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This page intentionally left blank A Student Grammar of French A Student Grammar of French is a concise introduction to French grammar, designed specifically for English-speaking undergraduates. Keeping technical detail to a minimum, it explains the fundamentals of the grammar in accessible and simple terms, and helps students to put their learning into practice through a range of fun and engaging exercises. All the essential topics are covered, with chapters on verbs, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, determiners, prepositions, adverbs, negation, numerals, sentences and clauses. Every grammatical point is illustrated with a range of authentic examples drawn from magazines and newspapers, covering many areas of contemporary life such as fashion, health issues, relationships and sport. It is clearly organised into a user-friendly, numbered indexing system, allowing the learner to locate any grammatical topic quickly and easily. Functioning as both an indispensable reference guide and a comprehensive workbook, this grammar will become the perfect accompaniment to any first- or second-year undergraduate course. Malcolm Offord was formerly Lecturer and Reader in the Department of French, University of Nottingham. He is author of Varieties of French (1990), French Sociolinguistics (1996), French Words, Past, Present and Future (2001), Francophone Literatures: A Literary and Linguistic Companion (2001), Using French: A Guide to Contemporary Usage (with Ronald Batchelor, Cambridge University Press, 3rd edition 2000) and Using French Synonyms (with Ronald Batchelor, Cambridge University Press, 1993). A Student Grammar of French MALCOLM OFFORD cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521547628 © Malcolm Offord 2006 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2006 isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-511-22025-8 eBook (EBL) 0-511-22025-1 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-54762-8 paperback 0-521-54762-8 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents Acknowledgements page xix Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Verbs: 1 1 Introduction 2 Verbs 3 Treatment of verbs Discursive treatment of verbs Infinitives 4 Infinitives Person 5 Person Mood 6 Mood Tense 7 Tense 8 Tenses 9 Presentation of tenses 10 Infinitives and conjugations 11 Infinitive endings for the four groups 12 Subgroups 13 Group 1 āer verbs, Group 2 āir verbs, Group 3 āre verbs, Group 4 āoir verbs 14 The formation of tenses ā simple and compound tenses Indicative mood Present tense 15 Group 1 āer verbs 16 Present tense of Group 1 āer verbs 17 Subgroups 18 āer verbs Subgroup 1 19 āer verbs Subgroup 2 20 āer verbs Subgroup 3 21 āer verbs Subgroup 4 22 Group 2 āir verbs 23 Present tense of Group 2 āir verbs 24 āir verbs Subgroup 1 25 āir verbs Subgroup 2 26 āir verbs Subgroup 3 27 āir verbs Subgroup 4 28 āir verb mourir = to die 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 v Contents 29 Group 3 āre verbs 30 Present tense of Group 3 āre verbs 31 āre verbs Subgroup 1 32 āre verbs Subgroup 2 33 āre verbs Subgroup 3 34 āre verbs Subgroup 4 35 āre verbs Subgroup 5 36 āre verbs Subgroup 6 37 āre verbs Subgroup 7 38 Group 4 āoir verbs 39 Present tense of Group 4 āoir verbs 40 āoir verbs Subgroup 1 41 āoir verbs Subgroup 2 42 āoir verbs Subgroup 3 Imperfect tense 43 Using and forming the imperfect tense 44 Examples of the imperfect tense Groups 1ā4 Future and conditional tenses 45 Using the future and conditional tenses 46 Endings of future and conditional tenses 47 Examples of future and conditional tenses of Group 1 āer verbs 48 Stem changes of Group 1 āer verbs 49 Group 1 āer verbs with radical stem variation 50 Examples of future and conditional tenses of Group 2 āir verbs 51 āir verbs Subgroup 3 52 Group 2 āir verbs with radical stem variation 53 Future and conditional tenses of Group 3 āre verbs 54 The exceptions eĢtre and faire 55 Future and conditional tenses of Group 4 āoir verbs Participles 56 Present participles 57 Exceptions 58 Past participles 59 Formation of past participles Groups 1ā3 60 Group 3 āre verbs with distinctive past participles 61 Past participles of Group 4 āoir verbs Compound tenses 62 General comments 63 avoir or eĢtre? 64 Verbs conjugated with eĢtre and agreement 65 Verbs which may be conjugated with either avoir or eĢtre Perfect tense 66 Formation 67 Perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Pluperfect tense 68 Formation 69 Pluperfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Future perfect tense vi 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 27 27 27 27 29 29 29 30 Contents 70 Formation 71 Future perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Conditional perfect tense 72 Formation 73 Conditional perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Past historic tense 74 Past historic 75 Past historic tense of Group 1 āer verbs 76 Examples of Group 1 āer verbs 77 Past historic tense of Group 2 āir verbs 78 Examples of Group 2 āir verbs 79 āir verbs Subgroup 4 80 āir verbs exceptions to Subgroup 2 and mourir 81 Past historic tense of Group 3 āre verbs 82 Group 3 āre verbs with past historic endings in āiā 83 Group 3 āre verbs with stem variation 84 Group 3 āre verbs with past historic endings in āuā 85 Past historic tense of Group 4 āoir verbs 86 Group 4 āoir verbs with past historic endings in āiā 87 Group 4 āoir verbs with past historic endings in āuā Past anterior tense 88 General comments 89 Formation 90 Examples of Group 1ā4 verbs Subjunctive mood Present subjunctive tense 91 Formation 92 Group 1 examples of the present subjunctive 93 Group 1 verb which diverges from the normal pattern ā aller 94 Group 2 examples of the present subjunctive 95 Group 3 examples of the present subjunctive 96 Group 3 verbs which diverge from the normal pattern 97 Group 4 examples of the present subjunctive 98 Group 4 verbs which diverge from the normal pattern Imperfect subjunctive tense 99 Formation and usage 100 Examples of the imperfect subjunctive Perfect and pluperfect subjunctive tenses 101 Formation 102 Examples of Group 1ā4 verbs Pronominal verbs 103 Pronominal verbs 104 Compound tenses 105 Agreement