjacent articles on F. W. Bergholz (an eighteenth-century courtier), the Bering Sea, and Bishop Berkeley and supplied
instructions for scissoring out the Beria sketch and replacing it with the new section. Thus were the offending traitor and his biography flushed down the
Orwellian ‘memory hole’.” {From ‘A Soviet View of the American Past’, by The State Historical Society of Wisconsin (An Annotated Translation of the
Section on American History in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, volume 39/1956, pages 557-654), 1960; Scott, Foresman & Co, Glenview, Ill., 1964, 64
pages; quoted from Introduction, page 7.}
Help so, that the vision of George ORWELL, ‘1984’ (first published by Secker & Warburg 1949, then many times by Penguin Books, Great Britain; New
American Library, New York; etc.), including Thought Police and the propaganda agency Ministry of Truth, will be never realized on this planet.
Recommended reading: Sidney BLOCH + Peter REDDAWAY, Russia’s Political Hospitals; Futura Publications Ltd, London, Great Britain, 1977, 510
pages; in USA published under the title Psychiatric Terror; Basic Books Inc., New York, 1977.
Note, that the leading Soviet newspaper Pravda translates Truth. The Soviet ideological indoctrination is executed by the KGB; Brian FREEMANTLE
characterizes it as follows (KGB by Brian Freemantle, published by Michael Joseph Ltd., London, and The Rainbird Publ. Group Ltd., London, Great
Britain, 1982, 192 pages):
The KGB is the biggest spy machine for the gathering of secret information that the world has ever seen. Without its omnipresent supervision of every aspect
of Russian life, the totalitarian Union of Soviet Socialist Republics would cease to exist. It is the KGB militia which guards the 41,595 miles of the country’s
sea and land frontiers; it is the KGB which monitors the education in Soviet schools, academies and universities and all the permitted arts. The KGB also
controls all printed material through its 70,000 censors. It directs, frequently obscenely, the sciences and medicine. It controls the police and the military.
Through its informers and emplaced officials, it has power over the prisons and labor camps and in every city, town, village and hamlet, the KGB has
established informant networks to learn of the behavior and attitudes held by every one of the 268,000,000 inhabitants of the USSR. In addition to the
tyranny exercised by the KGB within the USSR, there are over 250,000 secret agents working overseas carrying out the aims of the KGB, ‘to conduct active
measures which will exacerbate the differences between individual countries on the one hand and Western nations on the other hand.’ To carry out these
aims, the KGB spent no less than £1452,344,000 in 1980 alone.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE studies the non-living matter in the universe, specifically: physics matter &
energy, chemistry matter & its changes, astronomy the universe (meteorology climate & weather),
geology Earth & its history (8-9), whereas BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE studies the living matter.
2
NSCI-100, Part 2, Physics (p. 2 - 4)
«EDC»printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
2 PHYSICS
http://www.mip.berkeley.edu:80/physics/
PHYSICS (Greek: physis = nature), NCE: branch of science traditionally defined as the study of matter, energy, and the
relation between them; it was called natural philosophy until the late 19th century, and is still known by this name at a few
universities. Physics is in some senses the oldest and most basic pure science; its discoveries find applications throughout the
natural sciences, since matter and energy are the basic constituents of the natural world. The other sciences are generally
more limited in their scope and may be considered branches that have split off from physics to become sciences in their own
right.
BRANCHES. Physics today may be divided loosely into classical physics and modern physics. Classical physics includes the traditional branches that were
recognized and fairly well developed before the beginning of the 20th cent.- MECHANICS (of solids and fluids, each statics and dynamics), ACOUSTICS
(the study of sound; special field is ultrasonics); OPTICS (the study of light, concerned also with invisible light), THERMODYNAMICS (deals with the
relationship between heat and other forms of energy), ELECTROSTATICS & ELECTRODYNAMICS, MAGNETOSTATICS and MAGNETODYNAMICS. Modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on the very large or very small scale. For example,
atomic and nuclear physics studies matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified; the physics of elementary particles is on an
even smaller scale, being concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics; on this scale, ordinary,
commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid and the two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of these
concepts from that given by classical physics: the quantum theory and the theory of relativity.
QUANTITIES, DIMENSIONS and UNITS. The reality around us consists of objects which may be described in terms of their quality and quantity; to the
latter one, an amount can be ascribed. All non-electrical physical quantities may be defined in terms of mass, length and time which are the three
fundamental mechanical quantities; electrical and magnetic quantities generally require four fundamental quantities of which three are mass, length and time,
and the fourth can be some electrical or magnetic quantity such as current, permeability or permittivity. It is sometimes convenient to introduce temperature
as an independent unit ranking equally with length, time and mass but if it is recognized that heat is of the same nature as energy, temperature may be
defined in terms of the three fundamental mechanical quantities. An abstract relationship of (one or more) fundamental quantities which defines the given
quantity is known as DIMENSION. A standard amount of a quantity is known as a UNIT. For example: the quantity speed has dimension length/time, its
unit may be meter/second (see the table below; (Appendix A): measurement, decimal & metric systems; unit examples, Appendix A, Tab. A.1 & Tab. A.2).
International standard units, known as SI units (The International System of Units), include a complete metric system. Its major advantage is the ease of
conversion due to the compatibility with our decadic number system. Multiplication numbers, exponents, prefixes, abbreviations and examples are listed
bellow (Metric Prefixes: Appendix A, Tab. A.3):
Multiplication number
= 10exponent prefix abbr.
example
pages
1,000,000,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000
1,000,000
1,000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 001
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
100
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
exapetateragigamegakilohectodeka-
EPTGMkhda-
decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoatto-
dcm
npfa-
exahertz
petameter
terawatt
gigagram
megawatt
kilogram
hectopascal
dekalumen
gram
decibel
centimeter
millimeter
micrometer
nanometer
picofarad
femtoampere
attocoulomb
EHz
Pm
TW
Gg;
MW
kg
hPa
dalm
g
dB
cm
mm
m
nm
pF
fA
aC
254
A.2
77, 226
A.2-A.3
77, 226
A.2-A.3
146
A.2-A.3
A.2
A.2
A.2
A.2
214
206
Speed is the rate of position change (26-27). Speed does not include direction. Speed’s dimension is
length/time, unit examples are: meter/second and kilometer/hour. RATE is a change per time.
Velocity is a rate of displacement (28) or speed including direction; DISPLACEMENT is a position
change with direction. Velocity’s dimension is (length with direction)/time (or vector/time); its unit may
be meter with direction/second.
Acceleration is the rate of velocity change
(29-31). Its dimension is length with direction/time2, its unit
2
is usually (meter with direction)/second . A gravity field causes acceleration of gravity (31-32).
Gravity acceleration value is directly proportional to the mass at the given site toward the Earth’s (a cosmic body’s) center, and inversely proportional to the
distance from the Earth’s (a cosmic body’s) center. In addition, the gravity is reduced by a centrifugal force of the Earth’s (cosmic body’s) rotation on its
axis: only at the poles (rotation axis), the gravity is not affected by the rotation; it decreases with the distance from the axis toward the equator, and also with
the altitude.
Mass, one of the fundamental quantities, describes quantity (amount) of matter (17, 39-41, 94); SI unit
is kilogram, kg. It can be measured only if it is subject to acceleration (inertia is the reaction of mass to
a force, 15-18, 38).
Force is an action that accelerates a mass (39-40; weightless kg in a “weightless space”).
Weight (42) is a force caused by gravity acceleration of a mass = gravitational
force. Force (weight) =
mass (gravity) acceleration; dimension is masslength with direction/time2, the SI unit is newton = kg
 m/s2.
Gravity accelerates a free fall (42); action & reaction (47-53); escape velocity (127-9); mass of the Earth, tides (102-6).
Work (76) is a cumulative action of2 a force through a distance passed: work = force  displacement.
Work’s dimension is mass  velocity , work’s SI unit is joule = newton  meter.
Power (77) is the rate of doing work: power’s dimension is work/time, power’s SI unit is watt (W) =
joule/second. Horsepower (hp) = 746 W, 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1.34 hp.
NSCI-100, Part 2, Physics (p. 2 - 4)
3
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2 We, 28 Jan 08
Energy (75) is the ability to do work: energy’s dimension and unit are those of the work. Kinetic
(motional) e. (79), KE, equals to one half the product of the object’s mass and the square of the object’s
velocity: KE = mv2/2. Gravitational potential energy (78) is the positional energy of mass; it is the work
needed to raise a mass m to a height h (the vertical displacement) above its original position: PE =
m×g×h (g = gravity acceleration; m×g is the weight of a mass). The sum of the kinetic & potential
energies is constant = the total mechanical energy (Fig. 3.27).
Energy cannot be created or destroyed (energy conservation law, 82-84); energy transforms into either a different type of energy, such as PE=KE
(pendulum, orbiting planets 126, etc.), chemical energy (86, 514-519), electric energy (211), radiant energy (81, 183), heat (81, 86, 165), matter
conservation law (Lavoisier’s Law, 423: by Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier & his wife, shortly before he lost his head to the guillotine at the height of the Reign
of Terror in May 1794). These transformations are reversible except heat: changing heat into any other form of energy is always inefficient (laws of
thermodynamics). This is why heat form of energy should be bypassed in order to avoid energy losses by energy conversions.
STATES (PHASES) OF MATTER: solids and fluids
The distance between elementary particles (atoms and molecules) controls the state (phase) of matter
(190, 414): particles in gases are so distant that they do not attract but repel each other: gases expand
uniformly in a given space; they exercise a pressure (see below) and are well compressible. Particles in
liquids are just so close to each other that they mutually attract and are sliding readily past one another;
their mutual contact (or constant distance) results into a definitive (constant) volume of the liquids. They
fill the lower part of a space to their given volume, and form a horizontal (perpendicular to the
acceleration) surface; they are relatively incompressible. In contrast to solids, liquids and gases are
together called fluids because they flow (change their shape; 190); fluids transfer pressure in all
directions (hydrostatic pressure). Particles in solids are so close to each other that they are fixed in
regular positions called crystal structure (622, Fig. 25.10). The motion of particles in solids is limited to
a vibration about the fixed positions: solids are elastic; an excessive force can break the bonds and the
deformation is permanent (plastic deformation). Solids with irregular particle arrangement are called
amorphous (opal [missing!], 622); glass and some plastics are really very stiff liquids: they soften
gradually when heated because of the random nature of their bonds.
LIQUID CRYSTALS are liquids consisting of long and electrically polarized molecules which arrange under electric field. The resulting change of the
optical properties (of the index of refraction, 312) is utilized in liquid crystal displays, LCDs . PLASMA (162, 190) is sometimes called the fourth state of
matter; in fact, the 99% of the universe is very hot and consists of plasma. In plasma, the matter is a mixture of isolated atomic nuclei and electrons
(electrically charged subatomic particles). Gases and solids form the rest of the universe’s matter, whereas liquids represent the most uncommon state of
matter since they can exist in a very narrow temperature and pressure range.
3
Mo, 30 Jan 08
CHANGES of the STATE of Matter
Temperature increases the vibration of the particles: their distance grows, the volume expands. Solids MELT if a melting energy, heat of fusion (196), is
supplied; this heat is released by crystallization again. Liquids BOIL if a heat of vaporization (196) is supplied; this heat is released by condensation to a
liquid again (191-2). All freezers and most refrigerators utilize the absorption of the vaporization heat for cooling (the heat of condensation is transferred
away, usually by convection and radiation; see below). Sublimation (191) is a change of state of matter directly from solid into gaseous (without liquid)
state and vice versa (however, sometimes the opposite change from gaseous into solid state is called deposition).
PRESSURE (135) is the perpendicular force per area; its SI unit is newton/meter 2, N/m2 = pascal (Pa); its 100-multiple, hectopascal (hPa) is popular in
meteorology as a substitution for its equivalent unit millibar (mbar); 1 bar = 10 5 N/m2. Other pressure units: torr (=133 pascal): the pressure of 1mm
mercury column; PSI (pounds per square inch). In fluids, a pressure is transferred in all directions evenly; this pressure is called HYDROSTATIC.
BUOYANCY (138-9) is the upward force of a fluid onto an object in the fluid. It enables balloons to float in the atmosphere, ships to float in the sea, and
the continents to float on the Earth’s mantle (660-1, Fig. 27.8). If the upward buoyant force on a submerged body is greater than the body’s weight, the body
floats, otherwise it sinks (in the former case the average density of the immersed body is lower, in the latter case higher than that of the fluid).
(Mass) density (132-4) of matter describes the mass concentration; its dimension is mass/volume, its SI
unit, MKS system (meter-kilogram-second) is kilogram/meter3. However, the CGS system (centimetergram-second) is commonly used: gram/centimeter3 because the gram was originally defined as the mass
of 1cm3 of water; this results into reasonable value of the water density (1g/cm3); the dimensionless
quantity relative density, known also as (less correctly) specific gravity, is the density relative to that of water.
Heat (161,163-5) is the kinetic energy of randomly moving (vibrating) molecules (Brownian motion, 343),
referring to the total amount of a material; its SI unit is joule. On the principle of mechanical
equivalence, heat is convertible into mechanical energy and vice versa: 1 cal = 4.186 joule (Joule’s apparatus:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat). (Kilo)calorie is the heat amount required to raise the
temperature of 1 (kilo)gram of water by 1oC (at the standard temperature and pressure; 165).
o
Specific heat (heat capacity, 166, 168-9) is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 (kilo)gram of a substance by 1 C; unit is
joule/(gramdiff.°C). Water has much higher specific heat than most other materials (168-9): this is why the oceans act as heat reservoirs that moderate the
climates of adjacent land areas.
HEAT TRANSFER (166, 179-89) proceeds in the direction toward places with a lower temperature; the transfer rate is proportional to the temperature
gradient. The method of the heat transfer depends on the density and state of the transfer environment: 1 Radiation (183-8) in least dense environment
(vacuum, and those gases or liquids which are transparent for the given wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation which transfers the heat energy; e.g.:
solar radiation became the source of most energies we use such as chemical energy stored in fossil and recent fuels, water & wind energy); 2 Conduction in
metals and dense solids (white dwarfs: 821-2); 3 Convection (181-3, 386, Fig. 8.6-9; 801) in medium dense fluids: a fluid takes heat from a warmer body
(both by the radiation & conduction); the body cools, the fluid warms up, expands, decreases its density and rises; when it comes in contact with a cooler
body, it gives its excessive heat (by conduction & radiation) to the cooler body; the heated fluid is replaced by a cooler one which maintains the temperature
gradient causing the heat transfer from the original warm body to the new cool fluid; the circulating flow of fluids due to buoyancy is called convection.
Temperature (161-3) is the average kinetic energy of randomly moving molecules per molecule: it is
the average heat of each molecule. Temperature is measured indirectly by its effects, such as thermal
expansion (the classic thermometers measure the thermally changing volume of a dark liquid, such as
mercury, stained alcohol etc., are actually pycnometers, with extended graduated thin glass tube),
electric resistance (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_thermometer ), frequency decrease of a piezo-crystal oscillator
(such as quartz), and radiation spectrum (black body radiation 184-5, Planck’s constant 328, 364).
o
Absolute zero temperature is the lowest theoretically possible temperature at which all molecular movement would cease = - 273.15000 C; this value was
extrapolated from the contraction of the gas volume by 1/273.15 portion per 1 oC (162-3). The absolute temperature scale is defined in kelvin: 0K = 273.15oC. The temperature of a compressed gas raises, and conversely: the temperature of an expanding gas decreases.
NSCI-100, Part 2, Physics (p. 2 - 4)
4
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WAVES
Waves are periodic disturbances (deformations) of elastic objects. The initial deformation sets up elastic forces within the object that tend to restore it to the
undeformed shape (253-4). The interaction between the inertia of the object particles and the elastic force results into a periodic continuation of the
disturbance. The binding, friction and/or impact of the neighbor particles cause the propagation of waves. No material but energy is transferred (kinetic
energy changes periodically into potential energy and vice versa).
Two kinds of waves (256-7, Fig. 11.6, 183) can be recognized according to the angle (perpendicular or
parallel) between the direction of the particle motion and the direction of wave propagation:
1) transverse (shear) w. - the perpendicular angle; they are restricted to solids (waves of boundaries between
two immiscible fluids, such as water surface waves, are due to buoyancy/weight forces, not elasticity, therefore these waves are not
transverse waves; they are very slow);
2) longitudinal (compressional, push-pull) w. - the parallel angle; propagate in any medium: sound.
Velocity of a wave (254-5, 259) v = wavelength (in meters) × frequency (in hertz = cycles/second). In materials, the speed of a longitudinal wave is directly
proportional to the square root of the material elastic module (E) and inversely proportional to the square root of the material density (d): v = (E/d)0.5. The
density shows the inertia of vibrating particles. Amplitude (253) is the half difference between the heights and troughs of the waves. The wave energy is
proportional to the material density, to the wave frequency and amplitude.
Refraction (260): the wave direction changes when the speed changes in going from one medium into another; the bending is toward the perpendicular in a
lower speed (denser) medium. Reflection (rebounding; 259-60) returns the wave within one medium at an angle which equals that of the incidence.
Interference (264-5, 297-9) is a combination of meeting waves. The resulting waves depend on the wavelength, timing & amplitude of the incoming waves
(264, Figs. 11.19-20). Diffraction (296-7), a wave bending around obstacle edges, is proportional to the wavelength (diffraction as ‘scattering’ of X-rays).
The wavelength (& the inversely proportional frequency) is a distinct feature of waves: in air, it is responsible for a pitch of sound (272), in electromagnetic waves (c=2.99792458*108 meter/second corresponds to 3.335640952×10-9second/meter, which defines the meter; PTB, Braunschweig, Nov. 83) for
their strongly different types (282, Fig. 12.3); the terms “Television & FM radio”, “AM radio”, “Maritime Communications”
are applications, not electromagnetic waves): long, medium, short, very short (FM stereo; 282) and ultra short
(TV) radio waves, microwaves (radar; microwave oven: 2.45 GHz = resonance*) frequency of H20 molecules,
208); infrared (include millimeter w.), visible and ultraviolet light, X- and gamma- rays.
The wavelength (frequency) of electromagnetic radiation reveals its origin: chemical composition can be determined through a spectral analysis (362-8),
radial source velocity through the Doppler’s effect (268-9, 833), remote magnetic field through the Zeeman’s effect (Sun spots), etc..
Photoelectric effect (328-9) and X-ray emission (328) unravel the PARTICLE (photon) and WAVE (de Broglie wavelength, 368-9) nature of ELECTRONS,
each valid under specific conditions. Photon energy E is proportional to frequency f: E = h  f, where h is the Planck’s constant (328, 364). The de Broglie
wavelength of the electron is exactly equal to the circumference of its normal (innermost) orbit. Only those orbits are possible which consist of whole
(integer = not fractional) number of the de Broglie wavelengths.
*) Resonance (262): http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/academic/course.offerings/physbo/MultiM/bridge/bridge.htm
4 We, 4 Feb 08
ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
Electric charge (203-7) is due to a difference between the given amount of (negative) electrons on the
atom’s surface and (positive) proton(s) in the atomic nucleus: the charge is negative due to excessive
electrons, and positive due to deficient electrons. Coulomb (C) is the SI unit of electric charge (206). 2
Coulomb’s law (146-8) defines the force F between two charges q1 and q2 as to be inversely proportional to their squared distance r: F=k×q1×q2/r .
Whereas an electric force, dominant on atomic scale, is repulsive for charges with the same sign, and attractive for those with the opposite sign, gravity
force, dominant on a cosmic scale, is always attractive. Electric & magnetic fields are (bi)polar, gravity field is unipolar.
Electric potential (210-2; “voltage”) is the electric potential energy (difference) per charge; its SI unit is
volt (V) = joule/coulomb.
Electric current (214-5) is the flow rate of electric charge. Electric charge can flow in conductors, such
as metals: their atoms hold the electrons weakly; nonmetals (their atoms keep the electrons strongly) are
electric nonconductors = insulators. The dimension of the e. c. is electric charge/time; the SI unit is ampere (A) = coulomb/second.
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE (216) of a conductor reduces the current at a given potential. Ohm’s law relates potential difference, electric current and
resistance in a metal: resistance = potential difference/current, or current = potential difference/resistance; the SI unit of electric resistance is ohm () =
volt/ampere, ampere = volt/ohm, and volt = ohm×ampere (217-8).
Electric power (225-6) is the rate at which an electric current performs work; because power is
work/time, electric work is charge×voltage, and charge/time = current, the electric power = current
×voltage. The SI unit of (electric) power is watt = ampere×volt = joule/second.
Electric energy (226) corresponds to the electric work; its SI unit is joule but the commonly used unit is kilowatt×hour (kWh, 226).
MAGNETISM (233-5) is a feature of electrons. The electrons are spinning on their axes and orbiting around atomic nuclei. A moving electric charge
(electric current) produces magnetic field (234-5, 237-41). This is because every atom is magnetic but the magnetism is revealed only if the atomic magnetic
fields are aligned: in magnetic materials (235). A coil concentrates the magnetic field of an electric current along the coil axis; the magnetic field is
enormously increased if a soft magnetic material is placed inside the coil (238). An electric motor (240, Fig. 10.21) turns electric energy into mechanical
energy. The magnetic field induces an electric current in a moving wire: generator (dynamo) turns mechanical energy into electric energy. Alternating
current (244-5) can be transformed by transformers (two coils of wire with a common core; 245-6).
REVIEW for the TEST 1 (Physics)
1
TOPICS
to be on Mo, 6 Feb 08
Dimensions (when applicable), and unit examples (when applicable) of the terms listed below (quantities mostly):
Speed, velocity, acceleration; force, work, energy, power; mass, weight, mass density; heat, temperature (dimension not applicable), specific heat (heat
capacity: 168; unit: cal/g*diff.-Co); solids (dimension and units are not applicable), fluids (dimension and units are not applicable), liquids (dimension and
units are not applicable), gases (dimension and units are not applicable); electric charge (dimension is not required), electric current, potential difference.
Hints: The explanation (or characteristics) should be as short but complete as possible - for example, the explanation of speed is rate of position change,
rate of displacement. The dimension should express the general simple quantity or the general relationship among the involved (simple or fundamental)
quantities - for example, the dimension of speed is length per time or distance (displacement) per time. Instead of the preposition per, the pertinent
mathematical operation may be given in words, such as “divided by” or in a symbol, such as a horizontal or diagonal fractional line [slash], which leads to
equally valid expressions such as distance/time, displacement/time or length/time. The unit examples should express the dimension specifically, in some
amount of the involved simple quantities (or the amount of the simple quantity itself if applicable, such as the unit of mass is kilogram); for instance, the unit
examples of speed are meter per second (meter/second), kilometer per hour (kilometer/hour, km/hour), mile per hour (mile/hour).
2
3
Two kinds of waves (according to the angle between the “particle” motion and the wave propagation: TGp. 4; 256, Fig. 11.6).
11 types of electromagnetic waves according to their changing wavelength (frequency): the complete list is on TG p.
4 in italics.
Note: six types of radio waves are to be distinguished: long radio waves, medium radio waves[AM means amplitude modulation], short radio waves, very
short [FM means frequency modulation] radio waves, ultra short radio waves [used for TV mostly], and microwaves [used for radar, microwave oven etc.].
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3 CHEMISTRY (339 – 612)
CHEMISTRY (Greek: khemia = “Black Land”, Egypt; art of transmutation practiced by Egyptians;
modified in Arabic into al-kimiya, which changed in Medieval Latin into alchymia). NCE: branch of
science concerned with the properties, composition, and structure of substances and the changes they undergo when they combine or react under specified conditions.
BRANCHES. Chemistry can be divided into branches according to either the substances studied or the types of study conducted. The primary division
of the first type is between inorganic and organic chemistry. Divisions of the second type are physical chemistry and analytical chemistry. The original
distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry arose as chemists gradually realized that compounds of biological origin were quite different in their
general properties from those of mineral origin; organic chemistry was defined as the study of substances produced by living organisms. However, when it
was discovered in the 19th cent. that organic molecules can be produced artificially in the laboratory, this definition had to be abandoned. Organic chemistry
is most simply defined as the study of the carbon compounds. Physical chemistry is concerned with the physical properties of materials, such as their electric
and magnetic behavior and their interaction with electromagnetic fields. Subcategories within physical chemistry are thermo-chemistry, electrochemistry,
and chemical kinetics. Thermo-chemistry is the investigation of the changes in energy and entropy that occur during chemical reactions and phase
transformations (see states of matter, TG page 3). Electrochemistry concerns the effects of electricity on chemical changes and mutual conversions of
electric and chemical energy such as that in a voltaic cell. Chemical kinetics is concerned with the details of chemical reactions and of how equilibrium is
reached between the products and reactants. Analytical chemistry is a collection of techniques that allow exact laboratory determination of the composition
of a given sample of material. In a qualitative analysis, all the atoms and molecules present are identified, with particular attention to trace elements. In
quantitative analysis, the exact mass of each constituent is obtained as well. Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the masses of the
chemicals participating in chemical reactions.
Atoms (343-6) are the smallest particles of matter. Every atom has a central core = nucleus, of protons
and neutrons (nucleons), that represents nearly all its mass. Each proton provides 1 positive charge and
about 1 atomic mass unit u. Each neutron has also about 1 atomic mass unit but no electric charge.
Moving about the nucleus (in shells) are the much lighter negatively charged electrons, the same in
number as the protons inside so that the atom as a whole (from outside) is electrically neutral (each
electron has exactly the same amount of charge as each proton, but of opposite sign). The mutual
distance between the shells and the nucleus is enormously large so that an atom is mostly empty space
(it enables a gravitational collapse of stars into massive objects such as neutron stars & black holes, 8245). The number of protons in the atomic nucleus (atomic number Z, 345) defines the element & controls
the total number of electrons in the shells, from which particularly the number of electrons in the outer
shell; the number of the outer shell electrons controls the major chemical properties.