of past participles 106 The variable values of reflexive pronouns ā how to interpret the pronouns 107 Occasional difficulty in deciding whether the pronoun is direct or indirect object 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 42 43 43 43 44 44 46 vii Contents 108 The agreement in compound tenses of pronominal verbs with direct objects and those with indirect objects 109 Verbs that are always pronominal and those that are sometimes pronominal Voice 110 Active and passive voice 111 Restrictions on conversion from active to passive voice 112 Formation of the passive voice 113 Examples of the passive voice 114 Avoiding and using the passive voice Exercises Chapter 2 Verbs: 2 Using verbs Mood The imperative mood 115 The imperative 116 The restricted forms of the imperative 117 The forms of the imperative 118 Forming the imperative 119 Exceptions 120 Forming the imperative of pronominal verbs 121 Meaning of the imperative 122 Alternatives to the imperative 123 The imperative combined with object pronouns Indicative and subjunctive moods 124 The indicative and subjunctive moods and tenses Present tense 125 Uses ā 1: present moment; 2: habitual time; 3: universal time 126 4: marking continuous time 127 Other uses of the present tense ā 5: future; 6: past Past tenses 128 Past tenses Imperfect tense 129 Uses ā 1: duration; 2: interrupted time; 3: description; 4: repeated action Past historic tense 130 Uses Perfect tense 131 Uses ā 1: past affecting present; 2: past divorced from present Pluperfect tense 132 Uses Past anterior tense 133 Uses Double compound past tense 134 Uses Future tense 135 Uses ā 1: future; 2: attenuation of imperative viii 47 47 48 48 48 48 49 49 50 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 54 54 55 55 56 56 56 56 56 57 57 58 58 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 62 Contents 136 Other ways of referring to the future Future perfect tense 137 Use Conditional tense 138 Uses ā 1: conveying future in reported speech; 2: as corollary of conditional clause; 3: conjecture Conditional perfect tense 139 Uses ā 1: conveying future perfect in reported speech; 2: hypothesis; 3: conjecture 140 Differences in tense usage in French and English 141 Differences between French and English use of tenses ā 1: sequence of tenses 142 Differences between French and English use of tenses ā 2: depuis, il y a 143 Differences between French and English use of tenses ā 3: venir de Subjunctive mood 144 When to use the subjunctive 145 Use of tenses in the subjunctive 146 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive 147 Illustration of the sequence of tenses in the subjunctive Grammatical circumstances requiring the subjunctive 148 In clauses introduced by a conjunctive expression 149 In clauses depending upon a verb or expression conveying an emotion 150 In clauses depending upon a verb or expression conveying avoiding, chance, denial, evaluation, forbidding, (im)possibility, improbability, necessity, uncertainty 151 In relative clauses depending upon a superlative formed with plus or moins 152 In noun clauses introduced by le fait que or que alone 153 In clauses depending upon a range of indefinite expressions, equivalent to words in āever ā pronouns whoever, whatever, adjective whatever, adverbs however, wherever Grammatical circumstances where the subjunctive may be used 154 Optional subjunctive 155 In clauses depending upon a superlative not formed with plus or moins and upon such expressions as dernier, premier, seul 156 Other situations where the subjunctive is optional 157 Use with apreĢs que 158 Pluperfect subjunctive equivalent to conditional perfect Modal verbs 159 Definition of a modal verb 160 devoir 161 pouvoir 162 savoir 163 vouloir Impersonal verbs 164 Impersonal verbs Defective verbs 63 63 63 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 67 68 68 68 68 68 69 69 73 75 78 78 78 80 80 81 81 82 82 83 83 83 84 87 87 88 88 89 ix Contents 165 Defective verbs Exercises x 89 90 Chapter 3 Tabular treament of verbs 166 Order of presentation Indicative mood Group 1 āer verbs 167 Group 1 āer verbs Group 2 āir verbs 168 Group 2 āir verbs Group 3 āre verbs 169 Group 3 āre verbs Group 4 āoir verbs 170 Group 4 āoir verbs Subjunctive mood Group 1 āer verbs 171 Group 1 āer verbs Group 2 āir verbs 172 Group 2 āir verbs Group 3 āre verbs 173 Group 3 āre verbs Group 4 āoir verbs 174 Group 4 āoir verbs Exercises 92 92 93 93 93 96 96 98 98 103 103 106 106 106 109 109 111 111 115 115 117 Chapter 4 Verb list 175 Using the list 176 The list 119 119 119 Chapter 5 Nouns and adjectives Nouns 177 Nouns Gender 178 Gender 179 Assigning gender 180 Patterns for masculine gender 181 Patterns for feminine gender 182 Awkward cases of gender identity 183 Names of countries, towns and rivers 184 Homonyms 185 Nouns requiring special attention 186 Nouns designating people and animals 187 Gender of compound nouns Number 188 Count and mass nouns 189 Markers for forming the plural of nouns 190 Plural of compound nouns 191 Different usages of number in French and English 129 129 129 130 130 130 131 133 134 135 136 138 138 139 141 141 142 144 145 Contents 192 Contrast between singular and plural usage in French Adjectives 193 Adjectives 194 Adjectives and gender 195 Adjectives with a variable masculine form 196 Adjectives and number 197 Adjectives and agreement 198 Agreement of certain prepositional and adverbial expressions involving past participles 199 Comparison of adjectives ā comparative and superlative forms ā 1: comparative and superlative of inequality; 2: comparative of equality 200 Use of ne / le in clauses following a comparative 201 The more the merrier 202 The position of adjectives 203 Adjectives which change their meaning according to their position 204 Adjectives that may occur before or after the noun without change of meaning 205 Multiple adjectives Exercises Chapter 6 Pronouns 206 Pronouns Personal pronouns 207 Personal pronouns 208 The forms 209 Elision of certain pronouns 210 Position of pronouns ā 1: subject pronouns; 2: object pronouns 211 Order of object pronouns 212 Order of pronouns with the imperative 213 Position of pronouns with an infinitive and the presentatives voici and voilaĢ 214 Agreement of past participles with a preceding direct object 215 First person personal pronouns 216 Second person personal pronouns 217 Third person personal pronouns 218 Different usages in French and English 219 ce and il with reference to persons 220 Neuter subject pronouns 221 ce or il? 1 ā 1: when followed by an adjective; 2: followed by adjective + infinitive; 3: followed by adjective + clause; 222 Distinguishing il and ce: 2 223 The use of cāest to highlight a section of an utterance 224 Use of on 225 Agreement of adjectives and past participles with on 226 on and its other forms 227 Personal pronouns ā object 228 The various values of the reflexive pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous 229 le referring to a previously expressed concept 146 146 146 146 149 149 150 151 152 153 153 153 155 157 157 158 161 161 161 161 162 163 163 164 165 166 167 167 168 169 170 170 171 171 173 174 174 176 176 177 178 179 xi Contents xii 230 Dealing with the anticipatory it of English 231 Stressed personal pronouns: 1 232 Stressed personal pronouns: 2 233 Stressed personal pronouns: 3 234 en and y 235 en 236 y Demonstrative pronouns 237 Demonstrative pronouns 238 Examples of demonstrative pronouns 239 The neuter demonstrative pronouns ceci, cela, cĢ§a Possessive pronouns 240 Possessive pronouns 241 Examples of possessive pronouns Quantifying and indefinite pronouns 242 Quantifying pronouns 243 Examples of quantifying pronouns 244 la plupart 245 Indefinite pronouns and related expressions 246 Examples of indefinite expressions Exercises 179 180 181 182 182 182 184 185 185 186 187 188 188 188 189 189 189 190 190 191 191 Chapter 7 Determiners 247 Determiners The articles 248 The three articles 249 Forms of the three articles 250 Position of the articles 251 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā article in French where none is used in English: 1 252 Article in French where none is used in English: 2 253 Article in French where none is used in English: 3 254 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā no article in French where there is one in English 255 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā a different article in French from English 256 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā usage with titles 257 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā lists of nouns 258 Zero article 259 When des becomes de 260 More de ā use of indefinite and partitive articles with a negative expression 261 Repetition of article 262 Which article? 263 La nouvelle AtheĢnes 195 195 195 195 196 197 198 199 199 200 201 203 203 204 206 208 208 208 209 Contents 264 Key Demonstrative determiners 265 Demonstrative determiners ā demonstrative adjectives ā the forms 266 Examples of demonstrative adjectives Possessive determiners 267 Possessive determiners ā possessive adjectives 268 The son series 269 Possible ambiguity of meaning of son series 270 votre /vos 271 Examples of the other persons of the possessive adjectives Indefinite determiners 272 Indefinite determiners ā chaque, tout Exercises 209 210 210 211 212 212 213 214 215 215 217 217 218 Chapter 8 Prepositions 273 Prepositions 274 French prepositions Prepositions which link 275 Prepositions which link 276 Zero preposition 277 Examples of verb + zero preposition 278 faire, entendre, envoyer, laisser, regarder, sentir, voir aĢ 279 aĢ linking an adjective to a following infinitive 280 Examples of aĢ linking an adjective to a following infinitive 281 aĢ linking a noun to a following infinitive 282 Examples of aĢ linking a noun to a following infinitive 283 aĢ linking a verb to a following infinitive 284 Examples of aĢ linking a verb to a following infinitive 285 contraindre, forcer, obliger 286 aĢ linking a verb to a noun 287 Examples of aĢ linking a verb to a noun de 288 de linking an adjective to a following infinitive 289 Examples of de linking an adjective to a following infinitive 290 de linking a noun to a following infinitive 291 Examples of de linking a noun to a following infinitive 292 de linking a verb to a following infinitive 293 Examples of de linking a verb to a following infinitive 294 de linking a verb to a noun 295 Examples of de linking a verb to a noun 296 Verbs with direct object and de with a second noun 297 Examples of verbs with direct object and de with a second noun 298 Verbs involving aĢ with a noun and de with an infinitive 299 Examples of verbs involving aĢ with a noun and de with an infinitive 300 Verbs with variable prepositional usage 301 Examples of verbs with variable prepositional usage Prepositional expressions 221 221 221 221 221 222 222 223 224 224 224 225 225 225 226 227 227 228 228 228 229 229 229 230 231 231 232 232 233 233 234 234 234 242 xiii Contents 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 xiv Prepositional expressions aĢ aĢ indicating place aĢ indicating time aĢ indicating manner aĢ to mark responsibility aĢ expressing measurement aĢ expressing a compound phenomenon aĢ + infinitive aĢ cause de = because of aĢ condition de = subject to aĢ coĢteĢ de = next to, in comparison with afin de = in order to aĢ force de = by virtue of aĢ moins de = unless aĢ partir de = from apreĢs /dāapreĢs = after, according to, from aĢ travers = through au bout de = at the end of au cours de = during, in the course of au-delaĢ de = beyond, apart from au-dessous de = underneath, beneath, below au-dessus de = over, above au lieu de = instead of aupreĢs de = in relation to, in comparison with, among autour de = around, round, about avant = before (of time) avec = with chez = at the home of, among compris /y compris = including contre = against dans = in, from, during de de indicating possession de expressing place, origin de expressing the idea of containing, measurement de with expressions of quantity de expressing function, material de expressing time de indicating cause de expressing manner de introducing the attribute of a noun or pronoun de introducing an infinitive de forming expressions de crainte de /de peur de = for fear of de facĢ§on aĢ /de manieĢre aĢ = so as to depuis = since derrieĢre = behind 242 242 242 244 244 245 245 245 246 246 246 246 246 247 247 247 247 248 248 248 248 248 248 249 249 249 249 249 249 250 250 250 251 251 252 253 253 254 254 255 255 255 