Element is a simple substance that consists of atoms with the same atomic number (345). Natural
elements are mixtures of element species called isotopes (346-7), all having the same number of protons
(the same atomic number) but a different number of neutrons (different mass + neutron numbers). Most
of the element properties are determined by the electron configuration of its atoms (370-6, 458-9); this is
why the isotopes of an element having identical electron configuration, are chemically identical.
PERIODIC LAW (342, 349-55, 458-466-481 Dmitrij Ivanovitch Mendeleev, 1869)
governs the organization of the elements in a table (Periodic Table of Elements, PTE; 349-50): the
elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, those with similar chemical and physical
properties appear at regular intervals (periods) and align in vertical columns (groups).
The representative elements are those located in eight vertical columns called groups or families (350), which are indicated
by Roman numerals from I through VIII, with a letter A attached (Fig. TGp 6). The seven horizontal rows (periods),
containing elements with widely different properties are indicated by Arabic numerals from 1 through 7. The period 1 has
two elements only, located in the columns IA and VIIIA. The eight-element periods 2 and 3 are broken after the column IIA
(after 4, beryllium, and 12, magnesium) in order to keep their members aligned with the related elements of the long periods
below, which are longer by 10 transition elements each (groups IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, 3x VIIIB, IB, IIB). In addition,
after the column IIA; the period 6 is extended (after 56, barium) by 15 rare-earth (lanthanide) metals, the period 7 (after 89,
actinium) by 15 actinide metals (349-50). In this course we’ll limit us to the representative but not transition elements.
The periodic chart mirrors the electronic configuration of the elements: the number of the outer shell
electrons is common to the elements in each vertical column (group) and equals the column number
(Fig. 15.21, 374). Corresponding to columns IA through VIIIA, the outer electron shell can bear 1
through 8 electrons, except for the first shell which is so small that it can hold 1 or 2 electrons only:
helium, located at the top of the column VIIIA, has 2 electrons in total (its first shell is the outer shell); it
behaves in the same way as do the other elements of the column VIIIA: all of them have their outer
shell completed (closed) and are chemically inactive (they do not form compounds): this is why they are
called noble (or inert) gases.
In other elements (columns IA through VIIA + transition metals), the outer shell is not closed =
incomplete; these elements are chemically active; they tend to close (complete) the outer shell by
interaction with electrons of other atoms = by a chemical bond forming compounds: in them, each
atom becomes its outer shell completed (closed), as the nearest noble (inert) gas.
Some groups have special family names (353), such as alkali metals (IA), alkali earths (IIA), halogens (VIIA) and noble (inert) gases (in the textbook, the
latter ones farthest to the right should bear the Roman number VIIIA. Textbook error: p. 351, line 5 from bottom: to attact more electron should read attract
6 We 23 Feb 08:
Electronegativity (electron affinity), Types of Elements (349-53)
The chemical activity of elements results from their electron affinities, i.e. from their tendency to close
(complete) their binding electron shells. The outer shell electrons control the main chemical properties
of element. Their number is revealed by the column (group) number in the Periodic Chart of Elements
(458, Fig. 19.2): the maximum number of outer shell electrons is either 2 (in the shell 1) or 8 (in all other
shells: the octet of outer electrons; 458). In transition elements, the binding electrons come not only from their outer but also inner
shells. The outer shell electrons are kept by different forces in atoms of various elements - these atoms
have different ELECTRONEGATIVITY (EN) to their outer shell electrons (351). A high EN causes a
nonmetallic activity, a low EN causes a metallic activity.
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The electronegativity increases with the proximity of the outer shell
electrons to the nucleus, and with the number of outer shell electrons (the
more closed is the outer shell the stronger is the tendency to complete the
closing); i.e., in each period the EN grows horizontally from left to right
up to max. 7 outer shell electrons; vertically, the EN grows upwards up
to the period 2. In combination of the horizontal and vertical directions,
the EN grows strongest diagonally in the PTE: from the minimum EN at
the bottom left (87 Fr, francium, an artificial element, or 55 Cs, cesium, a
natural element: the strongest, most active metals) towards the maximum
at the top right (9 F, fluorine,. the strongest, most active nonmetal, 372,
490, Fig. 20.13, 596).
The metallic activity consists of releasing the
loosely held outer shell electrons; metals,
defined by low EN, are good electric
conductors. The nonmetallic activity consists of
taking outer shell electrons, which are tightly
held; nonmetals, defined by high EN, are poor
electric conductors = electric insulators.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
The types of chemical bond depend on the relative electronegativities (electron affinities): 351, 556, Fig.
23.2) of the elements involved.
In compounds of elements with strongly different electronegativities (affinities), such as in the
combination of a strong metal with a strong nonmetal, the outer shell electrons of the metal are
transferred to the nonmetal’s outer shell in order to complete it. Both atoms become oppositely
electrically charged and are called ions (459-66). The attractive force between them is called IONIC
BOND. Ions of metals bear as many positive charges as is the number of the outer shell electrons
transferred (lost); ions of nonmetals bear as many negative charges as many electrons were added into
their outer shell.
In compounds of nonmetals (metalloids) with similar or identical affinities, their atoms hold some of
the outer shell electrons in common. These shared electrons are called COVALENT BOND (466-9).
Whereas the ionic compounds consisting of electrically charged ions are good electric conductors in liquid state (melt or solution), the ions can move, the covalent ones consisting of electrically neutral
molecules are poor electric conductors even in liquid state. The ionic compounds are called electrolytes
and dissociate (separate) their ions in liquid state, the covalent compounds are called non-electrolytes.
There is a gradual transition between the two extreme types of bond due to the asymmetry of the shared electrons
causing polarity of these covalent molecules (water H2O, 470-7; hydrogen chloride HCl; ammonia NH3; etc.).
In metals, due to their low electronegativity, all electrons are relatively free. The METALLIC BOND
(477-8) has to exceed repulsive forces among positively charged metal’s ions. The relatively free
electrons in metals (“de-localized” electrons) make metals good electric conductors in all states.
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COMPOUNDS
Compound is a complex substance consisting of different element atoms (ions) in a specific ratio, which
are chemically bond. In covalent compounds, the clusters of bond atoms are called molecules (467).
Molecule is electrically neutral as a whole (from outside). Mixture constituents are not bond + not in a specific ratio (ch. 18).
Water, H2O, consists of polar molecules (dipoles: 474-7), which, particularly due to clustering, help
dissolve ionic compounds and ionize polar compounds (hydrogen chloride
into
- hydrochloric acid,
ammonia into ammonium hydroxide). Even pure water dissociates into H+ + [OH] ions to a very small
extent (10-7) since most of the ions recombine into water; in neutral (neither
acidic- nor basic, see acidity
below) water and water solutions, there is an equilibrium between the H+ and [OH] ions.
Acids are ionic compounds of a nonmetal (or nonmetallic = electronegative group) ion(s) with hydrogen
ion(s) (529-30); dissolving in water, they increase the concentration of hydrogen (hydronium) ions.
EXAMPLES (Table 22.1, 534): hydrochloric acid, HCl; sulfuric acid, H2SO4; nitric acid, HNO3; acetic acid, CH3COOH; carbonic acid, H2CO3.
Acidity (and its opposite basicity) can be expressed by the concentration of the hydrogen ions. Due to
the small numeric value of the hydrogen ion concentration, a negative logarithm (exponent) of the
hydrogen ion concentration is used instead: pH (530-3, 542-8, Fig. 22.12).
EXAMPLES of pH values (Table 13.7, 301): acid solutions - pH<7 (smaller than 7), weak acids - pH= 5 to 6 (vinegar: pH is about 3; milk: pH=6.6); basic
solutions - pH>7 (greater than 7), weak bases - pH = 8 to 9 (sea-water: pH=8.3), strong bases - pH= 13 to 14; neutral solutions (& pure water) pH= 7.
Bases (hydroxides, 530-4) are ionic compounds
of a metal (or a metallic, i.e. electropositive group)
ion(s) with hydroxyl = hydroxide [OH] -ion(s); dissolving in water, bases release hydroxyl ions which
recombine with hydrogen ions into water and decrease the concentration of hydrogen ions.
EXAMPLES (534): sodium hydroxide, NaOH; ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH; calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2; magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2.
Salts (534-5) are ionic compounds of the nonmetallic part of an acid and of the metallic part of a basis.
Salts may form by neutralization (see later under chemical reactions).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Due to a change in potential energy of the binding electrons, chemical reactions are accompanied by
liberation or consumption of energy (usually as heat, but also as radiant, electric and kinetic energies):
the former chemical reactions (liberating energy) are called exothermic (exoergic), the latter ones
(consuming energy) endothermic (endoergic) (514-9).
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Chemical energy is a change in potential energy of binding electrons and is released or consumed in form of another energy in chemical reactions, such as
gasoline combustion; the chemical energy is about hundred times higher than binding energy among atoms and molecules, responsible for changes of a state
of matter, such as heat of fusion and vaporization (106-7).
All chemical reactions require an activation energy initially in order to begin (295-6, Fig. 13.3).
EXAMPLES of exothermic chemical reactions: neutralization max. value 56.2 kJoule/mole of water (535), most oxidations (555-71), such as combustion of
fuels (568-71);
EXAMPLES of endothermic chemical reactions: dissociations (decompositions) of compounds such as electrolysis (566-7) and pyrolysis (dissociation by
heat: CaCO3 + energy = CaO + CO2), photosynthesis {6CO2 + 12H2O + 117 kcal of radiant energy = glucose (approx. 6×[CH2O]) + 6O2 + 6H2O} (514-5),
most reductions.
The RATE of a chemical reaction (507-9) is proportional to:
1 temperature which provides the activation energy; ionic reactions are instantaneous for the ionic state includes activation energy already;
2 contact availability of the reacting substances: this is enabled by their concentration and surface area;
3 supporting catalyst: catalysts either speed up or slow down chemical reactions (507, 512-4).
Depending on the three factors, chemical reactions proceed up to an equilibrium or their direction can be reverted; if the volume of substances changes in a
reaction (some gas reactions), a pressure change can be utilized for speeding, retarding or reversion of the reaction.
Neutralization (535) is a chemical reaction of an acid with a base: their carriers of acidic and basic
properties, i.e. hydrogen ions and hydroxyl (hydroxide) ions, combine into water, H2O; their nonmetallic
and metallic remainders combine into a salt. Neutralization is an exothermic reaction: it releases 13.7
kilo-calories per one gram-molecule (gram-molecular mass) of water = 57 kiloJoule/gram-molecule of
H2O (gram-molecule of water = 18.0153 gram).
EXAMPLES: hydrochloric acid, HCl, + sodium hydroxide, NaOH = water, H2O + sodium chloride, NaCl + 57kJ of energy.
Oxidation and Reduction (o-r or red-ox reactions; Ch. 23, 555-71)
Oxidation is a reaction in which a given substance loses electrons, such as in reactions with oxygen.
Reduction is a chemical reaction in which a given substance gains electrons, such as in reactions in
which oxygen is removed from a compound.
Oxidation of one substance is accompanied by reduction of the other and vice versa. O-R reactions involve electron movement; their displacement type reactions enable one to compare the electronegativities of metals and nonmetals according to their activities.
ELECTROCHEMICAL (VOLTAIC) CELLS (558-64, Figs. 23.7-.8) transfer electrons through an external wire. In their special type, FUEL CELLS
(564-6), the reaction substances are fed continuously. A recent progress in the development of the fuel cell technology (Mercedes, Daimler-Benz AG) may
enable an efficient pollution-free electricity production (for electrical cars etc.).
Organic Chemistry =
(optional)
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON (Chapter 24)
Among solids, CARBON has the smallest atom. It has four outer electrons tending to form shared electron pairs - strong covalent bonds. Its strong bond with other carbon atoms is shown by the hardness of
diamond, which is carbon with cubically (isometrically) arranged atoms (624, Fig. 25.10).
It is this ability of carbon atoms to join together with each other as well as with other atoms in the same molecule that makes possible the immense number
& variety of carbon compounds. This is why they are mostly non-electrolytes; their reaction rates are usually slow. The affinity of carbon & hydrogen atoms
to oxygen makes many organic compounds subject to slow oxidation in air and to rapid oxidation if heated. Even in the absence of oxygen; most organic
compounds are stable only at ordinary temperatures, and very few of them resist decomposition at temperatures over a few hundred degrees Celsius.
Fullerenes or buckminsterfullerenes (after Richard Buckminster Fuller, American architect, who advocated using such geometric structures in architectural
design) are spherical clusters of carbon atoms; the most stable is C60 (soccer ball structure), C70, C76, C84 are also relatively stable. Fullerenes are soluble in
unpolar liquids, such as benzol and toluol. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996: Prof. Robert f. Curl, Jr, & Prof. Richard E. Smalley, both Rice Univ.,
Houston TX, Prof. Sir Harold W. Kroto, Univ. of Sussex, Brighton, England. More in: Mildred S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus & P. C. Eklund, Science of
Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes; Academic Press 1995, 965 pages; W. Krätschmer & K. Fostiropoulos (both MPI, Heidelberg) & Lowell D. Lamb &
Donald R. Huffman (both Dept. Physics, Univ Arizona, Tucson, AR 85721), The C60-solid: a new form of carbon; Nature, vol. 347, No. 6291, 27 Sep 90;
Sci. Am. Oct. 91; Science 20 Dec 91; New Scientist No. 1776, 6 Jul. 91.
BASIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
HYDROCARBONS (586-82): if they consist of straight chains, they are called aliphatic h.; those that contain single bonds
only are called alkanes (paraffins; 576-80) and are saturated. They consist petroleum and natural gas which are mixtures of
various alkanes. Their general formula is CnH2n+2. If the number of carbons (n) is low (1 to 4), they are gaseous; with the
increasing n (5 and more) they are liquid and become thicker (transition from light to heavy gasoline over kerosene,
lubricating oils up to paraffins (Fig. 24.3, 528). They all are non-polar therefore insoluble in water. They can be isolated by
fractional distillation for they have increasingly higher boiling point.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (580-2) contain double (alkenes: general formula is CnH2n) or triple (alkines: general formula
is CnH2n-2) electron pairs (multiple bonds) between carbon atoms: ethene (older name was ethylene) C2H4, ethine (older name
was acetylene) C2H2. They are more reactive than saturated hydrocarbons.
Polymers (595-604): unsaturated hydrocarbons may combine into long chains; the multiple bonds become single and set free
bonds for mutual bonding. Natural polymers: starch, cellulose, proteins; synthetic polymers: polyeth(yl)ene, polyvinyl
chloride “PVC“, methylmetacrylate (Lucite™, Plexiglas™), polytetrafluorethylene (596, Teflon™), elastomers (rubbers)
such as rubber (polymer of isoprene), neoprene (polymer of chloroprene), synthetic fibers, such as polyamides 592 (Nylon™,
597, 601-2; polyaramide Kevlar™), polyesters (Dacron™ 603, Mylar™ 603, etc.).
Aromatic hydrocarbons (581-2) contain one or more benzene (benzol) (C6H6) rings presenting a transition to a multiple
bond (“de-localized electrons“): aromatic hydrocarbons are considered unsaturated.
From both the aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, a series of DERIVATIVES can be obtained by substituting functional
groups for one or more hydrogens (Table 24.1, 583).
HALOGEN DERIVATIVES (halons) have one (or more) hydrogens of the hydrocarbon molecule replaced by of one or more halogen atom(s). E.g.:
trichlormethane (anesthetic chloroform), tetrachlormethane, dichlorodifluoromethane (trade name Freon 12); Teflon™ (see polymers above). Those, known
as chlorofluorocarbonhydrogens (513, CFCHs), for their chemical stability, are used as propellants in aerosol-spray cans, blowing gases for puffing up
polyurethane- (& other) foams, as coolants in refrigerators & air conditioners, etc.. Raising into the atmospheric ozone layer 10 - 50km above the Earth’s
surface, they split off chlorine which breaks down the 3-atomic oxygen molecules of ozone, and contribute to the increase of the polar ozone holes. CFCHs
should be replaced by HFCs, hydro fluorocarbons.
ALCOHOLS (584-8) contain (one or more) hydroxyl (OH) group(s). E.g., ethyl alcohol, glycol, glycerol, phenol. Alcohol molecules are polar so the
simpler alcohols are soluble in water. Terminology: hydrocarbon + ending “-ol”, e.g. ethanol (common name is ethyl alcohol).
ETHERS (584-8) have oxygen atom bound between two carbon atoms. E.g., diethyl ether (earlier used as anesthetic; inflammable).
ORGANIC (CARBOXYLIC) ACIDS (592) contain (one or more) carboxyl (COOH) group(s). E.g., acetic acid, CH3COOH (diluted as vinegar), citric acid,
oxalic acid (the strongest organic acid). Salts of large-molecule organic acids (particularly fatty acids) with alkalies are soaps (497-9).
ESTERS (594) are combinations of alcohols with organic acids. Many esters have pleasant fruity or flower-like odors and find extensive use in perfumes
and flavors; e.g., propyl acetate is responsible for the fragrance and taste of pears. Nitroglycerol. Animal and vegetable fats are esters of glycerol.
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ALDEHYDES (591) have a carbon joined by a double bond to oxygen, and, by a single bond, to hydrogen. The double bond polarity causes a high
solubility of simpler aldehydes in water. Terminology: hydrocarbon + ending “-al”, e.g. methanal (common name is formaldehyde).
KETONES (591) have one or more carbon-oxygen groups containing a double bond. The double bond polarity causes a high solubility of simpler ketones in
water. Terminology: hydrocarbon + ending “-on”, e.g. propanon (common name is acetone).
CARBOHYDRATES (SACCHARIDES) consist of multiples (usually 6) of (C+H2O), such as monosaccharides (single
hexoses): glucose, fructose, galactose; disaccharides (double hexoses): sucrose (sugar, 585), lactose; polysaccharides: starch,
glycogen, cellulose, chitin. Molecules of carbohydrates contain many hydroxyl (alcohol) groups and an aldehyde or a ketone
group. Together with oxygen, glucose (the major resource of carbohydrates) forms by photosynthesis in green plants
(chlorophyll acts as catalyst, 514-5) from CO2 + H2O + radiant energy. The carbohydrates and air’s oxygen represent this
energy stored chemically; animals release this energy by oxidation of glucose (animal metabolism). The 5-carbon sugars
(pentoses) ribose & deoxyribose are present in various enzymes; deoxyribose is a vital constituent of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), the double helix structure that carries the genetic code in the chromosomes of cells. Chlorophyll & hemoglobin are
metabolic pigments of plants & animals, based on porphyrin with Mg & Fe respectively (other metals, such as Cu & Ni are
included in porphyrines of certain organisms (Cu in hemocyanin of some crabs & other low animals, Ni in methane forming
& sulfur concentrating archaeobacteria). Purin-based (related to urea) are caffeine (trimethyl-xanthine, found in coffee),
theobromine (2,7-dimethyl-xanthine, found in chocolate) & its isomer theophylline (1,3-dimethyl-xanthine, found in tea).
LIPIDS consist also of C, H and O but in different proportions: fats, oils, waxes. Fat is an ester of glycerol with three fatty
acids. Fats, insoluble in water, provide a more efficient storage of energy than saccharides; in animals, they save energy by
heat insulation.
PROTEINS, in addition to C, H, and O, contain N, and often S (sulfur), P (phosphorus) etc.. Proteins are principal
constituents of cells; they are composed of amino acids. 25 amino acids joined in polypeptide chains may generate thousands
upon thousands of various arrangements (sequences). Plant and animal tissues contain proteins both in solution (cell fluids,
blood etc.) and in insoluble form (skin, muscles, hairs, nails, horns; silk). The human body contains about 100,000 different
proteins. The protein synthesis in organisms is controlled by the DNA nucleic acid.
NUCLEIC ACIDS consist of similar constituents as the proteins. They occur in the nucleus of living cells (DNA in the
chromosomes) or throughout the cell (RNA). DNA consists of specifically arranged sequence (genetic code) of 4 nitrogen
containing bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine) on two deoxyribose + phosphoric acid backbone, a double helix.
The function of DNA in the cell is to transmit genetic characteristics, whereas RNA is chiefly involved in making proteins. In
some viruses, the RNA overtakes the function of the DNA.
Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds
(optional)
Organometallic compounds have unique properties that set them apart from both the inorganic & organic compounds. They
contain chemical bonds between carbon and metal atoms (inorganic salts, as the metal carbonates, are excluded). The bestknown organometallic compound is tetraethyl lead - an antiknock gasoline additive. Organometallic compounds are mostly
used as catalysts and intermediate chemicals.
Organometallic compounds contain elements from any of three categories: 1) representative elements, which include
chemically active metals such as 1) lithium & magnesium; 2) transition metals, such as iron & platinum; 3) metalloids, such
as silicon & boron.
Radioactivity & the Atom’s Nucleus; Chapter 16, 381 - 407
(optional)
Whereas chemical reactions are due to interaction of the shell electrons, nuclear reactions are due to
changes of atomic nuclei. Per unit of mass, the nuclear (nuclear binding) energy is several million
times higher than chemical energy.
The nuclear energy is responsible for the stability of a nucleus; per nucleon, it is maximum in the
medium heavy element, iron Z=26, mass number A=56 (Fig. 15.3, 330): this is why energy is released
either in merging of lighter than A=56 nuclei by fusion (such as hydrogen into helium, the energy
source of the universe [343-4]), or in splitting of heavier than A=56 nuclei by fission (such as uranium
235, plutonium 239 etc. using slow neutrons [341-3]). Radioactivity is a spontaneous nuclear reaction
stabilizing the nucleus. It is due to either rearrangement of the nucleus (gamma rays), or radioactive
nucleus decay (alpha, beta, gamma rays, 333-4, 331; half life 333-4); radioactive dating 334-5, Fig. 15.4;
mass-energy equivalence (344-6).
8 Mo, 18 Feb 08
REVIEW for the TEST 2
(Chemistry)
T2-TOPICS:
Finest particles of matter: atom, ion, molecule. The primary atom’s property, which defines the element. Which other properties result from it? The
outside electrical charge of atom, ion, and molecule. Which elements can form compounds? How do they do it?
Metals, nonmetals, inert (noble) gases - 3 main types of elements; their electron affinities. Changes of their outer electron shell when forming compounds
(do they give, take, share, or not affect them)? Types of compounds when they react in some way with water (acids, bases, or no compounds at all).
Acids, bases, salts. Their constituents [a constituent means a part of a substance]; their mutual bond is ionic.
Ionic bond, covalent bond. Types of elements which form compounds by ionic and covalent bonds respectively.
Oxidation, reduction. Explanation of these chemical reactions both by the gaining & loosing of electron(s), and by the binding & losing of oxygen.
Chemical energy. Its nature. Energy type that forms from it & changes into it mostly. Exo- & endothermic reactions, their relationship, few examples to
each.
Periodic table of elements (PTE). Main chemical properties of elements: their cause (number of outer shell electrons) and appearance (located in the same
column) in the PTE. Location of 3 main types of elements; changing electronegativity in the PTE; changing atom’s size in each PTE period (horizontal line).
Optional: cause of the diamond’s hardness; if possible to produce, how a harder substance could be obtained?
9 Wed, 20 Feb 08 TEST 2: Chemistry
9 Sa, 23 Feb 08
Field Trip 1: Geology, Palatinate Forest (around Pirmasens)
12 Sa, 1 Mar 08: Field Trip 2: ASTRONOMY (MPI of Planetology, Astronomical Observatory,
Geological Museum)
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3 GEOLOGY 613 - 786
The University of Maryland provides a 3 credit hour course, excellent for a non-science student: GEOL-100, Introduction to Physical Geology.
UMD offers another 3 credit hour course, on ecological problems seen from a geological perspective: GEOL-120, Environmental Geology.
GEOLOGY (Greek: geo- from ge = Earth; Greek: -logos = word, speech; explanation of the Earth, in
contrary to geography which describes the present state of the Earth). NCE: Science of the Earth’s history, composition, and structure, and the associated processes. It draws upon chemistry, biology, physics,
astronomy, and mathematics (notably statistics) for support of its formulations.
BRANCHES: PHYSICAL GEOLOGY includes mineralogy, the study of the chemical composition and structure of minerals; petrology, of the composition
and origin of rocks; geomorphology, of the origin of landforms and their modification by dynamic processes; geochemistry, of the chemical composition of
earth materials and the chemical changes that occur within the Earth and on its surface; geophysics, of the behavior of rock material in response to stresses
and according to the principles of physics; sedimentology, of the erosion, transportation and deposition of rock particles by wind, water or ice; structural
geology, of the forces that deform the Earth’s rocks and the description and mapping of deformed rock bodies; economic geology, of the exploration and
recovery of natural resources, such as ores and petroleum; and engineering geology, of the interaction of the Earth’s crust with man-made structures such as
tunnels, mines, dams, bridges, and building foundations. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY deals with the historical development of the Earth from the study of its
rocks. They are analyzed to determine their structure, composition, and interrelationships and are examined for remains of past life. Historical geology
includes paleontology, the systematic study of past life forms; stratigraphy, of layered rocks and their interrelationship; paleogeography, of the locations of
ancient land masses, their reconstruction and boundaries; and geologic mapping, the superimposing of geological information upon existing topographic
maps. Geological methods applied to other disciplines resulted into branches: ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY to ecology, SPACE GEOLOGY to astronomy,
particularly of planetology, etc..
Crust MATERIALS: Minerals & Rocks (incl. Soils), Ch. 25 – 26, 615 - 51
Crust is the upper part of the Earth’s body: it is only 0.5% of the Earth’s 6,400km radius. The Earth’s
crust consists of ROCKS forming great structural units of the crust. Rocks consist of one or more
minerals. The crust consists from eight major chemical elements (their abundance is higher than 2%):
Major elements percentage:
Minor elements percentage:
oxygen
46.60 calcium
3.63 other elements: 1.41: phosphorus 0.05
silicon
27.72 sodium
2.83 titanium
0.44 sulfur
0.05
aluminum 8.13 potassium 2.59 hydrogen
0.13 chlorine
0.05
iron
5.00 magnesium 2.09 manganese
0.10 carbon
0.03
A MINERAL (615) is a homogeneous (naturally formed) solid defined by a specific chemical composition and a specific crystal structure.