256 256 257 257 257 258 Contents 350 deĢs = from 351 devant = in front of, before, faced with 352 du coĢteĢ de = as for 353 du haut de = from the top of 354 durant = for, during 355 en 356 en expressing position 357 en expressing time 358 en with clothing, materials, containers 359 en with names of languages and countries 360 en in fixed expressions 361 en-dehors de = outside, apart from 362 en deĢpit de = in spite of 363 entre = between, among, through 364 envers = towards 365 environ = about 366 excepteĢ = except for, apart from 367 face aĢ = opposite, facing 368 graĢce aĢ = thanks to 369 hors de = out of 370 jusquāaĢ = as far as, until 371 le long de = along 372 lors de = during, at the time of 373 malgreĢ = in spite of 374 par = through, by, per, on, in 375 par-dessous = underneath 376 par-dessus = over 377 parmi = among 378 par suite de = as a result of 379 pendant = for, during 380 pour = for 381 preĢs de = close to, near 382 quant aĢ = as for 383 sans = without 384 sauf = except for, apart from 385 selon = according to 386 sous = underneath, beneath 387 suivant = following 388 sur = on, over, about 389 vers = to, towards, about 390 Slight shifts in meaning brought out by varying the prepositions 391 Prepositional alternation 392 The interlocking of French and English prepositions 393 Prepositions with place names Exercises 258 258 259 259 259 259 260 260 261 262 262 264 264 264 265 265 265 265 265 266 266 266 266 266 266 267 268 268 268 268 268 269 269 269 270 270 270 270 270 271 272 276 277 278 282 Chapter 9 Adverbs and adverbial expressions 394 The role of adverbs 285 285 xv Contents xvi 395 Formation of adverbs 396 Meaning of adverbs 397 Position of adverbs 398 Adverbs of manner 399 Examples of adverbs of manner 400 Adverbs of place 401 Examples of adverbs of place 402 Adverbs of time 403 Comments on certain adverbs of time 404 Examples of adverbs of time 405 Adverbs of degree 406 Comments on certain adverbs of degree 407 Examples of adverbs of degree 408 assez, autant, beaucoup, bien, tant, tellement, trop 409 Comparative and superlative forms of adverbs 410 Adverbs of affirmation, negation and doubt 411 Examples of adverbs of affirmation, negation and doubt 412 Interrogative adverbs 413 Adverbs as connectors 414 Examples of connectors Exercises 285 289 289 291 293 294 295 295 297 298 298 299 300 301 301 303 304 305 305 306 307 Chapter 10 Negation 415 Negation + verb 416 ne + negative particle ā ne . . . pas = not 417 ne alone 418 ne . . . personne = no one, not anyone 419 ne . . . rien = nothing, not anything 420 ne . . . aucun = no, none 421 ne . . . nul = no, no one 422 ne . . . gueĢre = hardly, scarcely 423 ne . . . jamais = never 424 ne . . . plus = no longer, not any more 425 ne . . . que = only 426 ne . . . (pas) . . . ni . . . ni = neither . . . nor, not . . . or, not . . . either . . . or 427 pas alone = not 428 non = no, not 429 . . . pas non plus = neither, not . . . either, nor 430 Multiple negators 431 Omission of ne Exercises 309 309 309 313 314 315 317 317 318 318 319 320 320 321 322 322 323 323 324 Chapter 11 Numerals 432 Cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers 433 Cardinal numbers 434 Use of et and hyphens with cardinal numbers 435 Pronunciation matters 436 When to use figures to express cardinal numbers 326 326 326 329 330 330 Contents 437 Approximate numbers 438 Fractions and decimals 439 Ordinal numbers 440 Telling the time 441 Dates 442 Miscellaneous matters Exercises 331 332 333 334 336 337 338 Chapter 12 Sentences and clauses Sentences 443 Sentences 444 Sentence types Sentence structure 445 Sentence structure Minor sentences and major sentences 446 Minor sentences 447 Major sentences 448 Simple sentences 449 Compound sentences 450 Complex sentences 451 Compound-complex sentences 452 Coordinating conjunctions Clauses 453 Clauses 454 Clause types 455 Types of subordinate clauses 456 Causal clauses 457 Concessive clauses 458 Conditional clauses 459 Consecutive clauses 460 Final clauses 461 Manner clauses 462 Noun clauses 463 Highlighting with cāest 464 Relative clauses 465 Time clauses 466 Declarative clauses 467 Word order in declarative clauses 468 Inversion in declarative clauses 469 Highlighting Interrogative sentences 470 Interrogative sentences oui ā non questions 471 oui ā non questions 472 oui ā non questions ā 1: those involving inversion of the subject and the verb 473 oui ā non questions ā 2: those involving est-ce que + direct order of the subject and verb 339 339 339 340 341 341 341 341 342 343 343 344 345 345 347 347 348 349 349 350 351 353 354 355 355 356 357 360 363 364 366 368 368 368 369 369 369 371 xvii Contents xviii 474 oui ā non questions ā 3: those involving intonation only 475 Elliptical oui ā non questions Questions introduced by question words 476 Questions introduced by question words 477 Question words ā pronouns 478 Question words ā adjectives 479 Question words ā adverbs 480 Elliptical questions without a question word but suggesting one 481 Indirect questions 482 Rhetorical questions Exclamative sentences 483 Exclamative sentences Punctuation 484 Punctuation Exercises 371 372 372 372 373 376 376 377 378 379 380 380 381 381 384 Key to exercises Bibliography Index 387 406 407 Acknowledgements The following newspapers and magazines have provided and inspired the illustrative examples used throughout this book: Bien dans ma vie, Cosmopolitan, Elle, lāEĢquipe, Esprit femme, Femme actuelle, FHM, le Figaro, Glamour, Laura, Marianne, Marie Claire, Menās Health, Modes et travaux, le Monde, Monsieur, Optimum, PlaneĢte Foot, le Point, Solo, Sport et vie, TeĢleĢrama, Top SanteĢ, TriathleĢte, le VifāExpress, Vingt ans, Vital, Vivre. Her name should be Patience, but itās Judith and she has loyally and stalwartly supported me throughout the preparation of this book. Sincerest thanks to her and also to Helen Barton at Cambridge University Press, whose valuable advice, tendered in her gentle manner, ensured that the book didnāt become, like its author, too eccentric. xix Introduction Grammar is a word that all too often strikes terror and a sense of panic into the breasts of modern language students. Grammar presents a cold, clinical, unemotional exterior ā not exciting, straightforward and vibrant