Some minerals are related by polymorphism - minerals with the same chemical composition but a different crystal structure.
3
EXAMPLES: carbon occurs in two forms: diamond, the hardest mineral, density 3.51 g/cm , nonmetallic, and graphite, one of the softest minerals, density
2.23 g/cm3), metallic; calcium carbonate occurs as either calcite or aragonite.
Many minerals are related by isomorphism - minerals having identical crystal structure but partially
different chemical composition due to substitution of similar atoms.
EXAMPLES: in hexagonal carbonates (617, Fig. 25.3), calcium [calcite, CaCO3] may be continuously substituted by magnesium [dolomite (Ca,Mg)CO3
through magnesite, MgCO3], iron [siderite, FeCO3], manganese [rhodochrosite, MnCO3] etc..
Similarly like only the eight major chemical elements form the Earth’s crust, only a few minerals are
common constituents of rocks: rock forming minerals. The most common rock forming minerals are:
a) Silicates (particularly aluminosilicates) form more than 90% of the Earth’s crust. They consist of
variously arranged silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons (616-7, Fig. 25.1 + 25.2); mostly 1/4 to 1/2 of the silicon
is substituted by aluminum: aluminosilicates; the electrons demanded from this replacement are supplied
by metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron; the latter one is responsible for
dark color of the silicates (black, brown, green).
Silicate classes are recognized according to the various arrangement of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons:
(616,
isolated
e.g. olivine, garnets;
Fig. 25.2) chains
double: e.g. hornblende family, such as asbestos minerals; single: e.g. augite
sheets
e.g. micas and clay minerals (always with water);
frameworks e.g. feldspars and quartz (the most common minerals of the Earth’s crust).
b) Carbonates - such as calcite and other hexagonal carbonates which are isomorph with it, and
aragonite (orthorhombic calcium carbonate). Carbonates are common in a low temperature
(sedimentary) environment: calcite (617) is the rock forming mineral of sedimentary rocks limestone,
chalk, dripstone, travertine, and of the metamorphic rock marble (645-7, 650, Fig. 26.17a).
ROCK (633) is an aggregate (assemblage) of one or more minerals, and forms great units of the Earth’s
crust. Main types of rocks are recognized according to their origin. Only the last process that formed a
rock defines (classifies) it (the processes in Fig. 26.18, p. 651 are incomplete):
Crystallization of
magma forms igneous rocks (33-4, 167-9)
weathering of
any rock at the surface (except magma) forms ..................... soils (32, 220-1)
erosion-transportation-deposition of .............. a weathered rock forms ........................sediments (34, 219-23)
lithification (diagenesis) of a sediment (9-10) formssedimentary rocks (221-2)
metamorphism of
any rock except magma forms ................ metamorphic rocks (36, 247-50)
melting of
any rock forms magma (33, 167)
Main Types of ROCKS (examples)
IGNEOUS rocks (634-42) formed by solidification (usually crystallization) of a cooled magma.
Due to the high viscosity (see below) of magma, the crystallization process is very slow; if there is not
enough time to crystallize (fast cooling), crystals cannot form, and volcanic glass, a “stiff liquid”, origi-
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nates (e.g., obsidian if massive, pumice if a foam). If slightly more time is available at a surface fine
crystals form, often with a glass matrix - extrusive (=volcanic) igneous rocks. In depth, a very slow
cooling enables formation of coarse-grained intrusive (=plutonic) igneous rocks.
The magma VISCOSITY increases with decreasing temperature, with decreasing content of dissolved volatiles (=volcanic gases: mostly water and carbon
dioxide), with decreasing content of metals (magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium), decreasing temperature, and particularly with increasing
content of silicon. The CRYSTALLIZATION changes the chemical composition of the remaining liquid magma (Bowen’s reaction series, 518-9, Figs.
24.13, 24.14): the iron-magnesium minerals (=silicon-poor, such as olivine and chain aluminosilicates) and calcium feldspar crystallize first, the silicon-rich
minerals (quartz, alkaline feldspars and micas) are gradually more abundant in the continuous crystallization series.
Three types of magma may crystallize coarse or fine-grained as 6 types of igneous rocks (635):
Depth of
3 types of magma:
cooling RESULTING
BASIC
MEDIUM
ACIDIC
rock TYPE 
 TEXTURE  (Fe-Mg rich)
(silicon rich)
nearby surface (fast
fine =
BASALT
ANDESITE
RHYOLITE
cooling): EFFUSIVE
APHANITIC
at depth (slow
coarse =
GABBRO
DIORITE
GRANITE
cooling): PLUTONIC
GRANULAR

iron-magnesium
olivine
(no olivine)
(alumino)silicates
augite
MINERALS: 
hornblende
black mica

sodium-calcium calcium feldspar calcium-sodium (in granite +white mica)
feldspars
feldspar
sodium feldspar
 potassium feldspar
potassium feldspar

quartz
quartz
Basalt the most common rock; forms ocean floor; common on Moon & Mars, andesite common in Andes, South America);
rhyolite common in Yellowstone;
granite
the most common igneous rock in continents.
SOILS (642) are residual materials of weathering which are still on the place of the weathering; their
chief constituents are clay minerals. The fundamental soil properties result from the original material
and from the type of climate, but also minor influences my be important (relief of the land surface,
passage of time and type of vegetation). Humid climate leaches soluble constituents such as potassium,
sodium, magnesium, and calcium (these metals are in order of the decreasing solubility of their
compounds), and results into cumulation of insolubles, such as silicon, aluminum, and highly oxidized
iron minerals; a strongly humid tropical climate with a high acidity (tropical forests) can leach even
silicon away, leaving aluminum and hydrated iron oxides (laterite; its aluminum rich type bauxite is an
aluminum ore; latosols). A dry (arid, desert) climate cumulates solubles, such as calcite, gypsum and
other salts.
SEDIMENTS + SEDIMENTARY rocks (642-6) formed by erosion, transportation and deposition of a
weathered material, sedimentary rocks by lithification of sediments.
Weathering means “loosening” of a rock without any transportation. Erosion is “picking up” of a
weathered rock to be transported and deposited. Erosion begins, deposition terminates a transportation
(see TG-p. 31).
Two groups of sediments and sedimentary rocks can be distinguished:
Fragmented (mechanical, clastic, detritic) s.+ s.r., such as a conglomerate (lithified gravel), sandstone
(lithified sand), shale (claystone, lithified clay), chalk (fragmented [clastic] fine-grained limestone),
coquina (fragmented [clastic] coarse limestone);
Chemical s.+ s.r., such as chert (varieties are flint and jasper; consists of opal to microcrystalline
quartz), limestone (many varieties, some are even fragmented; always consists of calcite); evaporates
formed by crystallization due to evaporation (they are no real chemical s.r., but resemble their massive
texture): rock salt, gypsum, anhydrite, potash.
METAMORPHIC rocks (646-50) formed by metamorphism (heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids; mostly however [under regional metamorphism] by pressure and heat).
By regional metamorphism, the most common sedimentary rocks, sandstone and shale, may progressively be metamorphosed in the following stages (the mineral constituents are in parentheses):
[0 shale/sandstone (clay minerals, quartz, calcite)]
1 slate
(stablest clay minerals such as kaolinite, fine micas, quartz, calcite)
2 schist
(micas, quartz, sodium feldspars, garnets)
3 gneiss
(micas, quartz, sodium & potassium feldspars, garnets)
Limestone may recrystallize by metamorphism into marble; “quartzose sandstone” (sedimentary quartzite consisting of quartz only = orthoquartzite) into metamorphic quartzite (metaquartzite).
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PROCESSES, Ch. 27 - 29, 655 – 726
“Nothing about the Earth is fixed, permanent, unchanging. What is today a great mountain that pierces the
sky may in the future be nibbled down into a mere hill, while elsewhere an undersea accumulation of
sediments may be thrust upward into a lofty plateau.” “This solid Earth around us is in a state of constant
change” [506]. The highest mountains are built of materials that once lay beneath the oceans.
The Earth’s crust is subject to two types of processes:
internal processes - act from inside of the Earth’s surface,
surface processes - act from outside of the Earth’s surface.
INTERNAL Processes, Ch. 27, 655 -79
Erosion-Transportation-Deposition are leveling processes through which the higher parts of the Earth’s
surface are worn down and the lower parts are filled with the resulting debris. If their work could be carried to completion, the continents would disappear and the Earth would become a smooth sphere
covered with sea water. The fact that the continents still exist, not to mention the mountain ranges upon
them, is in itself evidence that endogenic processes exist and undo the effects of gradation. These
processes, often occurring together, are of two kinds (673-5):
1 Magmatic (igneous) processes, involving
movement of molten rock;
2 Tectonic processes (diastrophism, incl. orogenesis), involving
movement of the solid crust.
Magmatic processes occurring near and at the surface are called volcanism (in a narrow sense), those
occurring deeper within the Earth’s crust are called plutonic processes. Volcanism can cumulate volcanic rocks and form volcanic mountains this way (see “Classification of Mountains” below). Plutonic
processes are associated with intrusions of plutonic igneous rocks.
Tectonic processes result frequently into deformation which can be of two kinds (673-5):
discontinuous deformation such as a fault originating by pressure acting on brittle rocks near the
Earth’s crust surface (under a low hydrostatic pressure) abruptly, and
continuous deformation such as a fold originating by pressure acting on plastic rocks deeply beneath the
Earth’s crust surface (under a high hydrostatic pressure) over a long period of time.
Classification of Mountains
based on the 2 kinds of internal processes, results in a structural classification criterion:
A Nondeformational mts = volcanic mts; 3 types can be distinguished according to their composition:
1 Shield volcanoes and domes consist of lava flows. Shield volcanoes form from a low viscosity (iron
+ magnesium rich) magma such as basalt; may reach great size, e.g.: Hawaii Islands - Mauna Loa is
10km high from the ocean floor and 100km diameter; Olympus Mons on Mars is 24km high,
500km diameter; andesitic plateaus in S. America, basaltic plateaus in India and S. Africa.
2 Cinder cones consist of pyroclastic debris (=volcanic ash, pumice, volcanic bombs + other
ejecta); e.g. Yellowstone Park, WY; in Mojave Desert, CA; Fujiyama, south-central Honshu, Japan.
3 Stratovolcanoes, consisting of intercalating lava flows and layers of pyroclastic debris, are very
common volcano type; e.g., Vesuvius, Etna, Mt. St. Helen.
B Deformational mts; 2 types can be recognized according to the type of dominant deformation:
1 Fault-block = Germanotype mts: discontinuous deformation is dominant - formed near surface
almost without hydrostatic pressure from overlying rocks therefore in brittle rock; e.g.: Pfalz =
Palatinate Forest, Vogesen = Vosgez, Schwarzwald = Black Forest (674-5).
2 Folded = Alpinotype mts: continuous deformation is dominant - formed in depth under high hydrostatic pressure from overlying rocks therefore in soft (plastic) rocks during long period of time; e.g.
Alps, the Rockies, the Appalachians, the Himalayas. Most folded mts. formed in geosynclines (66974; TG-p. 30).
Earth’s Interior, 655 - 61
The Earth’s interior is made up of concentric layers (655-61) identified by earthquake (seismographic)
analysis through shadow zones (657, Fig. 27.5).
Earthquake waves (recorded by seismographs) provide information on the Earth’s interior. Three kinds
of earthquake waves are recognized (656, Fig. 27.3, 256-7, Fig. 11.6):
1 Primary (or P) waves are longitudinal (push-pull, compressional) waves, speed: 5.5-14km/sec;
2 Secondary (or S) waves are transverse (shear) waves, speed: 3 - 7km/sec;
3 Surface (or L) waves are similar to transverse waves but include orbital motion (like water waves),
and are limited to the Earth’s surface; speed: about 4km/sec.
The main concentric layers in the Earth’s interior (655-7):
1 Core 3470km in radius, probably consists of molten iron and nickel alloy (such as in metallic
meteorites), the inner core is believed to be solid;
2 Mantle 2900km thick, a more or less solid ferromagnesian silicate; the almost upper mantle is
called asthenosphere (Greek asthenos = weak);
3 Thin crust, average thickness 35km, maximum 70km under mountain ranges of the continents
(granitic rock), minimum is less than 6km under the oceans (basaltic rock).
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The crust + the outermost mantle together (659-61, Fig. 27.7) make up a shell of hard rock 50 to 100km
thick called lithosphere (Greek lithos = rock). The lithosphere has no sharp boundary, as the crust does,
but gradually turns into the softer asthenosphere.
PLATE TECTONICS; 661 - 79
The lithosphere consists of 7 to 10 huge plates and a number of smaller ones, all of which float on the
plastic asthenosphere (659-75, Figs. 27.7, 27.8). The plates can move relative to one another in 3 ways:
1 Ocean floor spreading at mid-ocean ridges (664-5) - by moving apart with molten rock rising to
form new ocean floor at the gap;
2 Subduction (one plate can slide under another and melt; if two oceanic plates subduct an oceanic
trench forms (669-71, Figs. 27.18 + 27.19).
3 Strike-slip fault (such as San Andreas Fault) - adjacent plates can slide past each other (672-3.
Continental drift is due to plate motion. Today’s continents were once part of two supercontinents
(662-6) called Laurasia (North America, Greenland, Europe, and most of Asia) and Gondwanaland
(South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia) which were separated by the Tethys Sea. Previously these supercontinents were joined into a single one known as Pangea. Its break up and reassembling seems to occur in cycles (Scientific American, Jul 88, p. 72-79; Apr 92, p. 34-41) taking about 440
million years.
A GEOSYNCLINE is a large elongate sedimentation basin located along a continental margin; it is
continuously subsiding as sedimentary (and volcanic) rocks accumulate. During the long-term
subsidence, an equilibrium between the sinking rate and the sedimentation rate is roughly maintained so
that the deposition takes place under almost constant depth of marine water (200-500 meters). Typical
dimensions: few thousands km long, few hundreds km wide; typical evolution time: few hundreds of
million years. Importance: g.-s produce large folded mountains; their deposits frequently contain
petroleum and natural gas; continents grow by accretion of geosynclines (“onion” structure). 3 typical
stages of the geosyncline evolution (note the symmetry in the opposites such as “sinking - rising” and “deposition - erosion”):
1 Sinking + deposition: it continues until about 10km to 20km thick deposits cumulate;
2 Folding + squeezing down: a side pressure (probably from a continental drift) causes folding and
squeezing down (downwarping) of the accumulated deposits up to a depth of about 50km where they are
regionally metamorphosed. The deposition usually continues under a constant depth of marine water
(200 - 500 meters) further so that no changes are apparent on the surface (sea floor).
3 Rising + erosion: after the side pressure of the stage 2 ended, the folded and squeezed
down sedi3), these
mentary rocks rebound and stretch. Surrounded
by
heavier
rocks
(density
about
3.2
g/cm
downwarped rocks (density about 2.7 g/cm3) start slowly rising (due to buoyancy) along steep faults. The
marine water retreats and the folded, frequently also metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are subject to
erosion. The erosion increases with altitude until an equilibrium between the rising and erosion is established, and no net growth takes place. Later when the rising slows down, the erosion becomes dominant,
thus these old mountains become smoothed (such as Appalachians).
SURFACE Processes, Ch. 29, 709 - 26
The surface processes are mostly due to action of atmosphere (the air) and hydrosphere (the waters).
These form a fluid environment and include also biosphere (living things). Surface processes are characteristic by low (barometric) pressure and temperature.
The following surface processes are recognized:
weathering
=loosening of rocks and minerals, it may leave a soil on the weathering site;
erosion
=beginning of the transportation (of a weathered material);
transportation =movement + carrying away of particulate and/or dissolved solids;
deposition
=termination of the transportation: the laying down of the transported material into
layers which are stratified (reveal layered structure; bedded). Exception: glacial
deposits are unstratified (till, 722; drift includes outwash, a water deposit, therefore is
stratified and not a true glacial deposit). The term “deposition” is used as synonymous
with sedimentation: it does not include deposition in veins, geodes, etc..
While weathering (described under soils which form by weathering) does not include any transportation (except the leached out solutions which belong to
the processes of chemical erosion since they start a transportation), only erosion - transportation - deposition will be examined next. Lithification (similarly
as weathering) does not include any movement (except some enrichment by cementation in some cases); it was described under sedimentary rocks (520-1).
The energy source of the overwhelming majority of surface processes is Sun radiation. The resulting
heating of the Earth’s surface causes movement of the main four fluids: wind, water streams, turbidity
currents, and glaciers.
Part of the heat changes into kinetic energy under gravity acceleration. An uneven heating of air masses causes their expansion at warm places and rising,
and a cool air inflow from a side: a wind forms. The heated water evaporates and precipitating on higher levels it changes its potential energy into kinetic
energy. Similar energy transformations occur with turbidity currents and glaciers. Little part of the sun radiation has been changed into chemical energy by
photosynthesis of green plants and stored as fossil fuel plus oxygen of the atmosphere.
While the four fluids transport solids by an indirect action of gravity, on hillslopes the gravity acts directly onto the solids (mass movement on hillslopes, such as landslides: in these cases the fluids, chiefly
water and clay, only passively support the movement as lubricants).
The transport efficiency of each of the four fluids depends on their relative kinetic energy
(characterized by the fluid’s density and speed2) and on their capability to transfer the kinetic energy
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(defined by viscosity which is the fluid’s resistance against flow or deformation; for example, honey is
highly viscous) from the fluid to the solids to be transported:
physical density speed
relative energy transfer
properties
KE
viscosity
fluid 
gram/cm3 meter/second
joule
gram/secondcm
wind
0.001 5-20
10 0.00001
water
1
1
500 0.01
turbidity currents 1.1
2-10
50000 0.1
glaciers
0.9
0.00001
4.5×10-11 >100,000
Running water (29.3, 713-20) is responsible for the major smoothing of the Earth (it moves material
from the continents to the ocean basins) due to its high relative kinetic energy combined with a medium
viscosity, and, usually, long time action. In sloped landscapes (mountains) a river gets high energy and
cuts a V-shaped valley (715, Fig. 25.4); if deposition is stronger than erosion (low energy rivers), broad
valley forms (716-9, Figs. 29.13 - 29.15: flood plain, meander, delta, terrace, alluvial fan). Mechanical
sediments (gravel, sand and clay) are deposited when the stream current (or rip, long-shore current etc.
in ocean, sea or lake) lose their energy (sand bars); chemical sediments precipitate due to chemical and
physical factors; from organogenic sediments, the most important are corals, chalk and diatomites.
Ground (underground) water (29.2, 710-3) exceeds by more than 66times the amount of continental
surface fresh water, see water distribution, TG-p. 27). Springs consist of groundwater that emerges from
beneath the surface. During a long time, the ground water may form caves (and carst topography) in
limestones.
Wind (709-10) is the weakest E-T-D agent. Even its long time results available in deserts (pavements,
blow-outs, dunes) are exceeded by the short time action of water streams.
Glaciers (28.4, 694-7, 29.4, 720-3) flow as a “soft” mixture of ice with a little water (a thin water film
among ice crystals forms by pressure of the overlaying ice deeply beneath the glacier surface: zone of
flow). Glaciers are the strongest E-T-D (erosional-transportational-depositional) agents due to their
immensely efficient transfer (their viscosity is extremely high: it approaches the value of strength for
solid ice) of their low energy onto the transported solids. Their action is limited to glaciated areas only
(presently 10% of the land area). Glaciers cut U-shaped valleys (720-1), they scratch and polish the
bedrock and transported rocks. Glacier deposits called till (722; drift includes outwash, a water deposit,
therefore is stratified) are always unstratified and unsorted; the depositional landforms of glaciers are
known as moraines, drumlins etc..
Turbidity currents are density currents due to muddy (=turbid) water which has a greater density than
the clean water around and therefore sinks beneath it, and, in great masses, it flows rapidly downslope
(slopes as gentle as 1o are sufficient). Turbidity currents are the second strongest E-T-D agents but their
action is limited to short periods of time (few hours to days). They erode submarine canyons and deposit
graded (and sorted) and stratified sediments called turbidites. Turbidity currents are important on continental slopes and in geosynclines.
Water distribution & movement, Ch. 28, 683 – 703
The total world’s water is 1.3×109km3; from this, the sea-water is 99.7120%, the water on continents
0.2879%, and the atmospheric moisture 0.0001% (472, Fig. 22.10). On the continents, 77.3% is in icecaps and glaciers, 22.1% as groundwater and only 0.6% in lakes and rivers. 8% from the ocean
evaporation comes onto continents as precipitation, and returns as run off. From the whole continental
precipitation, 72% evaporates and 28% infiltrates and runs off back into the oceans. The air takes up
more moisture under a higher temperature; cooling of a moisture saturated air causes condensation (fog,
clouds), and when rapid and with condensation nuclei, precipitation (rain, snow) takes place.
The atmosphere transports water and energy over the Earth (weather phenomena). Water evaporation consumes great amount of heat (cooling effect); this
heat is released during water condensation and precipitation. Clouds form when a moist air is heated: it raises and expands which causes cooling; if the
temperature drops enough, clouds form. About 30% of the insolation (466) is reflected back into space, mainly by clouds. The atmosphere absorbs perhaps
19% of the insolation (ozone, water vapor and clouds). 47% of the insolation heats the Earth’s surface which re-radiates the heat into the atmosphere
(greenhouse effect: 379, 467-8, Fig. 22.3; 574, Fig. 27.10a). The unequal heating of the Earth’s surface (due to different reflectivity) causes unequal heating
of the atmosphere: rising air masses cause horizontal wind which compensates the temperature differences. Ocean water (71% of the Earth’s surface) stores
most of the heat and moderates the climates of adjacent land areas due to the high specific heat of water (113).
14
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EARTH HISTORY, Ch. 30, 729 - 46
optional
According to the principle of uniform change, geologic processes in the past were the same as those in the present. An unconformity, which is a buried
surface of erosion, indicates that tectonic uplift, erosion, and sedimentation have occurred in that order.
Radioactive isotopes and their decay products in rocks make it possible to date geologic formations in number of time units such as years. However, the
radioactive dating is limited to objects which have preserved their radioisotopes to be determined, and this is rarely the case; moreover, the radioactive
dating includes difficult laboratory procedures their accuracy is limited (date is currently determined with a Ã5% error), and price is not negligible. This is
why a concept of relative time has been developed and widely used in geology. Fossils, the remains of organisms preserved in rocks, are useful in
correlating strata, in tracing the development of living things, and in reconstructing ancient environments.
Geologic time is divided into Precambrian time and the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras; the latter started 570, 225, and 65 million years ago, respectively. Eras are subdivided into periods and the periods into epochs.
Major Evolutionary Stages & Events (734; Fig. 30.8)
REFERENCE: Geological Time Table, by B. U. Haq & F. W. B. van Eysinga. Elsevier, 4th (revised & enlarged) edition, 1987; ISBN 0-444-41362-6
age in mill/bill
stage’s name: years ago:
1
Archean
2 Precambrian
3
4
5
5-4bya
4-.59bya
Early 590-360mya
Paleozoic
Late 360-250mya
Paleozoic
Mesozoic 250-66mya
6
Tertiary =
66Early Cenozoic
1.68mya
7 Quaternary =
Late Cenozoic, 1.68mya
now
Anthropogene
age of:
important events:
Solar system evolved from dust + gas cloud: collisions, growth of planetesimals
into protoplanets; 4.2 bya. bombardment of Earth-like planets heated them up
to molten state which enabled differentiation into crust, mantle & core;
Earth: 1st (oxygen-free) atmosphere + oceans formed;
3 bya. evolution of organic molecules; 2 bya. one-celled organisms: blue green
life beginnings algae (ex stromatolites) formed 1st oxygen in waters;
corals, sponges, bryozoa, mollusks (gastropods, cephalopods, “shells”, oysters,
marine
clams), brachiopods, graptolites, echinoderms (sea lilies, sea urchins),
invertebrates arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans); 1sts: 500mya vertebrates (jawless fish),
425mya. jawed fish, 418mya vascular plants;
tropical forests of non- oxygen in the atmosphere & large deposits of black (high grade) coal; oceans
flowering vascular land low due to glaciation;
1sts: 384 mya insects, 355 mya amphibians, 330
plants; they formed: mya reptiles, 310 mya winged insects;
tropical climate; 1sts: 222 mya mammals, 143 mya birds, 116 mya flowering
plants (angiosperms); last (66-67 mya): dinosaurs, ammonites, belemnites,
dinosaurs
inoceramids, rudists, globotruncanids;
slow & slight cooling, Paleogene, 67 - 24 mya; rapid diversification of
mammals
lower temperature, seasons mammals; 1sts: 57-56 mya primates, grasses; 52.5 mya horses, 45.05 rodents, 40
mya. anthropoids, 35.05 mya. elephants, Neogene, 24 mya - 1.67 mya; 20 mya.
hominoids (Proconsul), 5mya hominids;
several strong to moderate glaciations; currently: moderate glaciation (polar
caps, glaciers in high mountains), therefore low oceans; Pleistocene to 10,000 ya,
man
then Holocene to now; 1.6 mya Homo erectus, 400,000 ya early Homo Sapiens,
(National Geogr., May ’97) 80,000 ya Neanderthal, 35,000 ya modern man (Cro-Magnon)
planets
formation
ATMOSPHERE, Ch. 31, 749-68; WEATHER, Ch. 32, 771 - 86
The Earth keeps a gaseous envelope, ATMOSPHERE, reaching to about 600km. If it would have a constant density vertically as near the Earth’s surface (0oC, 1000 millibar/hectopascal) it would be only
7.98km thick. But the gravity compresses the air into different layers (753, Fig. 31.4), each with a
specific vertical temperature gradient, pressure, and temperature. The lower atmosphere up to about
100km has a constant composition in its main constituents (753, Tab. 31.1: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.035% carbon dioxide) except variable moisture and ozone; above 100km, the gases separate according
to their density due to gravity and diffusion rate. The following atmosphere layers can be distinguished
(753: due to the Earth’s rotation, the altitudes are minimum near poles, maximum near equator):
Troposphere (6-16km, mean 11km) - 75% of the whole atmosphere’s mass (up to 5km: 50%). Most
weather: most clouds; most dust & humidity; temperature sinks at a gradient of -6.5oC/km up to -55oC.
Stratosphere, its major part is also known as ozonosphere (16-50km) - temperature increases due to
absorption of the UV-radiation by ozone at a gradient of +3.2oC/km from 25km to 45km up to about
+10oC. The ozone forms by the UV-radiation. The ozone layer probably formed first in Upper
Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian; about 300 million years ago, 738); it enabled the animal land life since
that time. The ozone concentration is very low (4×10-6): this ozone would form a 1”-thick layer at sea level.
Mesosphere (50-80km) - no own heating (no ozone, no carbon dioxide, no moisture): this is why its
temperature decreases to -76oC with the same (negative) temperature gradient as in the troposphere.
Thermosphere (80-600km)
- the extremely low density air absorbs the sun radiation: temperature rises
dramatically to >2000oC, becomes ionized (electrically conductive, thus reflects short radio waves).
The atmosphere and hydrosphere (=all the water of the Earth’s surface) have formed by a continuous degassing of the Earth’s crust: release of volatiles
such as volcanic gases consisting of water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, sulfur compounds etc.. Oxygen formed by photosynthesis of green
plants (488-9), first in oceans (about 1 billion years ago) and later in atmosphere (about 300 million years ago): this way, the sun radiation has provided
energy for the photosynthesis; using water, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll as catalyst, the green plants synthesize, through a series of complex reactions, a
simple sugar glucose (and related carbohydrates) and free oxygen. Plants use the glucose mainly as an energy resource (in more complex sugars, such as
sucrose and starch) and as a base of constructive material in vascular tissues (cellulose, lignin). Animals depend (more or less directly) on the sugars of
plants as energy resource; they decompose the sugars into glucose and store as fats (and similar compounds such as lipids), water-insoluble derivatives of
glucose. This way, the solar energy stored in oxygen + carbohydrates has been essentially retained in fossil fuels which have formed from them: coal
(basically carbon) by dehydration, petroleum & natural gas (both saturated hydrocarbons), by reduction (=oxygen loss) of carbohydrates. The chemical
energy of fossil fuels represents the stored solar energy; it can be released by combustion (=recombination with oxygen). The present content of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere represents mainly the result of equilibrium of the plant and animal life; this equilibrium is inevitable for the life structure.
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4 ASTRONOMY, Ch. 16 - 19, 789 - 834
The University of Maryland provides a 3 credit hour course, fine for a non-science student: ASTR-100, Introduction to Astronomy; the pertinent textbook,
Horizons, Exploring the Universe by Michael A. Seeds (5th edition 1998) is referred to as “ATB”.
ASTRONOMY: (Greek: astron = star; -nomos from Greek nemein = to arrange; Greek “astronomos” =
star-arranger). The essence of Astronomy, 356; NCE:
Branch of science that studies the motion and nature of celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies; more generally, the study of matter and energy in
the universe at large. A. is perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. It formed from man’s search for his position in the world using observation, but it had a
lot of practical functions too, such as a basis for the calendar, for navigation and time-keeping, etc.. Modern astronomy’s new and powerful tool, space
research, has resulted in great progress in computers, communication etc..
DISTANCE units in astronomy. The shortest one is astronomical unit (374), AU, the mean distance between the Earth and Sun, is about 150 million km
(exactly 149,597,870km); this distance is passed by light within 499.0047815 sec = 8.316 746 358 min  8 min 19 sec. A greater distance unit is parsec, pc:
the distance at which a star would have a parallax of one second of arc; parallax (453-4) is the half observation angle using a base line of 2 AU, that is at a
half-year interval. A popular distance unit is a light year, a distance light (any electromagnetic radiation) travels in one year = 9.5 × 1012km; 1 parsec = 3.26
light years. The light speed in vacuum is c = 2.997 924 58 × 108 meter/sec [PTB, Braunschweig, November 1983; 201-2]; the inverse value, 1/c = c-1 = the
time during which the light passes 1 meter = 3.335 640 952 × 10-9 sec/meter (10-9 sec/meter = 1 nanometer) defines the standard length of meter. The
wavelength  (lambda) of an electromagnetic radiation is related to its frequency f as follows:  × f = c [meter/second]. This way, the frequency can be
calculated from the wavelength and vice versa: f = c/,  = c/f. More about the electromagnetic radiation (light is one type of it): TG-Physics, p. 4.
SOLAR SYSTEM, Ch. 33, 789-811
http://bang.lanl.gov/solarsys/homepage.htm
http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/Space.talk.pdf
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov
http://www.nineplanets.org
The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy - the second largest star system in the near universe (100 thousand light years in diameter, contains
over 100 billion stars; almost every celestial object visible to our naked eyes is part of it, except Magellanic clouds in the southern sky which appear to be its
galactic satellites). The solar system moves about 250km/sec in the direction of Cygnus on a circle with a radius of 27,000 light years with an orbital period
of 250 million years, 67 light years north of the galactic plane (Astronomy April 96, p. 24).
The Earth, our observation site, performs multiple motion which changes the observed portion of the
sky: rotation on its axis (one full period equals a sidereal day with respect to the stars, 454, in contrary to
the current solar day which is the period of the Earth’s rotation with respect to the Sun) and orbital
revolution about the Sun (one full period equals an astronomical year). Looking down on the Earth’s
north pole, its axial rotation is anti-(=counter)clockwise, while its orbital revolution and that of all the
planets around the Sun is in the same direction. This is termed direct rotation and direct orbital
revolution, while the word retrograde is applied to movement in the opposite direction. Objects which
orbit with retrograde rotation have inclination to orbit greater than 90° (such as Uranus, 97.92o:
Amateur Astronomy, Hamlyn, 1989, p. 147; Astronomy, Sept 85, p. 8; and Venus, 178o: Amateur
Astronomy, Hamlyn, 1989, p. 121). Since the stars appear to make 366 revolutions in a year - 365 due to
the rotation of the Earth on its axis, and one extra rotation because the Earth has orbited once round the
Sun - the sidereal day is shorter than the solar day: the sidereal day is 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds
of mean solar time. The daily motion is 360° divided by 365.25 days = approx. 1°/day (454, Fig. 21.10;
twice Sun’s angular diameter). This is why the stars appear to rise about 4 minutes (=24 hours divided
by 365.25 days) earlier each night (they seem to move eastward). Sun and particularly Moon drift
eastward from day to day.
Ecliptic (804, Fig. 33.27) is projection of the Earth’s orbit on the sky (Earth’s orbital plane). Celestial
equator is tipped by 23.5° to the ecliptic . These two planes cross at places of equal day and night,
equinoxes: vernal equinox is the place where the sun moves northward (about 21 March, it marks
beginning of spring) and the autumnal equinox is the place where it crosses moving southward (about 22
Sept., it marks beginning of fall; 2000 it is on 23 Sep., 2h22m). About 22 June, the Sun is farthest north
at the point called the summer solstice (longest day, it marks beginning of summer), the winter solstice
is the point where the Sun is farthest south (shortest day, it marks beginning of winter). The Earth’s axis
tilt (23.5° to the perpendicular of ecliptic, 453) causes seasons (they are reversed on the north and south
hemispheres). Summer is warmer than winter due to: the summer sun shines higher - therefore: a)
summer sun shines (summer days are) longer than the winter sun (days); b) sunlight is more
concentrated per area than the winter sun.
Whereas the Earth’s rotation axis tilt (23.5 o) is practically constant, the direction of axis precedes, i.e. it traces out a cone in space due to tidal influence of
the Sun and Moon on the Earth’s equatorial bulge: it is trying to make the Earth spin upright (in respect to its orbit). The precession period is about 26,000
years (=0.014o/year): 455-6, Figs. 21.12 & 21.13.
SKY, EARTH & MOON , Ch. 33, 789 - 811
Stars are grouped into 88 constellations on the sky which define areas for a star location. A constellation
is a pattern of stars as seen from the Earth (these stars are not physically associated, 357-8). The position
in the sky of Polaris (the North Star) changes very little because it lies nearly directly over the north
pole, on the extended axis of the Earth’s rotation.
Coordinates on the Earth are known as latitude
(angular distance north or south of equator [0o]) and longitude (angular distance east or west of the
prime meridian through Greenwich; a meridian is a great circle that passes through both poles). On the
celestial sphere, declination is used instead of latitude; right ascension (instead of longitude) is
measured in hours eastward from vernal equinox.
The mean distance between the Earth and the Sun, known astronomical unit, AU, is about 150 million
km (374, 424; exactly 149,597,870km); this distance is passed by light within 499.004,781,5sec =
8.316,746,358 min 8min19sec. A greater distance unit is parsec, pc: the distance at which a star would
have a parallax of one second of arc (parallax is an observation angle using a base line of 2 AU, i.e. at
six-monthly interval). A popular distance unit is a light-year, a distance light travels in one year = 9.5
16
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1012km; 1 parsec = 3.26 light years (the light speed in vacuum is 2.997,924,58  108 meter/sec [PTB,
Braunschweig, November 1983]; the inverse value, 3.335,640,95210-9 sec/meter defines the standard
length of meter).
MOON
Moon is the nearest celestial body: 384,400km away (light passes this distance within 1.28 sec). Its diameter of 3476.2km - a little more than a quarter of the Earth’s diameter - places it among the largest
satellites in the solar system (it is larger than Pluto (3100km), Europa (3130km, Jupiter’s satellite), and
Triton (3400km, Neptune’s satellite); slightly larger solar bodies are: Calisto (4840km, Jupiter’s
satellite), Mercury (4878km), Titan (5150km, Saturn’s satellite) & Ganymede (5280km, Jupiter’s
satellite). Moon’s mass is 0.0123 of the Earth’s mass, Moon’s surface gravity is 0.165 (1/6) of the
Earth’s one; Moons mean density is 3.340g/cm3. Gravitational flexing of cosmic bodies such as of the
Earth-Moon-Sun system is known as tides (4.5, 102-5), and causes tidal heating (among Jupiter and its
Galilean moons, TG p. 15).
As the Earth’s orbiter, the Moon can occur both within and outside of the space between the Earth and
Sun approximately or exactly on the Earth-Sun line, the Moon’s side illuminated by Sun can be visible
from the Earth in periodically repeating cycle of phases: new moon, new (waxing) crescent, first
quarter, first (waxing) gibbous, full moon, last (waning) gibbous, last (third) quarter, old (waning)
crescent. Whereas the new moon occurs nearby the Sun, the full moon appears on the opposite side to
the Sun. Because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted (at an angle of 5.2 o) to the ecliptic, the
Moon’s occurrence on the Earth-Sun line is mostly approximate, and neither Moon nor Earth is
shadowed by the other body. Only during some new and full moon, the eclipse of Sun or Moon can
occur at the intersection of the Moon’s orbital plain with the ecliptic (33.3, 797-800, Fig. 33.21); an
interesting solar eclipse occurs 24 Oct 97 (Astronomy Jul 95, p. 64-7).
The solar system is distributed around the Sun (803) as follows:
a) Planets (with their satellites) - occur in a disk 0.4 AU to 40 AU from the Sun;
b) Asteroids - occur in a broad ring with a medium distance of around 2.77 AU from the Sun;
c) Meteoroids - randomly orbiting in the whole solar system space, probably up to the Van Oort belt;
d) Kuiper’s belt - a disk 30 - 100 AU from the Sun; many small icy bodies form short-period comets;
see:
http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb.html
http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/kboc.html.
e) Van Oort belt - hypothetical spherical zone 2,000-20,000 AU from the Sun, birthplace of comets.
The solar system shows the following important PROPERTIES COMMON to its bodies:
1 Revolution (orbiting) ofo the planets with their satellites is nearly circular and nearly in the
same plane (a disk 3.4 from the ecliptic, the Earth’s orbital plane);
2 Counter-clockwise when seen from the north: a) revolution of all planets with almost all of their satellites,
b) rotation of most of the planets and their satellites;
3 The age of the solar system is about 5 billion years (measured: Earth, meteorites, Moon).
A few important exceptions (numbered as the paragraph-# above):
1a Excessive inclination to the ecliptic:
Pluto (17.2o), Mercury (7o);
1b Excessive eccentricity:
Pluto (0.25), Mercury (0.21), Mars (0.09);
2a Clockwise (retrograde) revolution:
Triton (satellite of Neptune), Charon (satellite of Pluto)
4 outermost satellites of Jupiter and one outermost satellite of Saturn;
2b Clockwise (retrograde) rotation:
Venus, Uranus and Pluto.
The Origin of the Solar System - the Solar Nebula Theory 801-2, Fig. 33.25
The solar system formed from a solar nebula about 4.6 bya. Originally, about 5 bya, a cloud of gas and dust - a fragment of
an interstellar gas cloud with about twice of the present solar system total mass was spread within a spherical space of about
30 million times of its present diameter. The nebula formation was triggered by a huge explosion, supernova, at a distance of
60 light years (18 pc): the shell of gas ejected by supernova compressed the gas & dust cloud; from which the nebula began
developing in 5 main stages:
1 Dust grains grew by condensation (atomic clustering such as in snow flakes) and accretion (such as snow ball rolling: the sticking together of solid
particles by carbon compounds and static electricity) and formed small planetesimals (diameter about a centimeter and larger objects). The material is
kept by a common gravity in the center in a spherical space of about 30 million times of its present volume.
2 While the smallest dust grains were stirred up by the turbulent motion of gas, the orbits of the planetesimals collapsed into the plane of the solar nebula
about 0.01 AU thick (p. 370, Fig. 17.1; ATB 359).
3 Gravitational instability broke the rotating disk of particles into small clouds, further concentrated trillions of the small into large planetesimals and
helped them coalesce into objects up to 100km in diameter (large planetesimals, Fig. 17.1).
4 As the largest began to exceed this size, the growth of protoplanets started. Parallel motion (the average orbital velocity in the solar system is about
30km/sec) made head-on collisions (they would have pulverized the material) very improbable: they merely rubbed shoulders at low relative velocities.
The gravity of largest bodies may have been able to retain the fragments produced in collisions, forming a layer composed of crushed rock which may
have been effective in trapping smaller bodies. The largest planetesimals grew the fastest (they had the strongest gravity) to protoplanetary dimensions
sweeping more and more material. When massive enough, they trapped some of the original nebula gas to form primitive atmospheres.
5 Inner protoplanets changing into true planets were subject to melting due to the terrific amount of energy given up by infalling material. Then
differentiation of the material acted according to density (dense metallic cores form, lighter silicates float to the surface); this process included out
gassing - release of gases from a planet’s interior which formed the first atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide and water vapor.
As soon as the Sun became a luminous star, it began to clear the nebula blowing gas away and removing particles that had not become part of planets by
radiation pressure and solar wind (flow of ionized hydrogen and other atoms at about 600km/sec); also the planets have been sweeping up the space debris.
This nebula clearing had been accomplished during the first billion years: planet building ended about 4 billion years ago.
The heating from the solar system’s center (the Sun) outwards resulted into chemical evolution and differentiation of the solar nebula. The temperature
decreasing from the nebula’s center outwards controlled the condensation sequence: the inner planets condensed from high density material with high
melting points, such as metal oxides and pure metals; middle distant planets condensed from medium density materials with medium melting and
vaporization point, such as iron-magnesium silicates and aluminosilicates, and sodium + potassium aluminosilicates (“silicates“, “feldspars”); in the cool
outer region the lightest materials with the lowest melting and vaporization point condensed, such as ices of water, carbon dioxide, ammonia and methane.
GNSC-100, Part 4, Astronomy (p. 9 - 22)
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The Sun 33.4, 800-1
1 The solar atmosphere
PHOTOSPHERE = the visible surface, most of the light source: thin layer (500km thick)
Temperature 5800 - 6000 Kelvin. Below the photosphere: the gas is denser & hotter - it radiates more light but it is hidden by the
photosphere. Photosphere’s density is about 0.1% that of the Earth’s air at sea level (100% of the air’s density is about 70,000km below the
photosphere). Photosphere provides an absorption spectrum (the continuous spectrum of the deeper photosphere is filtered by the upper
low density gases). Granulation is due to rising and sinking gas of convection cells (Fig. 17.4C, 372) just below the photosphere; the
bright cells have the diameter 1500km, each lasts about 10 minutes). Sun’s surface escape velocity is 617.23 km/second.
b
CHROMOSPHERE - (Greek chroma = color) - nearly invisible layer about 10,000km thick
It is about 1000-times fainter than the photosphere; it is visible as a thin line of pink only during the solar eclipse when the photosphere is
covered by the Moon: it provides brilliant emission spectrum - red, blue + violet Balmer lines of hydrogen (and few lines of other elements)
indicate that the chromosphere is much hotter and much less dense than the photosphere. The chromosphere projects by spicules (flamelike structure) into the lowest corona: the spicules have diameter 100 - 1000km, up to 10,000km high, last 5 - 15 minutes; relatively cool
regions (about 10,000 Kelvin) extending into much hotter corona (500,000 Kelvin). The spicules spring up around the edges of supergranules.
c
CORONA - outer atmosphere extending beyond the planets
Due to very high temperature (1,000,000 Kelvin), the high velocity of particles smears out any absorption line - a continuous spectrum
forms due to the Doppler’s shift. Lower (or K) corona: 500,000 to 1,000,000 Kelvin, outer (or F) corona: 2,000,000 Kelvin, 1 - 10
atoms/cm3. The outer corona is so hot the Sun is unable to hold it - the flow of protons, electrons and ions of heavier elements at 300 - 800
[1000]km/sec = solar wind. The outer corona extends beyond the planets.
a
2 SOLAR ACTIVITY
SUNSPOTS - dark (cool: about 4240 Kelvin, orange-red glow) areas of the photosphere
Single spots may last for a week, but mostly in groups up to 100 spots, which may last up to two months; mean spot is about twice the
Earth’s diameter. Caused by about 1000-times concentrated magnetic field (Zeeman’s effect doubles single spectral lines) which inhibits
gas motion just below the photosphere, and rising currents cannot deliver their heat to the surface. However, according to the latest
research (Richard Wilson & Hugh Hudson [University of California at San Diego], see Nature, 28 April 1988, and Astronomy, October
1988, p. 22-31), more sunspots seem to mean a brighter Sun; apparently, during the sunspots occurrence, more energy comes up from
deep within the Sun that appears in regions rather far removed from those of the spots, increasing the total Sun’s luminosity by about 0.1%.
There is no explanation of this observation yet. The number of sunspots varies with a period of about 11 years - the sunspot cycle (372).
At the beginning, the spots start to appear in the middle latitudes symmetrically 30o-35o north and south of the solar equator, and
progressively approach the equator within 5o-7o - Maunder butterfly diagram; E. Walter Maunder noticed that very few sunspots appeared
1645-1715 = Maunder Minimum which can be linked to the “little ice age“ (1430-1850).
b
The MAGNETIC CYCLE includes a magnetic reversion of the sunspot cycle
c
PROMINENCES & FLAIRS
d
CORONAL ACTIVITY - controlled by the strength & configuration of the magnetic fields
Therefore, the magnetic cycle takes 22 years - double of the sunspot cycle. The magnetic reversals are probably due to the Sun’s
differential rotation: faster at the equator (25 days) than at a middle latitude, 45o (27.8 days); the winding of the magnetic field to explain
the reversals has been suggested by Babcock (ATB: 140-2, Fig. 7-11).
Prominences are clouds of ionized gas in the Sun’s upper chromosphere/inner corona, with a higher density and at a lower temperature
than their surroundings. They are visible as bright red projections beyond the limb. When viewed against the brighter disc they appear as
dark absorption features termed filaments. Prominences are trapped in the twisted magnetic fields of active regions (Fig. 17.4). They
exhibit a great diversity of structure and are most conveniently classified according to their behavior, as quiescent & active. Quiescent p.
are particularly long-lived and are among the most stable of all solar features. They may persist for several months before breaking up or,
less frequently, blowing up and have been known to reform at the same location with an almost identical configuration. Typically, they are
a couple of 100,000km long, several 10,000km high and several 1000km thick. They occur in high latitudes, where they are supported by
the horizontal magnetic field separating the polar field from the adjacent fields of opposite polarity. They attain their greatest frequency a
few years after the minimum of the sunspot cycle, when their average latitude is around 50o. Then they appear in increasingly high
latitudes, reaching the polar regions shortly after sunspot maximum. Then, after a brief discontinuity, they reappear around latitude 50o
and remain there in small numbers until a few years after the next minimum, when they again progress pole-ward. Active (eruptive) p. are
relatively short-lived and may alter their structure appreciably over a matter of minutes. There are many characteristic types, for example
surges and sprays, in which chromospheric material is ejected into the corona, and loop prominences and coronal rain. Loop p. are
impulsive events that often accompany flares, while coronal rain represents the return of flare-ejected material. In developing active regions
arch filaments are usually present. These tend to connect regions of opposite polarity across the line of inversion and gradually ascend
while material descends along both sides of the arch.
Flares are much more violent: sudden short-lived (a typical f. attains its maximum in a few minutes and then slowly fades in an hour or
less) eruptions of the upper chromosphere/inner corona that are optically visible as brightening of small areas (usually of less than several
100 million km2) usually only in the monochromatic light of certain strong Fraunhofer lines. They represent an explosive release of energy
(up to 1025 joules = 2 billion megatons of TNT, the temperature in a flare can reach 500,000 K; X-ray observations suggest that some
nuclear reactions occur in flares) - in the form of particles & radiation - that causes a temporary heating of the surrounding medium and
may accelerate electrons, protons and heavier ions to high velocities (up to 1000km/sec). Flares are controlled by the Sun’s magnetic field:
they occur when sharp twists in the magnetic field store up great energy quantities and then release it at once. They almost always occur
near sunspot groups (a large spot group may experience 100 flares a day). Effects on Earth: Together with a flare, a strong X-ray & UV
radiation reaches the Earth. It increases the ionization in Earth’s upper atmosphere in the daylight hemisphere. The UV radiation causes
fade-out of short radio waves due to increased reflectivity (ionization) of the ionosphere’s D layer (60-90km altitude), which suppresses the
passage of the signals to the higher layers where they are normally reflected. This is accompanied by a sudden increase in the electric
conductivity of the E layer (90-140km altitude) and by disturbances of the Earth’s magnetic field. Occasionally, within about half an hour
of the flare, low-energy cosmic rays reach the Earth, and within about 26 hours, less energetic particles of the solar wind may arrive. These
latter particles spiral around the Earth’s magnetic field lines, causing geomagnetic storms and their luminous counterpart, auroras (glow
of excited atoms at altitudes of 100-400km). Other effects: surges in high voltage power lines, radiation hazards to passengers in supersonic
transports and in spacecraft.
The overall shape of the corona changes with the phase of the sunspot cycle. Streamers of the corona extend to a few solar radii, where
they are returned back by magnetic loops. Coronal holes of very low density gas form where the particles stream away unimpeded
(probable solar wind source).
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The Planets 33.5, p. 803 - 9
Kepler’s laws of orbital motion 5.5, 124-5
Johannes Kepler (born 28 Dec 1571 in Magstadt [18km SW from Stuttgart, SW Germany, Württemberg; Kepler’s museum is near in Weil der Stadt], died
15 Nov. 1630 in Regensburg, SE Germany, Bavaria) studied in Tübingen (S Germany) to become a Lutheran pastor. During his last year of study, Kepler
accepted a job in Graz (Austria) teaching mathematics and astronomy and preparing an annual almanac that contained astronomical, astrological and weather
predictions. Good luck in weather predictions 1595 gave him a reputation as an astrologer and seer. While still a college student, Kepler had become a
believer in the Copernican heliocentric hypothesis and at Graz he used his spare time to study astronomy. Tycho de Brahe invited him to Prague, the capital
of Bohemia in 1600. Tycho’s sudden death in 1601 left Kepler in a position to analyze the motions of the planets as an imperial mathematician to the Holy
Roman Emperor Rudolph II. He began by studying the motion of Mars and soon abandoned the 2000-year-old belief in the circular and uniform motion of
the planets. Also, he recognized that the planets are kept in their orbits by the gravity of Sun but could not include this force into his formulas (this did Isaac
Newton).
His main discoveries are now recognized as Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion:
1 The orbits of the planets (light objects) are ellipses with the Sun (the massive object) at one focus.
Ellipse is a geometric place of points their sum of distances from two points called foci (singular: focus) is constant. The eccentricity e is a measure of
the extent to which an ellipse departs from a circle. It is given by the ratio c/2a where c is the distance between the focal points of the ellipse and 2a is
the length of the major axis (a refers to the major semi-axis). For a circle, the two foci merge, c = 0, and e = 0 .
Most planets have orbits with a low eccentricity, i.e. almost circles, such as Venus 0.0068, Neptune 0.00858, Earth 0.0167, Uranus 0.0461, Jupiter
0.0484, Saturn 0.05565; higher eccentricities have: Mars (0.093377), Mercury (0.205628) and Pluto (0.249). Mutual gravitational influence of bodies
orbiting around a common massive body (Sun) usually results into a gradual reduction of eccentricity (making the eccentricity vary over a long
period; e.g., the Earth’s eccentricity varies between 0.005 to 0.06 in a period of about 100,000 years). This has been observed on rings of Jovian
planets (TG-p. 14) and may be applicable to the orbiting of stars (not open clusters) in galaxies (TG-p. 21).
2
A line from the planet (light object) to the Sun (the massive object) sweeps over equal areas in equal
intervals of time (125, Fig. 5.29).
The motion of a planet (light object) on an ellipse is not uniform: its speed is inversely proportional to the distance from the massive object. Only the
motion on a circle is uniform (the speed is constant because the distance is constant).
3
A planet’s orbital period (p) squared is proportional to its average distance from the Sun (a) cubed:
p2 = a3
; footnote, p. 820
the units for both quantities must be consistent; the simplest units are those referring to the Earth’s orbit: orbital period in the Earth’s years,
the distance in Earth to Sun distances, i.e. in astronomical units, AU. Because the average distance of the planet (light object) from the Sun
(massive object) equals the major semi-axis, the orbital period is independent of the minor semi-axis. For example, a circular orbit has the
same orbital period as an elliptical with the major semi-axis equal to the circle radius.