like vocabulary, especially when the latter tends towards the informal and slang. The mortar of language (grammar) is never so interesting as the bricks (vocabulary). Grammar is often seen as an obstacle to free expression ā it makes you linger and dither over whether to use one preposition rather than another, whether an agreement is required or not ā whereas you would rather press on, get your meaning across, communicate. Anything that impedes or slows down that expression is annoying and needs to be dealt with as soon as possible, or even ignored. But bricks without mortar are ugly and lack style, are in danger of collapsing and not fulfilling the purpose for which they were erected in the first place. What can we do about it? First of all, thereās no avoiding it ā we need a grammar book. Itās no good sticking your head in the sand ā mortar is essential, the right consistency, the right thickness for maximum effect and to perform its job efficiently and discreetly. Secondly, we need a grammar book that is easy to use, that helps us identify our problems, that has a very clear and easily accessible index, that guides us to the right solution for us and explains what we need to know, expressed in language we can understand. Thirdly, when we get to the point where the explanation is, we need illustrations that are drawn from the world we live in ā not taken from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, not taken from the greatest authors, whose French we cannot ever hope to emulate; not boring examples that have been concocted to illustrate the point but donāt connect with our world. We need examples that make us want to read on, that entertain us, that make us smile, that might even inform us on issues that are of interest to us, that make us look seriously at the way in which they are expressed ā because theyāre cool. We donāt want fuddy-duddy examples about the price of oranges (at least not too many), about who will bring the suitcases down, about (not) doing your homework, examples that suck. We want real, living examples ā examples that are authentic, that express our reality ā about relationships, sport, contemporary entertainment, fashion, social behaviour, weight-control and ā another word that strikes terror into the breast of students, but not just the breast of students, it must be said ā sex, and related matters: in short about daily living in the twenty-first century. Fourthly, we need a means of making sure that we have assimilated the grammatical points being illustrated. This Student Grammar of French is aimed at meeting all those needs. It is conceived in such a way that no section is overwhelmingly long, that excessively technical language is avoided, that the index is straightforward and contains references to all the points contained in the book, and that the illustrative examples are worth a read in their own right and may inspire you to imitate their phraseology as well as take note of the grammatical point being illustrated. Since the vocabulary used in the examples is completely up-to-date, itās worth learning the contemporary words as well as noting how the examples work. It has to be admitted that some of the translations have been held back from being completely free, and thus more typically English, in order to allow the grammatical point under 1 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR consideration to be seized more clearly ā a more fluent translation might obscure the grammatical point. A simple but effective way of helping to ensure that the grammatical point is understood and is becoming part of your personal grammatical apparatus is to test yourself with the exercises provided at the end of each chapter, exercises that use similar material to that contained in the examples in the text itself. These exercises are designed to consolidate your grammatical knowledge and perhaps increase your sociological and cultural awareness. Mortar can be fun and the result of using it effectively and skilfully very satisfying ā ask a bricklayer! This grammar book has been designed according to the following plan. The first four chapters are devoted to verbs ā verbs are absolutely essential to self-expression, they are the motors of speech; consequently it seems logical to place examination of them at the beginning of the book. The first chapter provides the forms that need to be acquired in order to be able to manipulate the verbs effectively. The second chapter shows how the verbs are used, especially the different tenses, and the third chapter introduces a large number of tables giving the full conjugations of the major verb groups, followed in the next chapter by a list of verbs that do not belong to the first, most common group of verbs (those ending in āer), and showing how these verbs relate to verbs illustrated previously. The fifth chapter deals with nouns and adjectives and concentrates upon the themes of gender and number (how to form plurals in particular). The sixth chapter examines the area of pronouns ā personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns and indefinite and quantifying pronouns. The next chapter examines the tricky area of determiners ā the definite, indefinite, partitive and zero (what?!) articles, and demonstrative and possessive adjectives. Even more tricky is the topic of prepositions and these are fully treated in chapter 8 ā though they are often extremely small words and you often glide over them without thinking about them, prepositions as linking words have a very important role to play in the unrolling of speech; this is a long chapter which attempts to cover all those environments where prepositions occur. The ninth chapter is devoted to adverbs and adverbial expressions ā these lend more detail and precision to our speech and require skilful handling. Everything has been positive up to this stage ā with the tenth chapter we enter the realm of negation, how to deny, refuse, cancel ā very important in an age where science and technology are creating products which replace and supersede previously current products. The next chapter, the shortest, looks at numerals, which the speaker needs to be able to handle accurately ā otherwise misunderstandings and more serious