Newton’s laws of motion and gravity 92-7, Fig. 4.5
Sir Isaac NEWTON (1642 - 1727), English mathematician and natural philosopher (physicist), who is considered by many the greatest scientist that ever
lived. His most important discoveries were made during two-year period from 1664 to 66, when the university (Cambridge) was closed and he retired to his
hometown of Woolsthorpe. At that time he discovered the law of universal gravitation, began to develop the calculus, and discovered that white light is
composed of all the colors of the spectrum. These findings enabled him to make fundamental contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and theoretical and
experimental physics. He summarized his discoveries in terrestrial and celestial mechanics in his Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica [1687].
2
Newton’s law of gravity:
F=-G×M×m/r
where F is the force of gravity between two masses (M and m) at a distance r; G is the gravitational
constant 6.67 × 10-11 N×m2/kg2. This relationship shows that a dissipation of fields (such as magnetic,
electric and gravity fields) & of energy (e.g. radiant energy such as light) is proportional to the square of
distance (the concentration of the fields and energy is inversely proportional to the square of distance).
INNER (Terrestrial, Earth-like, Rocky) Planets, 804-6:
MERCURY, VENUS, EARTH and MARS
Common properties: small, high density like the Earth, composed of silicates, rotate slowly; few or no
satellites (the Moon is the only satellite of an appreciable size; two satellites of Mars are only a few km across, probably captured asteroids)
MERCURY 804
Large metallic (iron + nickel) core formed by meteoritic bombardment during the first billion years;
this bombardment strongly heated and expanded Mercury by about 10%; then the interior cooled and
shrank; lobate scarps up to 3km high and 500km long formed. Weak magnetic field suggests the core is
partially liquid (sulfur impurity could lower the melting temperature). The tidal interaction with the Sun
has caused 2 orbital periods (each 87.969 days) to equal 3 axial rotations (each 58.646 days): spin-orbit
coupling. Similar to the Moon (black: 0.067% albedo, reflectivity). No atmosphere, very hot days
(300oC), very cool nights (-180oC); eccentric + inclined orbit; phases. 0 satellites. Astronomy, Nov. 88, p. 22-35.
VENUS, 804 - 5
David H. Grinspoon: Venus revealed; Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 1997
Atlas of Venus, by Peter CATTERMOLE & Patrick MOORE, Cambridge Univ. Press (http://www.cup.org), 1997, 160 pages; $29.95
Its diameter (12,104km) and interior (core, mantle & crust) are similar to those of the Earth but other
properties are very different. The strongest atmosphere (90 bar) compensates temperature variations,
96% is carbon dioxide, causes green house heating to 472°C; far more heavy hydrogen (deuterium), 75times more argon than on the Earth; variable content of sulfur dioxide; water deficiency (0.01 - 0.1%);
layered, white clouds of sulfuric acid (45km to 60km above the surface) completely hide the surface,
and cause the highest reflectivity from all planets (albedo 0.76, p. 385); the yellowish tinge due to sulfur.
At surface almost no wind (about 2 meter/second only), however, winds increase with altitude: at 40km
- 60km to 70 - 130 meter/sec. Retrograde (clockwise when seen from north) slow rotation (244.3 days)
tidally locked to the conjunction with the Earth (orbital period: 0.61515 years = 224.68 days); active
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volcanism (more than 1,600 volcanoes); a great volcanic flood must have resurfaced it 600 mya (Astron,
May 97, 44-9); phases; 0 satellites.
Spacecraft Magellan launched 4 May ‘89 (Astronomy, 4/Apr 1989, p. 26-32; 4/Apr 92, p. 20, 24-26), explored Venus by three 243-day (8 months)-long
high resolution radar imaging cycles (each consisted of 1000 polar highly elliptic orbits, Aug 90 - 25 May 93): pictures in Sci. American, Oct. 90, 11; The
Planetary Report, vol. 11/1991, No. 3/May, June, p. 8-13. Since 25 May, the 3 months were used for its aero-breaking to reach a low-altitude (200 - 600 km)
orbit which made possible a fifth cycle, of high-resolution gravity mapping (Astronomy, 9/ Sep. 93, p. 20).
EARTH 805
Internet web-site: http://bang.lanl.gov/solarsys/earth.htm
The largest Earth-like planet (12,756km diameter; Textbook errors: not 12,770km, correctly 7,928 miles [1 mile = 1.609km]; 363-4,
643, the Greek word in singular is stadion, not stadium). E.’s circumference is 40,000 km; ; equatorial circumference ec
=40,028.km; rotational velocity at equator is 463.3 meter/sec, at latitude 49° = 349.6 meter/sec;
latitude’s  circumference = ce * sin , circumference at 49° is 30,188.4 km. Mean orbital velocity =
2r/365.26/24/60/60 = 29.78 km/sec. Partially liquid metallic (iron + nickel) core; medium magnetic
field; almost liquid mantle; Moon’s (and Sun’s) tidal effects on water, air and on the main body (456-9);
the friction along major discontinuities within the main body is probably responsible for heating of the
subsurface crust & mantle which causes magmatism and volcanism; active plate tectonics; the only
planet with liquid water (one of the most important conditions of life): in oceans, glaciers, lakes, rivers
and clouds; the earlier atmosphere had no free oxygen; last 400 million years: nitrogen, oxygen, CO 2 &
argon atmosphere (TG p. 24-5), now only 0.035% carbon dioxide which enables iced polar caps and
high mountain glaciers almost as during last few ice ages; mean temperature 15°C (59°F), 1 bar
pressure; seasons due to equator-to-ecliptic tilt (23.5°); strong weathering, erosion, mountain formation
have erased the original meteoritic craters; only the youngest meteor craters, up to about 20 mya have
been preserved; plant & animal life; 1 orbital period, 1 year = 365.25636 days. 1 satellite (the Moon).
Earth’s MOON: diameter: 3,476 km; mean distance from the Earth: 384,402 km; rigid interior; its crust
is 40-60km thick on the near side, 150 km on the far side; most craters are meteoric (impact), few are
volcanic. Because of the absence of atmosphere and surface water the oldest surface features have been
preserved and subject to extremely slow wearing by micrometeorites + solar wind. Although
geologically inactive at present, its surface shows signs of having once melted and of having
experienced many volcanic eruptions 3-4.3 billion years ago which overlapped the oldest impact craters.
Probably, a tidal heating (and hence volcanism) stopped since the Moon’s rotation was tidally locked to
the Earth (it turns one side to the Earth only); phases; lunar & solar eclipses (458-9); 0 satellites. Moon’s
origin and early evolution: Astronomy Jul 94, 42-5.
MARS 805-6
Peter Cattermole: Mars, The Story of the Red Planet; Chapman & Hall, 1993; Astronomy Sep 93, 26/33, Dec. 93, p. 49-53
Internet: http://mpfwww.jpl.nasa.gov/mpf/marswatch.html,
http://mgs-www.jpl.nasa.gov/ Mars Global Surveyor’s Web site.
Lowest density from the inner planets; 6,796km diameter (53% of the Earth’s d.). Thin atmosphere (7.4
mbar) can not compensate temperature variation which is due to eccentric orbit, and to lesser extend to
the axis’ tilt (24o46’). When Mars is closest to the Sun, surface heating causes strong supersonic winds
initiating sand storms which hide the surface during few months: about ¾ of the Sun radiation becomes
absorbed be the clouds and the surface cools until the winds calm and the atmosphere cleans. Temperature: mean yearly -43°C, min. winter -123°C (carbon dioxide crystallizes), max. summer -8°C; reddish
due to hematite (highly oxidized iron: Fe2O3) which forms by free oxygen only, but its atmosphere
almost lacks oxygen: 96% carbon dioxide, 2.5% nitrogen, 1.5% argon (0.1% oxygen if any at all);
similar to Earth in rotation period (24h 37m 23s) and equator-to-orbit tilt; in past: volcanic activity
(Olympus Mons, the highest volcano in the solar system); water erosion & deposition; 2 satellites
(Phobos & Deimos = captured asteroids?). Possible past life, Astr. Nov. 96, p. 46-53. NASA Projects: Astr. Jan. 97, p. 48-51, May 97,
p. 27-8). Mars is visible in the whole night as a bright red object fading from mag. -0.4 to 0.2 in May ’97 (Astronomy, May 97, p. 75);
OUTER (Jovian, Jupiter-like, gaseous) Planets, 808-9:
JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE
Common properties: giants, low density (composed of gases, mostly hydrogen & helium, compressed
to liquid state), rotate rapidly; have many (64) satellites; all have (various types of) rings
JUPITER 808-9
Voyage to Jupiter by David Morrison & Jane Samz, NASA SP-439, 199 pages, 1980;
Internet: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/Jovian.html
http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/jupiter.html
Largest planet (11-times diameter, 1300-times volume, 318-times mass of the Earth) dominates the
planetary system; low density (1.33 g/cm3); its average distance from Sun is 5.202561 AU; with Saturn,
the fastest rotation on axis (period 9h 50m 30s). Surface escape velocity = 60.238 km/sec. Its atmosphere is in constant
motion, driven by heat escaping from a glowing interior as well as by sunlight absorbed from above.
Energetic atomic particles stream around it, caught in a magnetic field that reaches out nearly
10,000,000 km into the surrounding space, embracing the seven inner satellites. From its deep interior
through its seething clouds out to its pulsating magnetosphere, J. is a place where forces of incredible energy
contend.
Between July 15 and 22, 1994, Jupiter experienced a series of impacts of 20 fragments of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (Astronomy, Oct 94, 40-45; see the
Report from Galileo probe in Astronomy, Oct. 95, p. 34-41, April 96, p. 42-5). The famous Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini recorded a hit on Jupiter: the
spot evolved between December 5 and 23, 1690 (Astronomy May 97, p. 34+36). Jupiter (mag. -2.3) clears the east-south-eastern horizon during the first 2
hours after midnight during May ’97 (Astronomy May 97, p. 73).
At its birth, J. shone like a star. The energy released by infalling material from the solar nebula heated its interior, and the
larger it grew the hotter it became (when the nebular material was finally exhausted, J. had probably a diameter more than ten
times its present one, a central temperature of about 50,000 K, and a luminosity about 1% as great as that of the Sun today).
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At this early stage, J. rivaled the Sun. Had it been perhaps 70 times more massive than it was, it would have continued to
contract and increase in temperature, until self-sustaining nuclear reactions could ignite in its interior. If this had happened,
the Sun would have been a double star, and the Earth and the other planets might not have formed. However, J. did not make
it as a star: after a brief flash of glory, it began to cool. At first J. continued to collapse. Within the first ten million years of
its life, the planet was reduced to nearly its present size, with only a few percent additional shrinkage during the past 4.5
billion years. The luminosity also dropped as internal heat was carried to the surface by convection and radiated away to
space. After a million years J. emitted only one-hundred thousandth as much radiation as the Sun, and today its luminosity is
only one-ten billionth of the Sun’s. Jupiter’s internal energy, although small by stellar standards, has important effects on the
planet. About 108 GigaWatt (1017 watt) of power, comparable to that received by J. from the Sun, reach the surface from the
still-luminous interior. The central temperature is thought to be about 30,000 K, sufficient to maintain the interior in a
molten state (J. is probably an entirely fluid planet, with no solid core whatever). Because of its great mass, J. has been
undiscriminating in its composition. All gases and solids available in the early solar nebula were attracted and held by its
powerful gravity. Thus it has the same basic composition as the Sun, with both bodies preserving a sample of the original
cosmic material from which the solar system formed: 90% hydrogen, 10% helium (ratio 0.11 close to that of the Sun, 0.12),
traces of methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), water (H2O), ethane (C2H6), germane (GeH4), acetylene (C2H2), phosphine (PH3),
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and carbon dioxide (CO 2).
Uppermost clouds are probably ammonia cirrus, layers of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH), and water probably exist at deeper levels. All these clouds are
formed in the troposphere, the layer in which convection takes place. The top of the ammonia cloud deck is thought to have a pressure of about 1
atmosphere and a temperature of about -113°C. Ammonia cirrus is white, yet Jupiter’s clouds display a spectacular range of colors, perhaps due to trace
impurities of organic polymers, formed from atmospheric chemicals such as methane and ammonia that have reacted with lightning, are responsible for the
oranges and yellows. The color of the Great Red Spot (GRS) could be caused by red phosphorus (P4). According to this theory, phosphine (PH3) from deep
in Jupiter’s atmosphere is brought to high altitudes by upwelling of the GRS. Ultraviolet light, penetrating the upper reaches of the GRS, splits the phosphine
molecules, and, through a series of chemical reactions, converts the phosphine into pure phosphorus. However, this theory fails to explain the color of the
smaller red spots which are not at such high altitudes as the GRS (which is the highest and coldest of Jupiter’s visible clouds), so it is unlikely that UV-light
could react with any phosphine in these areas to produce red phosphorus. Various forms of elemental sulfur might be responsible for the riot of color we see
on Jupiter. Sulfur forms polymers (S3, S4, S5, S8) which are yellow, red, and brown, but no sulfur in any form has been detected on Jupiter. There are low
temperatures over bright zones and higher temperatures over dark belts; a cold area is visible up to the top of the troposphere above the GRS (this feature
disturbs apparently the atmosphere to very high altitudes). The minimum temperature of about -173°C occurs at a pressure level of 0.1 atmosphere. Above
this point lies the stratosphere, in which temperatures increase with altitude as a results of sunlight absorbed by the gas or by aerosol particles resembling
smog. At 70km above the ammonia clouds, the temperature is about -113oC. Above this level, the temperature stays approximately constant, although at
extreme altitudes the temperature again rises in the ionosphere. New interpretation of Jupiter’s (& Saturn) gases: The Planetary Report, vol. 10/1990, No.
6/November-December, p. 4-11.
The Voyager pictures reveal a planet of complex atmospheric motions. Spots chase after each other, meet, whirl around, mingle, and then split up again;
filamentary structures curl into spirals that open outward; feathery cloud systems reach out toward neighboring regions; cumulus clouds that look like ostrich
plumes may brighten suddenly as they float toward the east; spots stream around the GRS or get caught up in its vortical motion - all in an incredible
interplay of color, texture, and eastward flows. Such changes can be notices in the space of only a few Jovian days. On a broader time scale, greater changes
on the face of J. can be seen. Features drift around the planet; even the large white ovals and the GRS slide along in their respective latitudes. Belts of zones
intrude upon each other, resulting in one of the banded structures splitting up or seeming to squeeze together and eventually disappear. Small structures
form, then die. The largest spots may slowly shrink in size, and the GRS itself changes its size and color. The Jupiter of Pioneers 10 and 11 was quite unlike
the planet seen by Voyager 1. At the time of the Pioneer exploration, the GRS, embedded in a huge white zone, was more uniformly colored, and pale brown
bands circled the northern hemisphere. In the intervening years, the south temperate latitudes have changed completely, developing the complex turbulent
clouds seen around the GRS by Voyager 1. Yet, even between the two Voyagers, Jupiter appeared to be undergoing a dynamic “face-lift”. At a quick glance,
Voyager 2 photographs showed the visage that had been familiar since early in 1979, but a closer look showed that it is not quite the same. The white band
below the GRS, fairly broad during the first fly-by, had become a thin white ribbon where it rims the southern edge of the Spot. The turbulence to the west of
the GRS had stretched out and become “blander” than it was before. Small rotating clouds seemed to be forming out of the waves in this region. The cloud
structure that had been east of the GRS during the Voyager 1 fly-by spread out, covering the northern boundary and preventing small clouds from circling
the huge red oval. The GRS itself also changed. Its northern boundary seemed - at least visually - to be more set off from the clouds that surround it, and the
feature appeared to be more uniform in color, perhaps reverting back to the personality it had in Pioneer days. The most obvious features in the atmosphere
of J., after the banded belts and zones, are the GRS and three white ovals. These have often been described as “storms” in Jupiter’s atmosphere. The ovals
are about the size of the Moon, and the GRS is 2.5x larger than the Earth. Voyager has revealed that in many respects the white ovals, which formed in 1939,
resemble their ancient red relative. Images taken by the spacecraft Galileo in summer 96 show thunderstorm super-cells circulating around GRS at 500 km/h
(Astronomy April 97, p. 32).
All four spots are southern hemispheric anticyclonic features that exhibit counter-clockwise motion; hence they are meteorologically similar. Other smaller
bright elliptical and circular spots also exhibit anticyclonic motion, rotating clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. In general, these features are circled by filamentary rings that are darker than the spots they surround. Hints of interior spiral structure can be
seen in some of these spots. All the elliptical features in the southern hemisphere lie to the south of the strong westward-blowing jet streams. The spots tend
to become rounder the closer they are to the poles. Along the northern edge of the equator are number of cloud plumes, which appear to be regularly spaced
all around the planet. Some of the plumes have been observed to brighten rapidly, which may be an indication of convective activity; indeed, some of the
plume structures seem to resemble the convective storms that form in the Earth’s tropics. The plumes travel eastward at speeds ranging from about 100-150
meters/second, but they do not move as a unit. The most visible cloud interactions take place in the region of the GRS. Material within the GRS rotates about
once every 6 days. The GRS is a region of atmospheric upwelling, which extends to very high altitudes; however, the divergent flow suggested by this
upwelling seems to be very small - one bright feature was observed to circle the GRS for 60 days without appreciably changing its distance from the spot’s
center. During the Voy.1 fly-by, spots were seen to move toward the GRS from the east, flow along its northern border, then either flow on to the west past
the GRS or into the outer regions of its vortex.
Despite all the turbulence in Jupiter’s atmosphere, this ever-changing chaotic mixture of cyclonic and anticyclonic flows, of ovals and filaments, of reds,
browns, and whites - a pattern may be emerging: there is an underlying order to the seemingly random mixing of patterns in the Jovian atmosphere. First,
the changes are in some sense cyclic. Another order is in the alternating belts and zones: the cloud-covered zones are probably regions of rising air, and the
belts are regions of descending air (slow vertical circulation); in addition, there are horizontal or zonal flows - regular distribution of eastward and
westward jets around equator (speed range from -80 through +100 m/sec.). The long-time persistence remains a mystery. The recent series of about 20
impacts of the broken comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 between Jul 15 and 22, 1994, was recorded both few hours after the impacts from the Earth and Hubble’s
Space Telescope, and directly from the spacecraft Galileo. Voyagers recorded several meteor trails in the dark side of Jupiter’s atmosphere. Traveling at
roughly 60 km/sec as they entered, these fireballs brightened quickly and survived for about 1000 km before they died. Often tremendous auroras (both UV
and visible light) in polar regions were observed (Astronomy April 97, p. 36). The UV auroras are created when high-energy particles from the Io plasma
torus spiral toward J. on magnetic field lines. Clusters of lightning bolts - indicative of electrical storms - were also discovered on Jupiter’s night-side,
independent of latitude. Voy1 viewed 19 super bolts of lightning simultaneously, Voy2 eight ones. Radio emission (whistlers) accompany the lightning
discharges.
Deep in the interior of J., the pressures are so great that liquid hydrogen becomes an electric conductor, like a metal.
Currents driven by the rapid rotation of the planet are thought to flow in this metallic core. The result is a magnetic field that
penetrates the space around J. The strength of the Jovian magnetic field is about 4000 times greater than that of the Earth.
The dipolar axis is not at the center of J. but offset by about 10 000km and tipped by 11 o from the axis of rotation. Each time
the planet spins, the field wobbles up and down, carrying with it the trapped plasma of the radiation belts. The most
gargantuan Jovian feature is its magnetosphere, which envelopes the satellites and constantly changes in size, pumping in
and out at the whim of the solar wind. Its borders in the upwind solar direction lie between 50 and 100 Jovian radii from J.
Downwind, away from the Sun, the magnetosphere extends much farther, perhaps as far as the orbit of Saturn. Just inside of
the magnetosphere is the “hot spot” of the solar system: a 300 - 400 million degree plasma: “Even the interior of the Sun is
estimated to be less than 20 million degrees - the temperature of that Jovian plasma is the highest yet measured anywhere in
the solar system. Fortunately for Voyager, this region of incredibly hot plasma is also one of the solar system’s best vacuums.
The spacecraft was in little danger because the bow shock of the magnetosphere protects this region from the solar wind, and
most of the particles in Jupiter’s magnetosphere are held in much closer to the planet.
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3 bands of dark RINGS of dust around Jupiter
They extend from the upper atmosphere to a distance of 53,000km above the cloud tops, 1.8 Jupiter’s radius from its center;
the main rings are much narrower, spanning from 47,000km to 53,000km above Jupiter. There are two main rings, a 5000km
wide segment, and a brighter, outer 800km segment. The thickness is less than 30km, probably under 1km. Apparently the
individual particles (sized as cigarette smoke particles) that make up the rings are widely dispersed (Pioneer 11 traversed the
ring in 1974 with no obvious consequences). The ring particles move around Jupiter in individual orbits, circling the planet in
5 - 7 hours.
>35 satellites of Jupiter
More data in the book Satellites of Jupiter by David MORRISON (Inst. of Astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI; Editor),
The Univ. of Arizona Press, Space Science Series, Tucson, AZ 1982, 974 pages;
recent comprehensive results from the spacecraft Galileo and Hubble’s Space Telescope (HST):
Galileo turns geology upside down on Jupiter’s icy moons; Science (AAAS), vol. 274, 18 Oct. 96, p. 341; also p. 377 - 412;
Internet web site: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/
The Jovian system is dominated by the 4 large Galilean satellites, which vary in size from just smaller than Moon (Europa: 3,130km; density 3.04 g/ccm)
to nearly as large as Mars (Ganymede: 5,276km; density 1.93 g/cm3); the remaining two ones are Io (3640km; density 3.55 g/cm3) and Callisto (4,840km;
density 1.83 g/cm3). They are in nearly circular orbits in the same plane as the Jupiter’s equator, and all lie within the inner magnetosphere of J., where they
interact strongly with energetic particles and plasma. Io is the most volcanically active body of the Solar System.
Laplace resonance of the orbital periods of Io, Europa and Ganymede generates orbital alteration and tidal heating (particularly on Io) resulting from noncircular motion in enormous gravitational field of Jupiter. The energy input (Io: 1013 - 1014 W, Europa 1011 - 1012 W) depends on the resonant coupling; as
the resonance has evolved, the heating has also changed with time. Tidal distortion into a prolate spheroid caused the Galilean satellites to rotate
synchronously with their orbital periods (as on our Moon). If these satellites were in exactly spherical orbits, the tidal bulge would be fixed and there would
be no tidal flexing and therefore no heating. Bulge on Io would be 8km high.
Despite the fact that Io (386) should undergo more intense meteoritic bombardment than any other satellite, due to the focusing effect of Jupiter’s
gravitational field, not one impact crater can be found because the surface is very young and geologically active. The volcanic plumes rise 70 to 280km
above the surface, extensive lava flows and volcanic vents were discovered too. The lava consists of molten sulfur, the volcanism is driven by sulfur dioxide.
Sulfur is responsible for the striking red and orange color; extensive white areas consist of sulfur dioxide snow. A small body such as Io, which is only
slightly larger than the Moon, should have long ago lost the heat generated during its accretion and negligible heat from radioactive decay.
However, the other Galilean satellites cause perturbations in Io’s orbit so that its distance from Jupiter varies slightly (422,000 km; orbital period: 1.769
days; no orbital eccentricity, negligible orbital inclination). Jupiter’s gravitational field is so strong that even these small changes cause great tidal distortions
of Io, and thus produce heating of the interior sufficient for all the volcanic activity. Io appears to consist of a molten silicate interior, just possibly with a
solid core, overlain by a layer of liquid sulfur several kilometers deep. Above this is a layer consisting of a mixture of solid sulfur and liquid sulfur dioxide
(SO2) covered by a solid crust of sulfur and sulfur dioxide. A number of localized warm regions were found, the most dramatic being just south of the
volcano Loki: a strange U-shaped black feature of 17°C (room temperature), in contrast to the surrounding surface at -146°C. Perhaps the dark feature was
some sort of lava lake, either of molten rock or molten sulfur. The melting point of sulfur is 112°C. Probably, there was a scum of solidifying sulfur on top
of the “lake”. Io’s volcanoes: Astronomy May 93, March 97, p. 54-5.
Europa is the next satellite out from J. It is quite similar to Io (and Moon) in size and density, has a weaker tidal heating (1011 - 1012 W) but otherwise it is
unique in the Solar System: only a few small impact craters have been found; the rest of the surface is incredibly smooth. A network of straight, curved or
irregular dark markings covers the whole surface, and these range from less than 10 km to about 70 km in width. There are also randomly located dark spots,
but all these markings appear to have quite negligible vertical height, so that the satellite has been described as ‘a billiard ball covered in scribbles from a
felt-tipped pen’. Even stranger is yet another network of markings, this time faint and light-colored, quite independent of the dark ones, and also covering the
whole satellite. These are only about 10 km wide, and they do show vertical relief, although this is less than a few hundred meters. But the most surprising
thing about these ridges is that they are not straight: they run across the surface in a regular series of curves or scallops, ranging from about 100 to 400 km
across. Parts of the surface are covered with freshwater frost, as well as traces of sulfur (almost certainly derived from Io). However, there is less sulfur than
would be expected, which may well indicate that some has been buried beneath fresh frost deposits. These considerations, together with the lack of impact
craters, suggest that processes are still acting to smooth out the surface. Europa, like Io, is subject to tidal forces which could well maintain heating in the
interior. Probably, a solid rocky core is covered by a thick layer of water and ice (perhaps about 100 km deep). Liquid water could escape to the surface
through the cracks and give rise to the frost deposits before the cracks themselves freeze over once again, perhaps after a few years. The low rigidity of the
icy crust would account for the lack of impact craters. The darker markings could well have been formed when the underlying water layer contained some
mixture of other substances at an earlier period in the body’s history. Astronomy Nov. 96, p. 56-9, Mar 97, p. 53, May 97, p. 26-7.
Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System (diameter: 5,276 km), and Callisto both have lower densities than Io and Europa - about 1.93 g/cm3. This
suggests that they are both comprised of roughly half rock and half ice. They are thought to have rocky cores surrounded by water or icy layers with icy
crusts. The surface of Ganymede is very varied. The oldest regions consist of dark plains, one of which, Regio Galileo, is as much as 4000 km across and
preserves signs of a major impact in a series of low ridges (about 100 m high) spaced about 50 km apart. All this old terrain appears to have been fractured
into separate blocks, some of which have been displaced, and some completely replaced by younger, lighter-colored material consisting of long parallel lines
of valleys and ridges about 15 km across and 1km high. This grooved terrain is highly complex in appearance, not only cutting into the old plains, but also
intersecting older areas of the same type, suggesting many mountain-building episodes. Still other regions show rough mountainous terrain, and Ganymede’s
surface seems to be the one place in the Solar System to have undergone geological changes like those of the Earth’s plate tectonics. Some craters appear
relatively fresh, with bright haloes, presumably from ice or water ejected by the impact, but most of the surface is actually very old. Crater counts suggest
that the dark plains date back to about 4 billion years, and even the most recent grooved terrain seems to be about 3.5 billion years old - roughly the same as
the lunar highlands. The low relief probably results from a time when the interior was rather warmer and the crust more plastic. See: Astronomy Oct. 96, p.
68-73, Feb. 97, p. 24, Mar 97, p. 53. The Galileo spacecraft flyby on June 27, 96, detected magnetic field (1/40 the strength of Earth’s); surrounding a
molten iron core is a rocky silicate mantle, which in turn is topped by a layer of ice 800 km deep; however, no subsurface ocean like Europa might have is on
Ganymede: Astronomy Apr 97, p. 26.
Callisto (density 1.83 g/cm3) seems to posses an even thicker icy crust than Ganymede, and it is very heavily cratered. However, all the craters are shallower
than similar-sized ones on any other terrestrial planet. There are remnants of large impacts, but they all have very little vertical relief. One, Valhalla, has a
bright central region, about 600km across, probably representing the original impact crater, and is surrounded by an immense set of ‘ripples’ which makes its
overall diameter nearly 3000km - far larger than any feature such as Mare Orientale on the Moon or the Caloris Basin on Mercury. It seems certain that flow
has occurred in the icy surface to obliterate many of the very impact scars, and to reduce the old height of the remainder. Apart of this, Callisto seems to
have had very little true geologic activity. In November ‘96, Galileo showed lack of small craters, suggesting that some process obliterates small-scale
features. Astronomy, Apr ‘97, p. 26.
The next group of Jovian satellites consists of small difficult-to-observe objects (Lysithea, Elara, Himalia, and Leda). They have similar orbits, varying
in distance from J. between 11 and 12 million km (about 160 radii of J.). Like the outermost group, they have orbits of high inclination; unlike the outer
group, they move in proper, prograde direction around J. The largest, Himalia (170 km in diameter) and Elara (80km in diameter) are very dark, rocky
objects, and it seems probable that the others are similar.
The four outermost satellites (Sinope, Pasiphae, Carme, and Ananke), circle in retrograde orbits of high inclination, their distances from J. vary between
20 and 24 million km (290 to 333 radii of J.). These small bodies, none more than 50km in diameter, require nearly two years for each orbit. Probably they
are captured asteroids but nothing is known about their surface.
SATURN, 807-8
Second largest planet (9.45-times diameter of the Earth, 95 Earth masses); the lowest density of any
planet (0.70 g/cm3) indicating that much of Saturn is in a gaseous state; average distance from Sun is
9.551747 AU; fast rotation on axis (period: 10h 13m 59s); tens of thousands rings; 17 larger (+11
smaller) satellites from which Titan is truly outstanding: intermediate in size between Mercury and
Mars (5150km diameter), Titan (similar to Triton, Neptune’s satellite) is the only satellite with thick
atmosphere (1.6x thicker than Earth’s one) which consists of 85% nitrogen, 12% argon, 3% methane
(possibly converted by UV radiation into ethane & tarry organic compounds, possible precursors of life)
is opaque, with multiple layers of aerosols; surface ois completely hidden by a dense blanket of clouds
200 - 300 km above surface; its temperature is (-178 C) is raised by greenhouse effect. This temperature
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is close to that at which methane is either solid or liquid, so that methane clouds in a nitrogen/methane
atmosphere may be raining methane down on to the surface. Radar echoes suggest that the surface
consists both of continents (formed by ices of water and carbon dioxide and rocks) and ocean of
methane & ethane up to 1km deep. Interpretation of Saturn’s (& Jupiter’s) gases: The Planetary Report, vol. 10/1990, No. 6/Nov-Dec, p. 411.
In the year 1995 Earth passed through the ring-plane of Saturn, causing the thin rings to disappear (“The vanishing rings of Saturn”, Astronomy June ‘95, p.
70-3); Saturn appears shortly before sunrise low above east horizon as a bright 0.7-magnitude “star” , on May 4, 97, very close to the Moon (Astronomy
May 97, p. 72), the rings tilt 10° to our line of sight, revealing their southern face to view, and opening up even wider in the coming months.
URANUS, 808
Ellis D. MINER: Uranus, The Planet, Rings and Satellites;
(Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena), Ellis Horwood Ltd, Chichester, England, 1990, 334 pages
Third largest planet (4-times diameter of the Earth, 14.6 Earth masses); the density is similar to that of
Jupiter (1.27 g/cm3); average distance from Sun: 19.21814 AU; it spins medium rapidly on axis (period
of rotation is 16.8h0.3h; Astronomy, May 1986, 10 [6-22]) which is more than 8° tilted below the plane
of its orbit; see National Geographic Magazine, August ‘86, p. 178-94; the magnetic field axis is tipped
55o to the rotational axis, the total energy bound up in the Uranian magnetic field is about 1/10 that of
the Saturn magnetic field, 1/400 that of Jupiter’s, and 50 times that of Earth’s magnetic field (the
presence of a strong and unusual magnetic field implies that Uranus contains some sort of circulating
conductive material, a “dynamo”); Uranus’ overall density is considerably greater than Saturn’s, for
example, suggesting the planet has a molten silicate (“rock”) core about the size of Earth (13,000km in
diameter) enveloped in an 8,000km deep “ocean” composed primarily of water, and wrapped in an
11,000km thick hydrogen-helium atmosphere; currents in the water shell, driven by the heat of the
molten-rock core, could act as a dynamo for the magnetic field; 64 K atmosphere temperature; 10 thin
charcoal-black rings and hundreds of narrow, all-but-invisible ringlets; 15 satellites.
Miranda (389) is a geologic enigma.
NEPTUNE, 808-9
New satellites: http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/press/pr0303.html
Fourth largest planet: almost 4-times diameter of the Earth (Neptune’s equatorial diameter is 49,520km,
Neptune’s volume could hold 57.7 Earth’s), 17 Earth masses; its low density is the highest from the
Jovian planets (1.70 g/cm3). At an average distance of 4.5 billion km from the Sun, Neptune circles theo
Sun once in 165 years; it spins on axis rapidly
(slightly more than 16h). Neptune has a highly tilted (50
from the rotational axis: similar to the 59o tilt of Uranus’ dipole) and offset (by 0.4 of Neptune’s radius:
similar to the 0.3 Uranian radius offset) magnetic field (the magnetic north is in the southern
hemisphere). Its atmosphere is primarily hydrogen, helium, and methane (the methane gives the planet
its lovely blue color). Neptune’s cloud-tops show a surprising amount of variability, apparently due to
an energy source in its interior. While the large dark oval (its size is almost as the Earth), first seen in the
spring 1989, has remained relatively constant in position, it changes strongly recently: a bright cloud to
the north and east was seen to separate from the dark spot. The strong winds on Neptune have different
velocities at different latitudes, as is the case on Jupiter (also on Saturn and slightly on Uranus). Hubble
Space Telescope images: Astronomy May 97, p. 36, web site: http//www.stsci.edu/pubinfo/PR/96/33.html (MPEG movies). About three
interrupted rings assumed earlier (Astronomy Sep. ‘87, p. 6-17) were confirmed together with a
discovery of two continuous rings during the Voy2 fly-by (the closest approach [4,850km from cloud
tops] 25 August 1989, 4:00h); in addition to the currently known 2 larger satellites (Triton and Nereid),
the Voy2 discovered 6 small moons probably interacting with the rings as the shepherd moons in Saturn
rings; the diameters of these moons are smaller than 600km; their orbits are close to Neptune: 52,000km,
62,000 km, 73,000 km, and 117,650 km from the center of Neptune. Triton (Astronomy, Feb. 89, 20-6),
orbital period 5.8768 days, the only large object in the Solar system with a retrograde (clockwise) orbit;
the orbit-4is circular and inclined
21o to the equator of Neptune, 355,200km distant from Neptune; mass:
19
9.3 x 10 Neptune (=9.3 x 10 tons), diameter 3,600 km ±800 km; surface temperature 52-63 K; Voy2
discovered unexpected clouds casting shadows; relative stable position of some of them compared with
moving neighbor ones has been preliminarily
explained as due to a volcanism. Nereid, orbital period
359.4 days, orbital inclination 27.7o, extreme orbital eccentricity (0.7545), diameter 940 km.
Future of the Voyager 2 (1990: its cameras, IR detector & photopolarimeter turned off, then only fields & subatomic particles were recorded;
Sep. 1993:
Voy1 51AU, Voy2 40AU from the Sun; low frequency radio emissions detected from heliopause [interstellar/solar medium]
2010:
both Voyagers probably cross the heliopause (Astronomy, Sep. 93, p. 20)
2015:
probably silent;
after 42,000 y.:
Voy2 will come within 1.7 light years of the star Ross 248 (a cool red star, about 0.2 M);
after 296,000 y.:
Voy2 will pass within 4.3 light years of Sirius (the dog star).
PLUTO - the outermost & smallest “planet” 392 - 4
Astronomy: Jul 86, 7-22; Jan 94, 40-47
Pluto seems to be only slightly smaller (diameter: 2294km; .002 Earth masses) than the Moon and to be
composed of methane & water ices mixed with rock (density 1.84 g/cm3; temperature 40 to 60 Kelvin =
-233 to -213°C). Pluto’s orbit (its period = 247.7 years) is more eccentric and inclined than that of any
planet in solar system (17°9’3” to the ecliptic, i.e. more than double that of the greatest planetary orbital
inclination, Mercury: 7°). Its orbital eccentricity is 0.2484; its mean distance from the Sun is 39.44 AU;
since 21 January 1979 through 14 March 1999 Pluto is closer to the Sun than Neptune: in 1989 it
reached perihelion and was only 29.64 AU from the Sun; it ventures as far as 49.24 AU from the Sun at
aphelion in the year 2112. It spins slowly on its more than “horizontally” tilted (118°) axis: Pluto’s day
is 6 days, 9 hours, and 18 minutes.
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The single satellite, Charon: has orbit (similarly as its equator) perpendicular to that of Pluto, with the same orbital period as the Pluto’s day; therefore, for
an observer on the Pluto’s surface, Charon remains locked in the same position above the horizon and looks sixty times larger than Earth’s Moon. Twice
during each revolution of Pluto around the Sun, Charon’s orbital plane is edge-on to Earth; it was during these times that we saw Pluto & Charon eclipsing
each other. Its recent eclipse cycle of six years, 1985-91, enabled to improve data on size & density of the both bodies and unique observations of Pluto’s
gases (no real atmosphere). Relatively to Pluto, its satellite Charon is the largest of the Solar system satellites; thus, Pluto & Charon are almost a double
(binary) planet (the common center of revolution is between both the bodies).
Pluto Express Sciencecraft System Design:
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/pluto/iaa_1.html
Asteroids, Comets, Kuiper’s Belt Objects, van Oort Belt, Meteoroids 809 - 1
Total number estimated: several 100,000 stony bodies: maximum 1003km Ceres; 540km Pallas; 538km Vesta; 240km Herculina (has a satellite); 53km
Achilles; 23km Eros; 16km Hidalgo; others are smaller than 1km; about 5,500 orbits are known, 1000 others are temporary; 88% are very dark (reflect
5% to 0.02% light) - correspond to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites (see below); the other major group (1%) is reddish and more reflective (albedo: 1020%) correspond to stony-iron meteorites; most are irregular in shape (such as the satellites of Mars, Phobos & Deimos; on 29 Oct. 91 the Galileo spacecraft
captured the asteroid Gaspra in color [Astronomy, Mar 92, p. 26]).
A comet is a lump of “dirty” fluffy ices of water, carbon dioxide, etc. (the fluffy ices have a very low
density, 0.1 to 0.25 g/cm3) only a dozen kilometers in diameter and orbiting on a very eccentric ellipse
around the Sun. Whenever it occurs within the inner solar system, the comet’s ices vaporize due to the
Sun radiation, dust is released and the molecules of the gas are broken into the atoms and ions we see in
the head (coma). The coma’s vast cloud of gas and dust may grow up to 100,000 km in diameter - 7times the diameter of the Earth (Fig. 19.9). The gas in the coma is made up of water, carbon dioxide,
methane, ammonia, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, etc.. The tail springs from the coma and typically
extends 10 to 100 mill. km, max. 1 AU = 150 mill. km. More than 1300 orbits of comets are known. The
icy nuclei (mostly less than 15km in diameter) and randomly tipped, very long elliptical orbits hint at a
theory for their origin. According to the van Oort cloud theory (named after the Dutch astronomer
Hendrik Jan van Oort, *28 Apr. 1900, †5 Nov. ‘92) the icy bodies of comets orbit the Sun in a cloud
extending from 10,000 AU to 100,000 AU. At this distance the ices remain frozen, and the comets lack
comas or tails; their orbital velocities are here only about 0.13 km/sec, and the slight perturbations
caused by the motions of nearby stars could eject a few of these icebergs into long elliptical orbits that
carry them into the inner solar system.
Mysterious Sun grazers: comets plunge into the Sun - more common than once believed (Astronomy, 4/Apr 92, p. 46-49). Pieces of comet ShoemakerLevy 9 collided with Jupiter around July 21, 94. Over the course of several days, the comet fragments (there are at least 20) each came up from below
Jupiter and passed behind the planet as seen from Earth. As each piece plunged through the atmosphere, it exploded, creating a long-lived disturbance.
About 90 minutes after each collision, the impact site rotated into view (Jupiter rotates from left to right). The famous Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini
recorded a hit on Jupiter: the spot evolved between December 5 and 23, 1690 (Astronomy May 97, p. 34+36).
The popular short-period comet Halley (period 76 years) has been observed ‘86 by four spacecraft (its nucleus by Giotto, 395-6).
The comet of century, Hale-Bopp, had a perihelion on April 1, 97 (Astronomy, Mar ‘97, p. 56-61, 62-68, 69, 71). The max. brightness was -1.8 mag.:
http://www.ESO.org/comet-hale-bopp/; http://www.halebopp/com
Interstellar (“Rogue”) comets may appear (at a magnitude 22 - 25) one every few years, in the area of Hercules (Astronomy, Feb 97, p. 46-51). Relative
abundance of acetylene, hydrogen cyanide & isocyanate found on the comet Hyakutake indicate its interstellar origin (Astronomy May ’97, p. 36). Comet
“Linear”, C/2001 RX14, will grow brighter at the end of February 03 (Astronomy, Feb ’03, p. 65). COMET NEAT: Comet NEAT (C/2002 V1) is plunging
toward the Sun. At closest approach on Feb. 18th its distance from our star will be only 0.1 AU—much closer to the Sun than the planet Mercury. The Sun's
glare will hide the encounter from earthbound observers, but not from the orbiting Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO). Follow the links at
spaceweather.com to see near-live views of the flyby (courtesy of SOHO) between Feb. 16 th and 20th: http://www.spaceweather.com, also
http://space.com/scienceastronomy/neat_soho_030218.html.
Meteoroids are small bodies derived from the asteroids or comets, and - similarly to them - they represent samples of the original (i.e. unaltered) solar nebula. They eventually fall into Earth’s atmosphere
and burst into incandescent vapor about 80km above the ground (“shooting stars” = meteors) because of
friction with the air; their parts which survived the fiery passage are known as meteorites (397). Annual
meteor showers occur when debris from dead comets is dispersed throughout a given orbit. The orbit of
the remaining particles is tilted so that Earth’s orbit intersects at only one point (397, Fig. 17.38).
During first two weeks of May 97 (peak May 4 - 5), meteor showers Eta Aquarids are famous for bright fireballs and long paths due to their high speed of 65
km/sec (caused by Halley’s comet, similarly as the October Orionids): Astronomy May 97, p. 71.
Two broad categories are distinguished: iron meteoroids (meteorites) - chunks of a coarsely
crystallized alloy of iron and nickel, and stony meteoroids (meteorites) - silicate aggregates resembling
Earth rocks which appear never to have been heated to melting.
The large crystals of the iron meteorites (ATB, 439-40) suggest that they cooled no faster than a few degrees per million years:
their material could form within cores of large planetesimals (about 100km diameter) due to heating, melting and
differentiation - the outer layers of rock would insulate the iron-nickel core.
The stony meteorites (ATB, 440) are classified into 3 types according to the degree to which they have been heated & altered:
1 Chondrites - containing chondrules (rounded bits of glassy rock not much larger than a pea, ATB Fig. 19-3), probably the first quickly solidified droplets
of matter which condensed out of the solar nebula (or drops of molten fragments from planetesimals collisions); they have been slightly heated to drive off
volatiles (carbon compounds and water).
2 Carbonaceous chondrites contain both chondrules and volatiles - therefore they represent the least altered remains of the solar nebula. Three types of
carbon grains (diamond, graphite and silicon carbide) recently discovered seem to be few million years older than the solar system (Sci. Am., Oct. 90, 1415).
3 Achondrites - no chondrules and no volatiles - apparently most heated remains of the solar nebula (similar to the Earth’s lavas).
Tektites (Greek tektos means melted) are glassy objects probably ejected by meteorite impact on the Earth or the Moon (impactites). In diameter, they range
from few tens of microns (up to about 1 mm are called microtektites) to about 10 cm. Their distribution is limited to a few strewn-fields, such as North
American tektites bediasites (Texas) and georgiaites, about 33 my old, moldavites (Czech Republic, along the southern part of the Vltava River, Bohemia, &
middle Moravia; 15.6 my old), Ivory Coast t. (1 my old), Australasian tektites australites, billitonites, indochinites, javanites, philippinites, thailandites
(about 750,000 y. old). http://bang.lanl.gov/solarsys/tercrate.html see Terrestrial Impact Craters
STARS, Ch. 34, 815 - 34
A determination of the intrinsic properties of stars (energy emission, diameter, mass and density) depends on the distance to stars (424-5, Fig. 19.12).
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MEASURING THE DISTANCE TO STARS
a Parallax is the angle between two observation directions of an object. The distance to the object
can be calculated from the exactly known distance between the two observational positions (baseline, it
must be perpendicular at its center to the object’s direction) and from the measured parallax. The longer
the distance the longer the baseline should be. Our distances to stars are enormously long; the shortest of
them can be measured by the annual parallax method using the baseline which equals 2 AU (diameter
of the Earth’s orbit); the parallax is measured as a star’s shift against the sky background from opposite
sides of the Earth’s orbit (at six-monthly interval). Using the trigonometrical principle, the distance = º
baseline × cotangent of the parallax (this is why the stellar parallax p uses the half the star’s shift).
Because of the very small angle of a parallax, the trigonometrical relationship can be simplified into the
small angle formula (ATB Box 3-2, 45; Box 8-1, 154):
d[AU] = 206,265/parallax[seconds of arc].
Because the parallaxes of even the nearest stars are less than 1 second of arc, the distances in AU are inconveniently larger than the constant 206,265. To keep the numbers manageable, the distance can be expressed in the 206,265-multiples of the AU = parsecs (1 parsec = 206,265 AU = 3.26 light years, TG-p.
24):
d[parsec] = 1/parallax[seconds of arc] .
Therefore, a parsec is the distance to a star whose parallax is one second of arc. If the parallax can be
measured then so can the distance. ‘Parallax’ is thus often used synonymously with ‘distance’.
b Spectroscopic parallax (ATB Box 7-3, 140) is the distance calculated from the difference between
the apparent and absolute (intrinsic) magnitude (m-Mv). This difference is known as a distance
modulus (ATB Box 8-2, 157, Box 8-3, 158). The absolute magnitude equals the apparent magnitude the
star would have if it were at a standard distance of 10 parsec away.
The absolute magnitude of a main-sequence star is deduced from its spectral type using the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (ATB Fig. 8.7, 160). This method
is applicable for more distant stars which do not have their annual parallax measurable, reveal a clear spectrum and belong to the main-sequence stars. See
later.
The value of the distance modulus is proportional to the star’s distance:
m-Mv = 5 log10(distance[parsec]) - 5 ;
From this formula, the distance in parsec can be calculated as follows:
log10(distance[parsec]) = (m-Mv)/5 + 1 .
distance[parsec] = antilog10(distance[parsec]) = 10(m-Mv)/5 + 1
EXAMPLE (ATB Box 8-2, 157): Deneb has absolute magnitude -7.19 (=1.26-8.45); Sun’s apparent magnitude = -26.7 (ATB Box 2-5, 24), Sun’s absolute
magnitude is 4.78; how distant Deneb would have to be to have the Sun’s apparent magnitude? In other words: at which distance would Deneb shine as the
Sun?
SOLUTION:
In words:
substitute -26.7 for m (the required apparent magnitude),
substitute -7.19 for Mv (the absolute magnitude of Deneb) and the result is:
log10d = (-26.7+7.19)/5 = -3.902
d = 0.0001253141 parsec = 25.8479 AU = 3,866,793,244km
Deneb is so bright, that it would replace our Sun at a 25.85-times longer distance.
Period - luminosity relationship using -Cephei variable (pulsating) stars (408; TG p. 22).
Hubble’s law uses red shift due to the Big-Bang expansion of the Universe (Doppler’s effect,137-8);
for distance >6000 Mpc.
DIAMETERS of STARS
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM (821) relates the intrinsic (absolute) brightness (magnitude or
luminosity) [vertical axis] of stars to their surface temperature (spectral type, color) [horizontal axis]. It
enables to sort the stars according to their diameters, since it separates the effects of surface temperature
and surface area on stellar luminosity. In 90% of stars, their surface temperature changes proportionally
with their intrinsic luminosity and vice versa; these stars appear in the H-R diagram as a diagonal band
known as the main sequence stars. The diameter of a main sequence star is proportional to the square
root of luminosity (because the luminosity is proportional to area). In the area of a higher luminosity
(due to a greater surface area) and lower temperature, giants & supergiants appear, whereas in the area
of a lower luminosity and a higher temperature white dwarfs appear. The main sequence stars start their
lives fusing hydrogen fuel on the lower left edge of the diagonal band known as the zero age main
sequence (ZAMS, similar to the Fig. 18.18, p. 413; ATB 199-201, Fig. 9.22), but a gradual increase of
luminosity and temperature decrease move the star’s plot upward and to the right, reaching the upper
right edge of the main sequence band: they have exhausted nearly all hydrogen in their centers, evolve
rapidly and die.
MASSES of STARS
A From the BINARY STARS (820, 822)- measuring their orbital period and size of each orbit:
1 Visual binaries (Mizar & Alcor, 818; Sirius) - limited to the nearest stars
c
d
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2 Spectroscopic binaries (Capella, Alcor, Mizar) - Doppler shift & orbital period
(radial velocity [orbit tilt is not known] gives orbit’s circumference). Limited by the unknown
orbital tilt: therefore the results present minimum values.
3 Eclipsing binaries - from a light curve; often even the spectra are available and thus the
velocities, often the diameters are directly measurable from the light curve period and
the velocity (406, Fig. 18.7, 18.8; Algol [ Persei]).
B From the LUMINOSITY of the main sequence stars (giants & supergiants do not follow, white
dwarfs do not follow at all, ATB 169-71, Box 8.6; see also 173-4):
3.5
L=M
1/3.5
M=L
DENSITIES OF STARS
3 major groups of densities reflecting different stages in the stars’ evolution can be distinguished:
1 Main sequence stars - density is about 1 g/cm3 ,
2 a giant stars - density is about 0.1 - 0.01 g/cm3 ,
b big supergiants -density is about 0.001 - 0.000 001 g/cm3 (their centers are, however, very
dense: 3,000,000 g/cm3),
3 White dwarfs (about 1-mass, size of the Earth) - density of about 10,000,000 g/cm3 .
THE BIRTH of STARS, 817-9
The source = interstellar medium (ATB 180-2) = large cool clouds of gas (75% H, 25% He + traces of
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, sodium, and heavier atoms) + 1 - 2% fine dust (carbon, iron and silicates). It is recognizable by interstellar reddening and by absorption lines of cool gas. The interstellar
medium shows extremely low density expressed by very few atoms/volume:
cool (10 - 50 K) “dense” clouds
- 10 to 1000 atoms/cm3, are pushed & twisted by currents of the
hot low density gas
- 0.1
atoms/cm3.
Therefore, the interstellar medium is not dense enough to collapse and form stars by gravity spontaneously. The cloud contraction is counteracted (ATB 182) by a thermal diffusion of the gas (even 10 K
hydrogen moves about 0.5km/sec) and turbulence. A triggering by a shock wave from a supernova explosion [ATB Fig. 9.5, 183] (or from galactic spiral arms) is needed to cause collisions: they concentrate
clouds and fragment them into clusters of 10 to 1000 stars which wander away and the cluster
disappears within few 100 millions of years; beforehand: protostars as cocooned red giants (cocoon of
dust & gas - infrared source) form due to gravity (originally free fall, later slowed by an increasing
density and internal pressure) compaction which results into heating and hydrogen fusion phase (402,
proton-proton chain) which can stop the contraction - stage of -Tauri-stars (cocoon stars clearing the
surrounding nebula) and Herbig-Haro objects (shreds of cocoons).