problems may ensue. The last chapter on sentences and clauses shows how all that has been learnt and hopefully assimilated in earlier chapters builds up into sophisticated language, making communication exciting, rewarding and challenging. The purpose of this chapter ā and indeed of the book as a whole ā is to allow us to express our thoughts, hopes and ideals in appropriate, well-formed, clear sentences, showing us to be intelligent and valuable members of society. Just as there are many varieties of English, of which you are no doubt fully aware, so there are many varieties of French. Some are geographically based ā the French of Paris differs in some ways from the French of the north-east of the country and from that of the south-west, and more so from the French of Belgium, Canada and francophone Africa. Others are based on age ā youth-speak and wrinkly-speak differ considerably ā still others on gender ā males and females have different speech habits from time to time. However, the most important area of variety is that of formality ā we speak formally, very 2 Introduction formally, in certain circumstances, much less so in others. This grammar book takes as its basis the variety of French that oscillates between standard French ā the French used for news broadcasts and in good-quality newspapers and magazines ā and the upper end of informal French ā that is to say French that is dynamic, fairly but not excessively relaxed, used amongst reasonably well-educated speakers, and at the cutting edge of linguistic development. The book avoids on the one hand the more starchy realms of literary, highly intellectual French, and on the other the cruder, often-grammar-disregarding depths of slang and vulgar French. The variety selected is one which is current among educated French-speakers, one with which it is hoped you will feel comfortable and which will serve your needs in an appropriate way. 3 Chapter 1 Verbs: 1 1 Introduction In this first chapter, devoted to verbs, we examine the ways in which verbs are formed in French and the factors that have to be borne in mind when we are considering our choice of form. The forms are chosen according to the role that the verbs play as they fit into sentences. We shall see that the form has to be adjusted according to who or what is the subject of the verb (known as the person), the time when the event or state indicated by the meaning of the verb occurs (the tense) and the syntactic circumstances in which the verb occurs. To provide us with some technical terminology and a general framework in which to work, the following questions are answered ā what is a verb? (see 2), what do the terms infinitive (see 4), mood (see 6), person (see 5), tense (see 7) mean? 2 Verbs The verb is often the pivotal element of a sentence. Indeed mention of a verb is regularly included in the definition of a sentence or clause ā but see 445, 449. The typical purpose of a verb is to indicate how a state, action or process takes place during time and to provide information about it. 3 Treatment of verbs Verbs are so vital to communication ā they provide information especially about the subject (whether it is a question of singular or plural, first, second or third person), about the time when the speech-event takes place (past, present, future) ā that they need to be given extensive treatment. The verbs are discussed from three perspectives ā 1 a discursive treatment, showing how verbs may be grouped together and the relations that exist between them: see 4ā165; 2 a tabular treatment showing how individual verbs and their derivatives (related verbs) are conjugated ā that is how the verbsā endings are adjusted or how other modifications are made to the verbs in order to indicate their role in sentences: see 166ā174; 3 a list of verbs, provided after the tabular treatment ā this contains 1: the verbs discussed in the two preceding groupings; and 2: the most frequently encountered verbs not discussed in those sections ā see 175ā176; it does not include what are known as perfectly regular verbs ending in āer ā see 15. 4 6 Mood 1.1 DISCURSIVE TREATMENT OF VERBS Infinitives 4 Infinitives When we learn a new verb, we usually learn it in the infinitive form. This form is the one dictionaries use to record verbs: the dictionary uses the infinitive as the headword for the verb. An infinitive consists of two parts, the stem, which tells us the meaning of the verb, and the ending ā see 11. When a verb is conjugated, the stem remains more or less constant, but the ending varies according to how it is used in the sentence, depending upon the person it refers to, the time the event takes place and the syntactic circumstances involved. The expression āsyntactic circumstancesā refers to whether the verb occurs in a main or a subordinate clause and what type of conjunction introduces the subordinate clause. These matters are discussed in 10, 11, 115ā165. Infinitives are discussed in more detail in 10 and 11. Person 5 Person Six persons are available for selection as subject of the verb ā je = I tu = you ļ£¼ il = he/it ļ£½ elle = she ļ£¾ on = one nous = we vous = you ils = they elles = they first person singular second person singular third person singular first person plural second person plural (also used to indicate a single person in a polite manner) third person plural The pronouns are discussed in more detail in 206ā236. Mood 6 Mood Although there is controversy amongst grammar books as to what to include under the heading āmoodā, it is generally agreed that mood indicates the degree of certainty with which something is said, and that there are at least three moods in French ā the indicative, which is the mood used in normal circumstances the imperative, used to express a command 5 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR the subjunctive, often dependent upon particular syntactic circumstances and normally used to express something which is lacking in certainty. The imperative mood is discussed in 115ā123, 212. As far as the other two moods are concerned, the choice as to which to use in a given circumstance is usually quite straightforward. However, as will be seen in 156ā158, there are occasions where the choice is not so easy to make. What is