Lower mass star cannot become very hot: proton - proton chain (402-3, ATB 190-1). A more massive
star becomes hot enough to ignite the CNO cycle (402, ATB 191). The mass controls the temperature
and thus the fusion type:
mass: <1.1M ;
10 - 16 million Kelvin:
proton-proton 
helium chain
mass: >1.1M;
16 - 100 million Kelvin:
CNO-cycle 
helium, carbon as catalyst

100 - 600 million Kelvin:
helium fusion 
beryllium + carbon
600 - ? million Kelvin:
carbon fusion 
Si, +N, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Al)
still higher:
Mg + Si 
heavier elements form
Pressure-temperature thermostat (=PTT; 411; ATB 194-5) regulates the reactions in the core. A high
internal temperature rises pressure which makes the star expand; the gas expansion cools the star,
slowing its nuclear reaction & making it compact - speeding the nuclear reaction & increasing the
internal temperature. The more massive, the more weight the star must support, the higher the inner
pressure & temperature; thus the mass determines the luminosity.
The star models are based on 4 laws (ATB 170-3): 1+2 Mass & Energy conservation, 3 hydrostatic
equilibrium (the layer weight is balanced by internal pressure), 4 Energy flow outwards in proportion to
the temperature gradient (three types of the heat transfer [116, Fig. 6.10] according to the medium’s
density: by conduction in the most dense material - in white dwarfs only, by convection in the least massive stars (less than 0.4M: red dwarfs [makes burning efficient due to mixing]), and by radiation in the
least dense medium such as the big envelopes of very massive stars (more than 3 -masses).
AGING & DEATH of the stars, 34.4, 821-5; ATB Ch. 9, 185 - 213
The core contracts by gravity, its temperature increases, releases more energy = luminosity increases;
outer layers expand: the star grows larger, brighter, and cooler, i.e. it moves upwards right from the zero
age main sequence line (412, Fig. 18.18; ZAMS, from the base line, ATB Fig. 8.21, 175-176).
The life expectancy: because the fuel consumption rate is proportional to the luminosity L (ATB Box
8.2, 177), the life expectancy T = fuel/rate of consumption = M/L; because L=M 3.5,T = M/M3.5 = 1/M2.5.
If the Sun has about 10 billions years of total life then a star with 4M has T = 1/42.5 × 10 billion y. =
1/32 × 10 billion years = 310 million years.
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When a star’s central hydrogen fusion ceases, its core contracts and heats up, igniting a hydrogen-fusing
shell and swelling the star into a cool giant. The contraction of the star’s core ignites helium first in the
core and later in a shell; if the star is massive enough, it can eventually fuse carbon and heavier
elements’ (ATB 212-3).
MASS CATEGORIES (ATB 190, FIG. 9-6):
in M (M. stands for mass, PTT for pressure-temperature thermostat)
<0.08
brown dwarfs:
no fusion; they glow faintly for 100 my, then cool & dim;
<0.4
red dwarfs (405):
due to complete convective mixing no H-shell fusion, no He-core die as white dwarfs;
0.4-3. medium-M. stars (Sun): partially convectively mixed - H-core fusion ignites H-shell a giant forms: He-core fuses -planetary nebula (412) around a white dwarf
if <1.4
white dwarfs (406)
after billion of y. cool into
black dwarfs
3.0 - 9. as the medium-M. stars but the carbon-oxygen core becomes degenerate: PTT=off, heating to
600 mill. K: carbon detonation - supernova (408), from which neutron star or black hole form;
>9
before degenerate, carbon fuses (no detonation) controlled by PTT iron core forms & collapses:
supernova
Compact objects = 3 end states of the stellar evolution:
<1.4
white dwarf - degenerate, about the size of the Earth, no nuclear reaction (822);
>1.4
neutron star, 10km radius, degenerate neutrons (pulsars 823-5, ATB 199-206);
>3 black hole (34.4, 825-9; ATB 206-212).
Chandrasekhar limit: no white dwarf can have a mass greater than 1.4 -masses; a greater object will change into a neutron star.
MILKY WAY, 34.5, 829
The Milky Way is one of the largest star systems = galaxies: more than 100 000 l. y. diameter, more than
250 billion stars.
Almost every celestial object visible to naked eye is part of the Milky Way galaxy. Exceptions: Magellanic clouds: small irregular galaxies in the southern sky appear to be satellites of our galaxy;
Andromeda galaxy (831, Fig. 34.20; similar to the Milky Way galaxy).
Only 10% of the Milky Way is in the visible wavelength: the majority is behind dust clouds - within an
infrared visibility.
Determination of the Milky Way galaxy’s SIZE (Harlow SHAPLEY):
1 Variable stars - a dying star after it leaves the main sequence, it changes into a giant and moves
back and forth in the giant region of the H-R diagram; passing the instability strip, it can become
unstable - expand/contract within a period of a few hours to hundreds of years.
Two types of the variable stars are important:
a RR Lyrae stars, 12 - 24h period, absolute magnitude about +0.5;
b Cepheid stars (-Cephei), 1 - 60 day period, various absolute magnitudes; the period is propor
tional to luminosity and enables to determine the absolute magnitude, and from it the distance.
2 Globular clusters - very old (10 - 15 b. y.); Shapley determined their distance by their Cepheid
luminosity - period relationship. Since the distribution of globular clusters must be dominated by
gravity, Shapley realized that their center must show the galaxy’s center revealing the correct size of
the Milky Way.
TWO COMPONENTS of the Milky Way galaxy the differences between them illuminate OUR GALAXY’S PAST
1 Disk component includes: “Population I stars” - they are: young, metal-rich (2-3% elements
heavier than helium), in nearly circular orbits; associations & open star clusters, and nearly all of the
gas & dust.
2 Spherical component includes: halo - a thin scattering of randomly elliptically orbiting
“Population II stars” - old, metal-poor (0.1% elements heavier than helium), cool (lower main sequence
& giants, but almost no gas & dust) with globular clusters and the nuclear bulge (similar stars &
young hot stars [observable at radio, infrared + X-ray]); an extended halo known as galactic corona is
now assumed to extend up to seven times farther than traditional estimates due to some dark matter
(massive neutrinos or similar exotic particles?).
ROTATION of the Milky Way galaxy required for BALANCING THE GRAVITY (MASS)
The disk stars have nearly circular orbits in the galaxy plane. E.g., Sun is a disk star, moves about
220km/s toward Cygnus, orbit radius is 8.5 (7-10) kpc, period is 240 m. y. (this period, known as the galactic year is also called the “cosmic year”, 420); therefore, the mass of the Milky Way galaxy would be
about 140 billion -masses. BUT:
The rotation of the disk is differential (not rigid), and non-Keplerian - stars farther from the center than
the Sun move faster because their orbits enclose many times more mass. Motion in the halo: each star +
globular cluster follows its own randomly tipped elliptical orbit (slow outside, fast inside the galaxy).
GNSC-100, Part 4, Astronomy (p. 9 - 22)
27
«EDC» printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
STELLAR POPULATIONS of the Milky Way galaxy
Two stellar populations referring to the two galaxy’s components can be distinguished, each with a
gradation “extreme” and “intermediate”. Accordingly, metals content, location and orbit shape show a
change consistent with the stellar age, i.e. with our current explanation of the Milky Way Galaxy
formation (see the next paragraph).
POPULATION II
Extreme
Intermediate
Location:
examples:
Orbit shape
Metals:
Age
in bill. years
halo
globular clusters
highly elliptical
nuclear bulge
0.1 - 0.8%
oldest
2-10 b. y.
POPULATION I
Intermediate
Extreme
Disk
Sun
slightly elliptical
spiral arms
stars in Orion
circular
0.8%
medium
1.6%
young to medium
3%
youngest
2-10 b. y.
2-10 b. y.
2-10 b. y.
moderately
elliptical
The FORMATION of the Milky Way galaxy
The Milky Way galaxy formed as a swirl of hydrogen and helium gas that lead to formation of clusters
of metal-poor stars with spherical distribution of random orbits that we see today as the halo.
However, many of the clusters contained too few stars to hold themselves together: they gradually
dissociated, freeing stars that wandered through the spherical cloud. Only clusters with more stars
packed in a smaller volume survived and have developed (during over 10 billion years) into the highly
stable globular clusters.
Randomly moving eddies in the cloud collided with each other and canceled out: only parallel orbits
around a common axis persisted but could not resist the pull from the center of gravity of the sphere the sphere collapsed into a rotating disk which took billions of years. The halo population stars were left
behind as a fossil of the early galaxy; subsequent star generations formed in flatter distributions (the
intermediate population I stars are scattered hundreds of light-years above and below the plane of the
disk, the newest stars, the extreme population I stars, are confined to a disk only 300 l. y. thick.
As the galaxy flattened, the random elliptical orbits canceled out and more circular orbits remained.
Also, the metal abundance in the stars grew with every generation.
SPIRAL ARMS
The spiral arms wind outward through the disk. They contain swarms of hot blue (O + B) stars, clouds
of dust & gas, and young star clusters. The O + B stars form three band (segments) near the Sun - farther
they are obscured by clouds. The spiral arms can be mapped by spiral tracers (all are young objects
therefore could not move): O + B star associations, young open clusters, clouds of hydrogen ionized by
hot stars (=“emission nebulae”) and certain kinds of variable stars. Because the spiral arms are very
young they had to form the stars within them.
Radio maps (ATB 230-232; e.g., 21cm wavelength of cool hydrogen) disclose the spiral arms obscured
at visual wavelengths, particularly when unscrambled by measuring the Doppler shifts: a) the spiral pattern we see near the Sun continues throughout the disk; b) the spiral arms are rather irregular and interrupted by bends, spurs and gaps (e.g., the Orion stars appear to be a detached segment of a spiral arm);
c) spiral arms are regions of high gas density, contain young objects - active star formation suspected.
The density wave theory (ATB 232-234): the spiral arms are waves of compression rather like sound
waves which move slowly around the galaxy: the orbiting gas clouds overtake the spiral arms from behind and smash into the density wave (ATB Fig. 10.20, 233). The compression triggers the star formation; the massive stars are so short-lived that they die before they can leave the spiral arm. If that star
formation created additional massive stars the process could be self-sustaining (ATB 234) and explains
the complicated spiral disturbances. The less massive stars emerge from the front of the arm with the remains of the gas cloud.
Two problems of the density wave theory:
1 How does the complicated spiral disturbance form?
A density wave may form in response to:
a) minor fluctuations of the galaxy’s disk (a resonance principle);
b) collisions between galaxies.
However, the density wave, once established will last for a billion years before it dissipates.
2 Formation of spurs & branches: only two-armed “grand design” galaxies can be explained, but
other galaxies are flocculent (“woolly”) [the Milky Way is intermediate: it contains both spiral arms and
flocculation] - these irregularities can be explained by the compressional triggering of star formation
which is self-sustaining. Some galaxies may be dominated by density waves due to interaction with
GNSC-100, Part 4, Astronomy (p. 9 - 22)
28
«EDC» printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
other galaxies  beautiful two-armed spiral galaxies, other galaxies may be dominated by selfsustaining star formation  flocculent galaxies.
The NUCLEUS
The nucleus is hidden by clouds of gas & dust in visual light but is “visible” on radio, infrared, X-ray
and gamma-ray wavelength: stars crowded together, a disk of gas spinning at the center, and clouds of
gas rushing outward.
Near Sagittarius - collection of radio-sources, the most powerful, Sagittarius A, is the galactic core
(ATB Fig. 10.24, 236). Expanding now (Doppler shifts at 21cm wavelength) - much of the neutral
hydrogen is in a disk hundreds of parsecs in diameter that is rotating and expanding.
Examples:
3 kpc arm (=distance from center) = cloud of 107 M_ of hydrogen moves outward at 53km/sec;
135km/sec arm - expands away from us on the far-side of the nucleus.
Both may be parts of an expanding ring of matter expelled from the center about 100 m. y. ago. A ring of
much denser molecular (CO) gas clouds is 250 parsec from the center and expands outward at
140km/sec. A much larger region of CO emission lies about 5000 parsec from the center (ATB Fig.
10.25, 237: GC stands for the galactic center).
The core center has 10 AU (=0.000 05 pc) diameter, 5x106 M; it contains over a million cool stars,
violently moving hot low-density gas releasing a synchrotron radiation. Infrared observations reveal tremendously crowded cool stars in the central parsecs of the Milky Way; wavelengths shorter than 2 000
nm show that the stars are only 1 000 AU apart (in the Sun’s region: 330,000 AU = 1.6 pc). Infrared
longer than 4 000 nm reveals interstellar dust warmed by stars. Also X-rays and gamma-rays
(tremendously energetic - many have a wavelength of 0.002 4 nm produced by the electron + positron
annihilation of matter into energy) indicate a giant energy source.
The energy machine (ATB 237-238) - probably a black hole containing at least 106 M_ at the center,
a giant version of the X-ray binaries discussed at the end of ATB Chapter 9 (208-213); an accretion disk
may explain the 50 pc long hot gas filaments as if constrained by a huge magnetic field (ATB Fig. 10.26,
238; at 20-cm wavelength).
GALACTIC CLUSTERS & SUPERCLUSTERS 832
Gravity acts over distances even among galaxies, and groups the closest ones into clusters, such as the
local group of galaxies (it includes our Milky Way, Magellan Clouds, Andromeda, and about two dozen
other ones); but the gravity is probably responsible for structures even of a higher order, called superclusters, which are concentrated on the surface of great void spheres so that the Universe seems to have
a bubbled structure (“Swiss cheese”).
EXPANDING UNIVERSE 833-4
Red shift (assuming it is due to the Doppler’s effect) has been observed increasing with the distance
from our Milky Way galaxy (=distance-velocity relationship).
Big bang theory (George Gamov, 1948) 833-4.
The Hubble’s constant H is a measure of the rate of expansion of the universe. To find how long ago
the universe began expanding, divide the distance D to a galaxy by its receding velocity V; the result,
known as the Hubble’s time T, is the time the galaxy took to travel the distance. Because D is measured
in mega-parsecs and V, in kilometers per second, we must convert D into kilometers by multiplying by
3.085 × 1019, the number of kilometers in 1 Mpc. Then dividing by V, yields the age of the universe in
seconds. To convert to years, we must divide by 3.15 × 107, the number of seconds in a year. Thus the
age of the universe in years is
T = (D/V) × (3.085 × 1019)/(3.15 × 107) 
 (D/V) × 1012 years
But D/V is just 1/H, so we can simplify the formula for the age of the universe:
T  1012/H.
If H is 50km/sec/Mpc, the universe is about 20 × 1012 years old, assuming there is no gravity to slow the
expansion. Michael Pierce et al, Indiana University (Nature, 29 Sep 94), published H to be 87
7km/sec/Mpc; his calculation is based on three Cepheids from the spiral galaxy Virgo NGC 4571 to be
only 15 Mpc away. This short distance makes the Universe rapidly expanding and therefore only 7 - 11
bill. years young (Astronomy, Mar ‘95, p. 49-53). Allan Sandage, Carnegie Observatories (he has been
measuring the Hubble constant longer than both Pierce & Freedman combined, and, as a graduate
student, he was the observing assistant to Edwin Hubble himself) has maintained that the Hubble
constant is 52 6 km/sec/Mpc and the universe is old, based on Ia supernovae (Astronomy Mar ‘95, p.
53) in two galaxies: IC 4182 in Canes Venatici (see Astronomy Mar ‘95, map on top of the page 65) and
NGC 5253 in Centaurus. To find the “true” age of the universe, we must know the extend to which
gravity has slowed the expansion, and that depends on the average density of the universe.
29
GNSC-100, Part 6: Environment (p. 30 - 31)
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
Energy & Environment
The University of Maryland provides a 3 credit hour course, fine for a non-science student: GEOL-120, Environmental Geology; the pertinent textbook,
Environmental Geology by Carla W. Montgomery (4th edition 1995) is referred to as “EGTB”.
Energy
Fossil Fuels (coal, oil & natural gas; 646) are not renewable.
Fossil fuels formed by anaerobic fossilization of carbohydrates, the major constituents of plants and animals; the fluid ones from sea plankton, the solid ones
from plants (including trees). The carbohydrates were produced by photosynthesis of green plants. Using Sun radiation as energy source and chlorophyll as
catalyst, the photosynthesis synthesized a simple sugar glucose (6H2O+CO2, and related carbohydrates) from water and carbon dioxide, (through a series
of complex reactions) Next product of the photosynthesis is free oxygen. Plants utilize the glucose mainly as an energy resource (in more complex sugars,
such as sucrose and starch) and as a base of constructive material in vascular tissues (cellulose, lignin). Animals depend (more or less directly) on sugars of
plants; they combine glucose with oxygen to produce energy, and return water & carbon dioxide into the environment. Animals store glucose as fats (and
similar compounds such as lipids) which are water-insoluble derivatives of glucose. This way, the solar energy stored in oxygen + carbohydrates has been
essentially retained in fossil fuels which have formed from the carbohydrates: coal (basically carbon) by dehydration, petroleum and natural gas (both
saturated hydrocarbons), by reduction (oxygen loss). The chemical energy of fossil fuels represents the stored solar energy releasable by fuel combustion
(recombination with oxygen).
FLUID fossil fuels
SOLID fossil fuels
main types
petroleum (oil) + natural gas
coal
present constituents
hydrocarbons (CnH2n+2)
carbon
source constituents
carbohydrates (C+H20)
carbohydrates (C+H20)
process of origin
oxygen removal
dehydration (water removal)
time to form few (typically 20) million years
100 to 400 million years
age influence on quality worsening by diffusion & migration
improvement of grade
environment of formation
inside geosynclines, off-shore
swamps around geosynclines, onshore
Nuclear Power (fission, in future fusion ?)
is relatively available, but healthy, environmental & political problems must be solved (GTG p. 413-4).
Solar Energy
The Sun is our ultimate source of renewable energy, it may be employed in future(GTG p. 400, 415).
Geothermal Energy
may locally be effective (Iceland, New Zealand, Yellowstone, The Geysers, Calif., Larderello, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Philippines (GTG p.414-5).
Water (Hydroelectric) Power
is renewable, clean and cheap but locally available only; dams are aged by siltation (GTG p. 413).
The Fuel Cell
Magneto-hydrodynamics
Thermionic Conversion
Other Sources
Other sources, such as wind, tides, biomass (alcohol & biogas as fuel), are still limited.
Environment
Population growth; Appendix D1-5
Energy & Environmental Pollution
Thermal Pollution of Water
Air Pollution
Noise Pollution
Commercial & Domestic Wastes
Pollution from Hazardous Wastes
Pesticides & Herbicides
Medical Geology
Space Wastes
Solutions
16
12 Mar 08 FINAL EXAM (Geology + Astronomy)
GNSC-100, Part 6: Environment (p. 30 - 31)
30
GEOLOGY
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
DETAILED T3 TOPICS:
MINERAL (9): definition;, polymorphy (eg. carbon as diamond & graphite, the features of each) isomorphy (eg. mixing hexagonal carbonates: calcite dolomite - magnesite - siderite). Most common (rock forming) minerals - silicates: their structural unit silicon-oxygen tetrahedron, SiO4,
ROCK (9-10): definition (aggregate of one or more minerals forming great units of the Earth's crust); rocks classification (10, top paragraph) - based on
their origin..
INTERNAL PROCESSES: Mountains (11) - classification, with examples.
Plate Tectonics (12, top)- 8 major plates (their location), 3 ways of mutual movement.
Atmosphere (13-14) - its composition, 4 layers; approximate volume percentage of the 3 major gases of the troposphere (753, Tab. 31.1): nitrogen 78%,
oxygen 21%, carbon dioxide 0.035%.
ASTRONOMY
1 3 types of planets (including one which does not fit).
1 Earth-like (=inner planets): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars 2 Jovian (=outer planets): Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
3 Pluto (outermost and smallest planet)
2 Short description of the 3 types of planets.
1 Earth-like, inner planets, small, high density like Earth, composed of rocks, rotate slowly, few or no satellites.
2 Jovian, outer planets, giants, low density, composed of gases (mostly hydrogen and helium compressed to liquid form), rotate rapidly, have many
(64) satellites and all have rings.
3 Pluto is the smallest, outermost, medium density, composed of water + methane ices, with its relatively large satellite (Charon) almost a double planet
3 The common direction of both revolution and rotation of the solar system’s objects is counter-clockwise when seen from the north;
revolution (orbiting about the Sun) of all planets, rotation of most of the planets;
4 Exceptions in revolution and rotation common direction (of the largest objects):
revolution (orbit): clockwise when seen from the north:
Triton (satellite of Neptune), 4 outermost sat. of Jupiter and 1 outermost satellites of Saturn.
rotation on axis: clockwise (retrograde) when seen from the north: Venus, Uranus and Pluto.
5 Triggering factor in the origin of the Solar System:
A supernova explosion within 60 light years (18 parsec) away, about 5 billion years ago.
6 Conditions of its action: The solar nebula was a cloud of gas & dust - a fragment of an interstellar gas cloud with about twice its present total mass and
spread within a spherical space of about 30 million times its present volume (about 300-times its present diameter). A supernova (explosion) triggered the
formation. The shell of gas ejected by a supernova compressed the gas & dust cloud at a distance of 60 light years.
8 The sequence of orbits of the planets, including asteroids and the Moon, starting with the closest to the Sun outward.
1 Mercury
2 Venus 3 Earth
3 Moon 4 Mars
5 asteroid belt 6 Jupiter 7 Saturn 8 Uranus 9 Neptune 10 Pluto
9 The sequence of sizes of the planets (excluding asteroids & the Moon), smallest to largest or vice versa (no quantitative data are needed, just sequence
numbers, such as 1 for the smallest and 9 for the largest).
1 = smallest: 1 Pluto
2 Mercury 3 Mars 4 Venus 5 Earth 6 Neptune 7 Uranus 8 Saturn 9 Jupiter 9 = largest
10 Brief description of each object (planets, Moon, asteroids), such as planet type, stony or gaseous, type of atmosphere (major gases, high or weak pressure
& temperature, clouds, wind), geological activity (volcanism, plate tectonics, erosion by micrometeors & solar wind when no atmosphere, by wind, water
etc. if atmosphere), approximate number of satellites, major satellites and other distinct features, such as rings (plt stands for planet).
Mercury - inner plt, highest density; lots of bombardment (tape recorder of our system); similar to Moon, no atmosphere, therefore: hot days, very cool
nights (temperature difference 480 ºC), well preserved craters, worn only by micrometerorites & solar wind; inclined and eccentric orbit; zero satellites.
Venus - inner plt, closest to Earth; very bright; strongest atmosphere - 90 bar (=90 times higher pressure than Earth); 96% carbon dioxide causes strong
green-house effect (heat is retained) - therefore: high temperature (472 ºC) with almost no difference between night & day and between equator and
poles, no real night due to purple glowing of the environment by that high temperature; almost no wind at the surface, strong winds at 40 to 60km; white
clouds consist of sulfuric acid; almost no trace of water, active volcanism; zero satellites.
Earth - inner, atmosphere: 1bar; 80% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, 0.035% CO2; water clouds; only plt with (liquid) water, only object with water in 3 states
(liquid, solid, gas); mean temperature +15ºC; geologically active - plate tectonics, recent & fossil volcanoes; plant and animal life; one satellite: Moon.
Moon - satellite of Earth; the visible face is tidally locked to Earth (due to thinner crust) since about 3.5 billion years ago; before, its faster rotation
caused its tidal flexing: this heating resulted into volcanism until 3.5 billion years ago when the heating friction delayed the Moon’s rotation so much
that its period equals that of its orbit (this state has been fixed by the Earth’s gravity); almost black (basalt-like rocks); no atmosphere, therefore: great
temperature variations from day to night, meteoric craters slowly worn by micrometeorites & solar wind; no inner geological processes.
Mars - inner; water-cut valleys; atmosphere 200 times thinner than Earth’s one (not strong enough to carry clouds; 96% CO2, no oxygen but red from 3electron iron oxide hematite: free oxygen had to exist in past; mean temper. -43ºC; a desert; current geological processes: sand blasting from strong
winds; fossil volcanoes; Olympus Mons (the highest volcano in the solar system); fossil water erosion & deposition;2 satellites: Phobos and Deimos.
Asteroids (minor plts, 810) above 1km bodies to be between 1.1 and 1.9 million, smaller are much more; diameters: Ceres (since 2006 a dwarf planet)
975x909km, Palas 500km, Juno , Vesta 500km, …
Jupiter - gaseous, largest plt; fastest axis rotation; Great Red Spot (a stationary hurricane known since Galileo); 16 satellites (Io, “pizza” -strongest active
volcanism in the Solar System, due to liquid sulfur; Europa - water-ice plate tectonics; Ganymede - the greatest sat.), black thin rings.
Saturn - gaseous, lowest density; strongest bright ring system, most satellites (Titan, next biggest after Ganymede, 1.4x stronger atmosphere than the
Earth, consists of nitrogen).
Uranus - gaseous, rotational axis almost (8 tilted) within its orbital plane, satellites & dim rings around its equator (perpendicular to its orbital plane);
sat. Miranda (one theory is that it was struck by a large body and broken into pieces that were pulled back together by their own gravity; the reassembling
formed ovoids or chevrons as the heavy blocks of silicates sank and lighter ice rose).
Neptune - gaseous, blue-green, Great Dark Spot has currently several times changed (not very stable); sat. Triton orbits clockwise when seen from north,
very low temperature (37 Kelvin = -393 F), volcanism of liquid nitrogen spewed up to 8km high into its very thin atmosphere
Pluto - 3rd plt category: smallest (0.002 Earth’s mass), most distant from Sun, most tilted & eccentric orbit (currently is closer to Sun than Neptune);
consists of ices of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, & probably water ice, plus silicates (because of medium density); almost a double plt: its only
satellite Charon is relatively so large (about the half of Pluto’s 2300km diameter) that both these bodies (having similar density) orbit around a common
center of gravity which is outside of Pluto, are completely tidally locked, and mutually eclipsed during the recent few years. Pluto may be a sample of
similar icy bodies on the far fringe of the Solar System (nick-named Plutons), such as Triton & Nereid (Neptune’s satellites) or a Kuiper’s belt object.