certain is that in the vast majority of cases, it is the indicative mood that is used; the indicative can be called the ādefaultā mood. However, at times syntactic circumstances dictate that the subjunctive mood be used. The simplest way of determining which mood to use is to list those circumstances in which the subjunctive mood is required, since they are much fewer in number than those requiring the indicative, and to assume that in all other circumstances the indicative is to be used. These circumstances are listed in 144ā158. The situation in French is different from that in English, since in English the subjunctive is so rare as to be virtually non-existent in ordinary speech and writing; when used, it tends to sound somewhat pompous, eg The judge insisted that the accused leave the courtroom. The tenses associated with each mood are listed in 15ā102. Tense 7 Tense It is the role of the tense of the verb to tell us the time when an event takes place in relation to the present moment. Some events take place in the past, others in the present; others are projected into the future. The various uses of verb tenses are discussed in 125ā147. 8 Tenses To create some tenses the form of the verb itself is adjusted. Using the verb donner = to give as a template, the following tenses fall under this heading ā the present tense ā je donne = I give the imperfect ā je donnais = I was giving the past historic ā je donnai = I gave the future ā je donnerai = I will give the conditional ā je donnerais = I would give To create other tenses, what is called an auxiliary verb ā avoir = to have or eĢtre = to be ā is added to the past participle ā the perfect ā jāai donneĢ = I have given the pluperfect ā jāavais donneĢ = I had given 6 12 Subgroups the future perfect ā jāaurai donneĢ = I will have given the conditional perfect ā jāaurais donneĢ = I would have given All this will be explained in full detail below. 9 Presentation of tenses A word of warning ā although many French verbs are regular in their conjugations, we still have to learn them. Others are renowned for their irregularities, and we have to make even more of an effort to memorise them. Life is made somewhat easier if we remember that the verbs often belong to groups and subgroups; that is to say, verbs that are conjugated in similar ways may be grouped together for convenience of learning. So, if we can remember which verbs are in which groups and subgroups, there is slightly less learning to do! A list of other verbs belonging to the various subgroups discussed here is provided in Chapter 4. 10 Infinitives and conjugations Verbs are organised into four major groups or conjugations according to the ending of the infinitive. All verbs belong to one of these, and it is of vital importance that we are able to recognise which group or conjugation the verb concerned belongs to, and how to form correctly the various parts of its paradigm ā the collection of forms which a particular verb can adopt in any circumstances. 11 Infinitive endings for the four groups Group 1 verbs end in āer ā eg aller = to go, danser = to dance, penser = to think, sembler = to seem Group 2 verbs end in āir ā eg courir = to run, finir = to finish, jouir = to enjoy, partir = to leave Group 3 verbs end in āre ā eg faire = to do, mettre = to put, plaire = to please, vendre = to sell Group 4 verbs end in āoir ā eg devoir = to have to, pouvoir = to be able to, recevoir = to receive, voir = to see 12 Subgroups For each group of verbs, there are subgroups (in other grammar books often called āexceptionsā or āirregular verbsā). These will be recorded after the standard conjugations have been presented. It should be noted that, as a general rule, in these subgroups, as far as the present tense is concerned, the first two persons of the plural tend to maintain the stem of the infinitive, whereas the three persons of the singular and the third person plural have distinctive but related forms. Taking pouvoir as an example ā pouvoir nous pouvons, vous pouvez but je peux, tu peux, il / elle peut, ils / elles peuvent 7 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 13 Group 1 āer verbs, Group 2 āir verbs, Group 3 āre verbs, Group 4 āoir verbs Group 1 āer verbs This is the most numerous conjugation, and all newly created verbs belong to this group. Most of the verbs belonging to this group form their tenses regularly. A few show minor irregularities and may be gathered together into subgroups. One verb ā aller = to go ā shows major departures from the norm. Group 2 āir verbs The verbs belonging to this group may be divided into a number of subgroups. A major distinction is to be made between those verbs which add āissā between the stem and the ending in certain tenses and persons ā subgroup 1 ā and those which do not ā subgroup 2 ā subgroup 1 finir = to finish ā nous finissons jouir = to enjoy ā je jouissais subgroup 2 ā courir = to run ā je courais partir = to leave ā nous partons Group 3 āre verbs and Group 4 āoir verbs The verbs in these groups often form small subgroups, but there are also a number of verbs which are complete one-offs, especially in Group 4. 14 The formation of tenses ā simple and compound tenses Normally, certain endings need to be added to the stem of the verb. Very occasionally the ending is subsumed into the stem, eg il part ā third person singular of partir The stem is the element preceding the āer/āir/āre ending of the infinitive of Groups 1 to 3 ā eg port ā from porter, fin ā from finir, vend ā from vendre Identifying the stem is more of a problem with Group 4 verbs. Simple and compound tenses Tenses are of two types ā simple and compound. Simple tenses ā here it is the form of the verb itself that varies ā eg for donner present tense je donne, imperfect tense je donnais, future tense je donnerai Compound tenses ā here an auxiliary verb, either avoir or eĢtre, is combined with the past participle of the verb ā eg perfect tense jāai donneĢ, pluperfect tense jāeĢtais venu 8 18 āer verbs Subgroup 1 The tenses will be treated in the following order ā Simple tenses: present, imperfect, future, conditional; Compound tenses: perfect, pluperfect, future perfect, conditional perfect. The past historic (simple) and past anterior (compound) are treated last as they are relatively rare. It should be pointed out that, on a number of occasions, it is the spelling rather than the pronunciation that is affected. Precision and accuracy of spelling are very important in written French; spoken French does not need to reveal how certain forms are spelt! ā so more latitude is permissible there. However, this grammar book is designed to promote orthographical accuracy. 