11 Two possible origins of the seasons on a planet.
a Changing distance from the Sun - affects the whole planet;
Pluto, Mars, Mercury.
b Axis tilt to the perpendicular of the orbital plane - affects the hemispheres alternatively; Earth (Mars together with the changing distance from the Sun).
12 Two reasons why is summer warmer than winter on the Earth (or a planet with the tilted axis to the perpendicular of the orbital plane).
1 The light concentration per area is greater in the summer; 2 Summer days are longer.
13 Tidal heating (description & explanation).
It is due to the changing of the deformation (=flexing of a cosmic body) by the changing gravity of a nearby cosmic body.
14 Tidal heating: 2 examples of its evidence:
a Earth’s Moon: Until 3.5 bill. y. ago, the Moon rotated faster than now, therefore it showed all its sides to the Earth. This rotation within the strong
gravity field of the Earth constantly changed its bulging (flexed its interior); the flexing had been resisted by rock friction which slowly delayed the
rotation and heated the rock: volcanism was active on the Moon. When its rotation delayed so much that its period equaled its orbiting period (the Moon
showed only one face to the Earth), the gravity fixed (locked) this position 3.5 bill. y. ago: the Earth’s gravity has been keeping the Moon’s heavier side
(with thinner crust) turned to the Earth, and the Moon’s volcanism stopped.
b Io: is a very small satellite of Jupiter; its internal heat needed for the extremely strong volcanism could not persist since its formation 4.5 b.y.ago.
15 STARS: Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram: describe its axes & fields, examples of its use.
Shows the dependence of the intrinsic luminosity of stars on their surface temperature. It separates Main Sequence stars (90% of stars use hydrogen
fusion controlled by the pressure-temperature thermostat on a diagonal stripe, where the luminosity increases with the surface temperature), Red Giants
and Supergiants, and White Dwarfs. Can be used for calculation of distance of the main sequence stars (determining their intrinsic luminosity from their
spectral class, color, and using this luminosity in the spectroscopic parallax), mass (from the intrinsic luminosity), and age (from their mass).
X (horizontal) axis: surface temperature high on left (25,000 Kelvin), blue (hot) stars, low on right (2,000 Kelvin), red (cool) stars;
Y (vertical) axis: intrinsic luminosity (total electromagnetic radiation) in units of solar luminosity, increases from bottom to the top.
16 The pressure-temperature thermostat, explanation: maintains equilibrium between the hydrogen fusion rate of the core of the main sequence stars and
their size. It regulates the hydrogen fusion in the core.
31
GNSC-100, INDEX (p. 32 - 38)
8
A
absolute zero temperature
acceleration
accretion
solar nebula's early process
acetate
propyl (fragrance of pears)
acetic acid
formula
acetone (=propanon, dimethylketon)
acetylene (=ethine)
acid
acetic
in vinegar
amino (in proteins)
carbonic
carboxylic (=organic)
citric
deoxyribonucleic
fatty
hydrochloric (HCl)
nitric
nucleic (DNA, RNA)
organic (=carboxylic)
oxalic
phosphoric
solutions
sulphuric
weak
acidity
acrylate
methylmeta (Plexiglas™,Lucite™)
action & reaction
activation energy
activity
chemical (of elements
metallic
nonmetallic
activity (chemical)
metallic
adenine (org. base with nitrogen)
affinity (of elements) to electrons
high
low
maximum
minimum
similar or identical
ALCOHOL
ethyl
aldehydes
aliphatic hydrocarbons
alkali
earths (column 2 elements)
metals (column 1 elements)
alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons)
alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons)
al-kimiya, alchymia
alkines (unsaturated hydrocarbons)
alpha particles radioactivity
alternating current (AC)
aluminosilicates
solar system differentiation
amino acids
ammonia
molecule (formula)
ammonium hydroxide
amorphous
amplitude (of a wave)
anaesthetic
chloroform
diethyl-ether
analysis
chemical
qualitative
quantitative
spectral
analytical chemistry (branch of chemistry)
aromatic hydrocarbons
asteroids
occur in a belt around the Sun
astron (=star in Greek)
astronomical unit (AU)
astronomy (definition)
atmosphere
original (planets)
3
2
16
7
6
8
7
6
6
7
8
6
7
7
8
7
6
6
8
7
7
8
6
6
6
6
7
2
7
5
5
5
6
8
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
8
7
5
5
7
7
5
7
8
4
16
8
6
6
3
4
7
7
5
5
4
5
7
16
15
15
15
16
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
solar (photo-& chromo-sphere, & corona) 17
atomic
mass
unit u
5
nucleus
changes of
8
stability
8
number Z (=# of protons in the nucleus)
5
atoms
3, 5
attitudes (in science)
1
AU (=astronomical unit)
15
B
Babcock's theory of sunspots
bases (=hydroxides)
organic
nitrogen containing
strong
weak
basic solutions
basicity
benzene (rings)
beta particles (=electrons) radiation
binding
completion of electron shells
black body radiation
black hole
bond
chemical
covalent
multiple
polarity (asymmetry)
aldehydes
water
IONIC
METALLIC
types of
Brownian motion
17
6
8
6
6
6
6
7
8
5
3
5
7
8
6
6
6
6
3
C
calcium hydroxide
6
calorie (heat unit)
3
carbohydrates (organic comp.
8
carbonic acid
formula
6
carboxyl (COOH) group
7
catalyst
7
chlorophyll
8
cell
voltaic (electrochemical)
5
cellulose
7, 8
centrifugal force
2
cesium (chem. element)
6
CGS system of SI units
3
charge (electric)
4
charge/time (=electric current)
4
charge×voltage (=electric work)
4
chemical
activity of elements
5
bond
types of
6
kinetics
5
properties of elements (main)
5
REACTION
6
rate
7
catalyst influence
7
chemical energy
5
chemical reaction
rate
contact (surface area) influence
7
temperature influence
7
CHEMISTRY
5
analytical
5
carbon
7
inorganic & organic
5
organic
7
physical
5
chitin
8
chloroform
7
chlorophyll
8
chloroprene
polymer of
7
chroma = color
17
chromosomes
8
CHROMOSPHERE
MIDDLE SUN'S ATMOSPHERE (PINK) 17
citric acid
7
code
genetic
8
coil
4
column (=group) number in PTE
5
columns (groups of elements)
5
COMPOUNDS
6
organic
basic
7
compressional (longitudinal) wave
4
concentration of
hydrogen ions (pH)
6
condensation
sequence (solar system's chemical
differentiation)
16
solar nebula's early process
16
state of matter change
3
conduction
3
conductors
electric
4, 6
heat (in metals)
3
consumption of energy (chem. reactions)
6
convection
heat transfer type
3
convection cells
Sun's lowest atmosphere (photosphere)
17
core of
atom (=nucleus)
5
CORONA (OUTER SUN'S ATMOSPHERE)
17
CORONAL ACTIVITY
17
coronal holes
17
cosmic rays
4
coulomb
4
coulomb/second (=ampere)
4
Coulomb's law (electricity)
4
covalent
bond
polarity (molecule)
6
crystal structure
solids (state of matter)
3
crystallization (change of state of matter)
3
Cs, chem. symbol of cesium
6
current
electric
alternating (AC)
4
cycle
MAGNETIC (SOLAR ACTIVITY)
17
sunspot
17
cytosine (org. base with nitrogen)
8
D
Dacron™ (polyester)
deformation
periodic
plastic
de-localized electrons
in benzene
in metals
density
relative
deoxyribonucleic acid
deoxyribose
deposition
state of matter change
derivatives of hydrocarbons
halogen
diamond
hardness of
dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon12)
diethyl ether
differentiation
protoplanets (chemical, various density)
diffraction (of waves)
DIMENSION OF
QUANTITY
direction of
length (vector)
disaccharides (carbohydrates)
displacement
position change
type of chem. reaction
dissipation
fields (Newton's law)
dissociation
7
4
3
7
6
3
3
8
8
3
7
7
7
7
7
16
4
2
2
8
2
7
18
32
GNSC-100, INDEX (p. 32 - 38)
decomposition of compounds
by electric current (electrolysis)
by heat (pyrolysis)
of ions (separation)
distance
units in astronomy
parsec (=pc
distillation
fractional
disturbances
DNA (=deoxyribonucleic acid)
DNA nucleic acid
double helix
dynamo
7
7
7
6
15
15
7
4
8
8
8
4
E
EARTH
MOON
Earth-like (=Inner) Planets
earths
alkali (column 2 elements)
eccentricity (orbits of planets)
elastic
elastomers (=rubbers)
electric
charge
conductors
current
energy
energy (chem. reactions)
field
insulators
motor
potential (difference)
potential energy
power
RESISTANCE
work
ampere (=coulomb/second
ampere×volt (=watt
ELECTRICITY
electrochemistry
electrolysis
electrolytes
electron
affinity (of elements) to
changing in the PTE
high
low
maximum
minimum
atomic shells
total number of electrons
configuration in atoms
gained (in chem. reactions)
lost (in chem. reactions)
outer shell
taking (losing)
pairs (in multiple bonds)
shared (in covalent bond)
asymmetry of
shells
electronegativity (electron affinity)
electrons
affinity (of elements) to
de-localized
in benzene
in metals
transfer of (in chem. reactions)
elementary particles
elements
affinity to electrons
alkali earths (column 2)
alkali metals (column 1)
chemical activity
chemically defined
column 1 (alkali metals)
column 2 (alkali earths)
column 7 (halogens)
definition of element
halogens (column 7)
noble (inert) gases (column 8)
representative
types
ellipse (Kepler's laws)
endothermic (chem. reaction)
energy
activation (chem. reactions)
chemical
19
19
18
5
18
3
7
4
6
4
4, 5
6
4
6
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
7
6
6
5
5
6
6
5
5
7
7
6
7
6
5
5
5
7
6
7
3
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
18
6
7
3, 5
conservation law
consumption (chem. reactions)
electric
gravitational potential
heat
kinetic (=motional)
liberation (chem. reactions)
mass equivalence
mechanic (definition)
nuclear (=nuclear binding)
potential
binding electrons
gravitational
radiant
photosynthesis
transformations
temperature
joule (=newton×meter
entropy
enzymes
equivalence
mass-energy
escape velocity
esters (compounds of acids+alcohols)
ethanol (=ethyl alcohol)
ethene (=ethylene)
ETHERS (ORG. COMPOUNDS)
diethyl
ethine (=acetylene)
ethyl alcohol
ethylene (=ethene)
exothermic (chem. reaction)
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
3
6
3, 4, 5
3
3
3
6
8
3
8
6
3
7
3
3
2
5
8
8
2
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
6
F
F, chemical symbol of fluorine
fats (esters)
fatty acids
fibers
natural (silk)
synthetic
field
electric
gravity
dissipation (Newton's law)
magnetic
fields
dissipation (Newton's law)
filaments (Sun's atmosphere)
fission (nuclear reaction)
FLAIRS
flares (Sun's atmosphere)
flavors (odor of esters)
fluids (state of matter)
fluorine (chem. element)
force
definition
electric
gravity
gravity (Newton's law)
formaldehyde (=methanal)
Fr, chemical symbol of francium
fractional distillation
francium (chem. element)
free fall (due to gravity)
freezer (absorbs vaporiz. heat)
frequency
wave
fructose
functional groups
hydrocarbon derivatives
fusion
melting (change of state of matter)
nuclear reaction
6
7, 8
7
8
7
4
4
18
4
18
17
8
17
17
7
3
6
2
4
4
18
8
6
7
6
2
3
4, 15
8
7
3
8
G
galactose (carbohydrate)
gamma rays
gas
natural
gas (type of a fluid)
gasoline
generator (dynamo)
genetic code
geomagnetic storms
glass
8
4, 8
7
3
7
4
8
17
stiff liquid
3
glucose (carbohydrate)
8
photosynthesis
7
photosynthesis product
8
glycerol (3-hydroxyl-alcohol)
7
glycogen
8
glycol
7
gram
CGS unit of mass
2
molecular
mass
7
molecule
7
granulation (convection in Sun's photosphere)
17
gravitational collapse
5
gravity
acceleration
2
field
4
dissipation (Newton's law)
18
force
4
groups
carboxylic
7
chem. elements in columns
5
guanine (org. base with nitrogen)
8
H
hair (constists of proteins)
half life of radioactive decay
halogen
element of the column 7
halogen org. derivatives
HCl
hydrochloric acid
hydrogen chloride
heat
capacity (=specific heat)
chem. reactions
definition
energy
insulator
fats in animals
specific (=heat capacity)
state of matter change
fusion (melting) heat
vaporization heat
TRANSFER (3 TYPES)
hectopascal (hPa, unit of pressure)
helium (chem. element)
fusion of hydrogen
helix (double, of DNA)
hexose (=monosaccharide)
horns (consists of proteins)
horsepower (hp, unit of power)
hydrocarbon
aliphatic (=saturated
aromatic
derivatives
functional groups
unsaturated
hydrocarbons
saturated
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
hydrogen
chloride
molecule (formula HCl)
fusion (nuclear reaction)
ions
concentration (pH)
neutralization
hydronium (=H+ ion on water mol.)
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
hydroxide
base
ammonium
calcium
magnesium
sodium
hydroxyl ion
neutralization
hydroxide (=hydroxyl) ion
hydroxyl (=hydroxide) ion
hydroxyl ion (=hydroxide ion)
8
8
5
7
7
6
3
6
3
3
8
3
3
3
3
3
8
8
8
8
2
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
6, 7
6
8
6
7
6
3
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
7
I
ice age
little (1430-1850)
parallax (=observation angle
inorganic chemistry
17
15
5
33
GNSC-100, INDEX (p. 32 - 38)
insulator
electric
heat
fats in animals)
insulators
electric
interference
waves
IONIC
BOND
ions
hydrogen
concentration of (pH)
metals
nonmetals
isotope
definition
4
8
6
4
6
6
6
6
5
J
joule/coulomb (=volt)
joule/second (=watt, el. power unit)
4
4
K
KE (=kinetic energy)
kelvin (absolute temperature unit)
Kepler
laws of orbital motion
life
Prague (capital of Bohemia
kerosene (saturated hydrocarbon)
ketone (hydrocarbon derivative)
khemia
kilogram
MKS unit of mass
kilowatt (unit of power)
kilowatt×hour = kWh (=energy unit)
kinetic energy
definition
from chem. reactions
heat (randomly moving molecules)
kWh = kilowatt×hour (=energy unit)
3
3
18
18
18
7
8
5
2
2
4
3
6
3
4
L
lactose (=carbohydrate)
law
periodic (of Mendeleev)
liberation of energy (chem. reactions)
light
velocity (c
infrared
ultraviolet
velocity (c)
visible
light year (distance unit in astron.)
lipid (carbohydrate)
liquid
CRYSTALS
type of fluid
little ice age (1430-1850)
longitudinal (compressional) wave
lost electrons (in chem. reactions)
low affinity to electrons
lubricating oil (saturated hydrocarbons)
Lucite™
8
5
6
15
4
4
4
4
15
8
3
3
17
4
7
5
7
7
M
magnesium hydroxide
magnetic
CYCLE (SOLAR ACTIVITY)
field
material
soft
magnetic fields (Sun's atmosphere)
MAGNETISM
Mars (planet)
orbit
eccentricity
mass
definition
energy equivalence
gram-molecular
number (atomic)
A=56
isotope
massive objects (cosmic)
matter
smallest particles of
6
17
4
4
17
4
16
2
8
7
8
5
5
2
5
STATES OF (SOLIDS, FLUIDS)
Maunder butterfly diagram (sunspots)
melting (state of matter change)
MENDELEEV (TABLE OF ELEMENTS)
Mercury
spin-orbit coupling
MERCURY (INNER PLANET)
Mercury (planet)
orbit
eccentricity
inclination to the ecliptic
metallic
BOND
chemical activity
metalloids
metals
alkali (column 1 elements)
alkali earths (col.2 elemts)
compounds (ionic) of
definition (activity)
ions of
strongest (chemically)
meteoroids
orbit in the whole solar system space
meter
length unit
methanal (=formaldehyde)
methylmetacrylate (=Plexiglas™, Lucite™)
metric system of units
microwave
definition
oven
milk
acidity of
mixture (versus compound)
MKS system of SI units
molecule
polarity of covalent bond
monosaccharide (carbohydrate)
MOON
motor
electric
multiple (covalent) bond
muscles (consist of proteins)
Mylar™ (=polyester)
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
3, 5
17
3
5
18
18
16
16
6
5, 6
6
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
16
2
8
7
2
4
4
6
6
3
3, 6
6
8
19
4
7
8
7
N
N (symbol of nitrogen)
NaCl (sodium chloride, salt)
nails (consist of proteins)
NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
natural
gas (saturated hydrocarbons)
polymers
sciences
NCE (New Columbia Encyclopedia)
neoprene (=synthetic elastomer [rubber])
neutral solutions (pH=7)
neutralization (chem. reaction)
definition
origin of salts
neutron
atomic nucleus particle
nuclear fission (slow)
number (of element)
star (=compact object)
New Columbia Encyclopedia
newton
Newton
law
gravity
motion
LIFE
nitric acid
nitroglycerin
non-electrolytes
nonmetal
ions of
strongest (chemically)
nonmetallic (chemical) activity
nuclear
binding energy
reaction
fission
fusion
8
7
8
7
7
7
2
1
7
6
7
6
5
8
5
5
1
2
18
18
18
6
7
6
6
6
5
8
8
8
nuclear reactions
nucleic acid
nucleon (particle of atomic nucleus)
nucleus (atomic)
stability
number
atomic (Z)
mass (of isotope)
neutron (of element)
Nylon™ (polyamide)
8
8
5, 8
5, 8
8
5
5
5
7
O
O (symbol of oxygen), oxidation
7
octet (of electrons in outer shell)
5
odors
fruity or flower like (of esters)
7
ohm (electric resistance unit)
4
ohm×ampere (=volt)
4
Ohm's law (electric resistance)
4
oils
lipids
8
lubricating
7
o-r (oxidation-reduction) reactions
7
orbit
period (Kepler's law)
18
planet (Kepler's laws)
18
orbiting planets
potential-kinetic energies
3
organic
acids (=carboxylic)
7
chemistry
5, 7
compounds
basic
7
outer shell electron
shared (covalent bond)
6
outer shell electrons
5
transferred (ionic bond)
6
outgassing of planets (=density differentiation) 16
oxalic acid (=organic acid)
7
oxidation (chem. reaction)
7
and reduction
7
oxygen (chem. element)
from photosynthesis
7
P
P (phosphorus)
proteins
paraffins (alkanes)
paraffins (alkanes, saturated hydrocarbons)
particles of matter
pc (=parsec, distance unit in astron.)
PE (potential energy)
pendulum
potential-kinetic energies
pentose (carbohydrate)
perfumes (odor of esters)
periodic
law (of Mendeleev)
periods (of elements)
petroleum (saturated hydrocarbons)
pH (concentration of hydrogen ions)
phase (state of matter) transformations
phenol (aromatic alcohol, carbolic acid)
phosphoric acid (in nucleic acids)
phosphorus (chem. element)
in proteins
photoelectric effect (el.-mag. wave as photon)
photon (electromagnetic radiation)
PHOTOSPHERE
SUN'S VISIBLE SURFACE, LOWEST
ATMOSPHERE
photosynthesis
photosynthesis (endothermic reaction)
PHYSICAL
chemistry (branch of chemistry)
SCIENCES
PHYSICS (DEFINITION)
piezocrystal (thermometer)
Planck's constant
planetesimal
small (about cm size)
planetesimals
large (up to 100km size)
planets
8
7
7
5
15
3
3
8
7
4
5
5
7
6
5
7
8
8
4
4
17
8
7
5
1
2
3
4
16
16
18
34
GNSC-100, INDEX (p. 32 - 38)
EARTH
19
Earth-like (=inner planets)
18
occur in a disk around the Sun
16
orbit
eccentricity
18
VENUS
18
PLASMA
THE FOURTH STATE OF MATTER
3
plastic (state of matter)
3
Plexiglas™
7
Pluto (planet)
orbit
eccentricity
16
orbital inclination to the ecliptic
16
rotation (axial)
retrograde
16
plutonium (chem. element)
8
polarity
covalent bond
6
polyamide (polymer)
7
polyester (polymer)
7
polyeth(yl)ene (polymer)
7
PVC (=polyvinyl chloride
7
polymers (organic compounds)
7
natural
7
synthetic
7
polypeptide chains
8
polysaccharide (carbohydrate)
8
polytretrafluoreth(yl)ene (Teflon™)
7
polyvinyl chloride (polymer)
7
position change (in speed)
2
potential energy
binding electrons
6
gravitational
3
power
definition
2
electric
4
watt (=joule/second
2
PRESSURE
3
HYDROSTATIC
3
prograde
revolution (outer Jovian satellites)
21
PROMINENCES (=CLOUDS IN THE SUN'S
ATMOSPH.)
17
propanon (=acetone)
8
propyl acetate (ester)
7
proteins
7, 8
protons
in atomic nucleus
5
protoplanets (solar nebula evolution)
16
PSI (unit of pressure)
3
pure water (acidity pH=7)
6
push-pull (=compressional) wave
4
pyrolysis (decomposition by heat)
7
Q
qualitative analysis (chemical)
quantitative analysis (chemical)
QUANTITIES (DIMENSIONS, UNITS)
quartz (piezocrystal thermometer)
5
5
2
3
R
radar (microwaves)
radiant energy
chemical reactions
photosynthesis
radiation
heat transfer
radioactive decay
dating
half life
radioactivity
randomly moving molecules
rate
chemical reaction
definition
rays
cosmic
gamma
X-rays
REACTION
CHEMICAL
displacement type
oxidation-reduction
rate of
4
6
7
3
8
8
8
3
7
2
4
4, 8
4
6
7
7
7
with oxygen
nuclear
fission
fusion
reduction (chem. reaction)
reflection (of waves)
refraction (of waves)
refrigerator (absorbs vaporiz. heat)
representative elements
RESISTANCE
ELECTRIC
resonance (microwaves with water)
retrograde
revolution
revolution (orbits)
outermost Jovian satellites
rotation
revolution (=orbiting)
solar system's components
ribose
rotation
differential
rubber (=polymer of isoprene)
Rudolph II
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h
7
8
8
8
7
4
4
3
5
4
4
16
21
16
16
8
17
7
18
S
S (symbol of sulphur)
8
saccharides (carbohydrates)
8
salt
ionic compound of metal+nonmetal
6
neutralization)
7
saturated hydrocarbons (paraffins)
7
SCIENCE
1
scientia
1
sea-water
basicity (pH)
6
shared electrons (=covalent bond)
asymmetry
6
shear (=transverse) waves
4
shells of electrons in atoms
5
SI units
2
CGS system
3
MKS system
3
silicates
solar system's differentiation
16
silk (consists of proteins)
8
skin (includes proteins)
8
soaps
7
sodium
chloride (=table salt)
7
hydroxide, NaOH
6
sodium hydroxide
7
soft magnetic material
4
solar
activity
17
atmosphere (photo- & chromo-sphere, &
corona)
17
wind
17
solar system
age (about 5 billion years)
16
components
common properties
16
components distribution
16
ORIGIN
16
solar wind
17
solids (state of matter)
3
solutions
acidic
6
basic
6
sound
4
specific
gravity
3
heat (=heat capacity)
3
spectral analysis
4
spectrum
emission
chromosphere (Balmer's lines of hydrogen)17
speed (=rate of position change)
2
spicules (in the Sun's atmosphere)
17
spin-orbit coupling
Mercury
18
stability of atomic nucleus
8
starch
8
starch (carbohydrate, natural polymer)
7
STATE OF MATTER
changes
DEFINITION
solids, fluids
stoichiometry
streamers (Sun's atmosphere)
strong bases
strong covalent bonds (carbon)
sublimation (state of matter change)
substance
complex (=compound)
simple (=element)
sucrose (=ordinary sugar)
sugar (carbohydrate)
sulphur (in proteins)
sulphuric acid
Sun
atmosphere
CORONAL ACTIVITY
coronal holes
FLAIRS
flares
geomagnetic storms
magnetic fields
PROMINENCES
solar wind
SUNSPOTS
little ice age
Maunder butterfly diagram
differential rotation
spots
sunspot
cycle
SUNSPOTS
synthetic
fibers
polymers
3
3
5
5
17
6
7
3
6
6
5
8
8
8
6
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
4
17
17
7
7
T
Teflon™
temperature
absolute zero
gradient
tetrachlormethane
thermo-chemistry
thymine (org. base with nitrogen)
tides
torr (unit of pressure)
transfer of outer (shell) electrons
transformations
phase (change of state of matter)
transformers
transmutation (in ancient chemistry)
trichlormethan
Triton (=satellite of Neptune)
retrograde orbit
Tycho de Brahe
7
3
3
3
7
5
8
2
3
6
5
4
5
7
16
18
U
ultraviolet light
pascal (pa
UNITS
unsaturated hydrocarbons
uranium (chem. element)
Uranus (planet)
rotation (axial)
retrograde
4
3
2
7
8
16
V
vaporization (state of matter change)
vector
velocity
wave
VENUS
Venus (planet)
rotation (on axis)
retrograde
vibration of the particles
vinegar
viruses
RNA instead of DNA
visible light
volt (=joule/coulomb)
volt/ampere (=ohm)
volt/ohm (=ampere)
voltaic (electrochemical) cell
3
2
2
4
18
16
3
6, 7
8
4
4
4
4
5
35
GNSC-100, INDEX (p. 32 - 38)
W
water
molecule (formula)
neutralization product
pure (neutral)
wave
compressional (=longitudinal)
electromagnetic
cosmic rays
gamma rays
light
infrared
ultraviolet
visible
microwaves
millimeter
radio
X-rays
energy
interference
longitudinal (=compressional)
transverse (=shear)
wavelength
de Broglie
WAWE
DEFINITION
waxes (lipids)
weak
acids
bases
weight (=gravity force)
work
electric
mechanic (general definition)
work/time (=power)
6
7
6
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4, 15
4
4
8
6
6
2
4
2
4
Z
Z (atomic number)
5
Zeeman's effect (magn. field doubles wavelength)
4
«EDC»; printed: Wed, 3 May 17, 3:54h