1.2 INDICATIVE MOOD Present tense 15 Group 1 āer Verbs 16 Present tense of Group 1 āer verbs The endings for the typical Group 1 āer verb porter = to carry are added to the stem portā singular first person portāe second person portāes third person portāe plural portāons portāez portāent 17 Subgroups There are a few verbs that show slight changes in their stems in the three persons of the singular and the third person plural. This also applies to the future and conditional tenses of those verbs in all persons, singular and plural. Aller is an āer verb that shows major deviations from the norm. For further details see the appropriate sections below. 18 āer verbs Subgroup 1 Verbs ending in āeler and āeter: there are two possibilities ā 1 some verbs double the final consonant of the stem in the persons mentioned above; 2 others change the unstressed e of the stem to eĢ. Examples of Subgroup 1 1 doubling the final consonant of the stem in singular and third person plural ā appeler = to call jāappelle, tu appelles, il/elle/on appelle, ils/elles appellent 9 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR but nous appelons, vous appelez jeter = to throw je jette, tu jettes, il/elle/on jette, ils/elles jettent but nous jetons, vous jetez 2 changing āeā of stem to āeĢā acheter = to buy jāacheĢte, tu acheĢtes, il/elle/on acheĢte, ils/elles acheĢtent but nous achetons, vous achetez 19 āer verbs Subgroup 2 Verbs, with āeā (apart from those in Subgroup 1) or āeĢā as the final vowel of the stem ā the āeā or āeĢā is changed to āeĢā in the persons mentioned above. Examples of Subgroup 2 mener = to lead je meĢne, tu meĢnes, il/elle/on meĢne, ils/elles meĢnent but nous menons, vous menez espeĢrer = to hope jāespeĢre, tu espeĢres, il/elle/on espeĢre, ils/elles espeĢrent but nous espeĢrons, vous espeĢrez 20 āer verbs Subgroup 3 Verbs with ācā, āgā occurring immediately before the ending ā the /s/, / / sounds are retained by changing ācā to ācĢ§ā or adding an āeā after the āgā respectively in the first person plural of the present tense (and also in other tenses before a (in imperfect and past historic) or u (in past historic) with certain subgroups); ācĢ§ā (= s-sound rather than a k-sound) is used in the spelling of these words to reflect the fact that the pronunciation of the ācā remains the same. For further details see 44, 76. Examples of Subgroup 3 commencer = to begin je commence but nous commencĢ§ons (also je commencĢ§ai, commencĢ§ais) manger = to eat je mange but nous mangeons (also je mangeai, mangeais) 21 āer verbs Subgroup 4 Aller = to go constitutes a major departure from the norms of the āer conjugation, not only in the present tense but also in the future and conditional. The same forms are affected as for subgroups 1 and 2. 10 25 āir verbs Subgroup 2 aller je vais, tu vas, il/elle/on va, ils/elles vont but nous allons, vous allez sāen aller = to go away is conjugated in the same way. 22 Group 2 āir Verbs 23 Present tense of Group 2 āir verbs We need to draw a distinction between those āir verbs that insert āissā between stem and ending with certain persons ā Subgroup 1, by far the most numerous subgroup ā and those that do not ā the other subgroups. 24 āir verbs Subgroup 1 The endings for the typical āir verb finir = to finish are added to the stem finā for the three persons singular, and to the stem plus āissā for the three persons plural ā singular first person fināis second person fināis third person fināit plural fināissons fināissez fināissent 25 āir verbs Subgroup 2 The endings for a typical āir verb, without āissā in the plural, are added to the stem. The treatment of the final consonant of the stem should be noted ā 1 when the stem ends in ārā, the ārā is retained throughout the paradigm 2 when the stem ends in ātā, the ātā does not appear in the written form of the first two persons singular 3 when the stem ends in another consonant, the consonant does not appear in the singular but reappears in the plural. Examples of Subgroup 2 1 courir = to run singular first person courās second person courās third person courāt plural courāons courāez courāent 2 partir = to leave je pars, tu pars, il/elle/on part nous partons, vous partez, ils/elles partent 3 dormir = to sleep je dors, tu dors, il/elle/on dort nous dormons, vous dormez, ils/elles dorment 11 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 26 āir verbs Subgroup 3 Certain verbs whose infinitive ends in āir are in fact conjugated like Group 1 āer verbs. Example of Subgroup 3 cueillir = to gather je cueille, tu cueilles, il/elle/on cueille, nous cueillons, vous cueillez, ils/elles cueillent 27 āir verbs Subgroup 4 Tenir = to hold and venir = to come and their derivatives form a subgroup with an irregular present tense. The two persons of the plural are formed like Subgroup 2 āir verbs, but it is the other persons that give this subgroup its particularity. Example of Subgroup 4 venir je viens, tu viens, il/elle/on vient, ils/elles viennent but nous venons, vous venez 28 āir verb mourir = to die Mourir is the most irregular of the āir verbs. je meurs, tu meurs, il/elle/on meurt, nous mourons, vous mourez, ils/elles meurent 29 Group 3 āre Verbs 30 Present tense of Group 3 āre verbs Group 3 āre verbs involve a number of subgroups, some of which differ only slightly from each other, others of which are much more radical in their deviations. The endings for the present tense of most āre verbs follow a regular pattern for most persons except the third person singular, where either the stem only occurs or a final -t is added. singular first person ās second person ās third person stem only or āt plural āons āez āent 31 āre verbs Subgroup 1 Subgroup 1 involves the use of the stem only in the third person singular. This subgroup includes verbs ending in āandre, āendre (except prendre = to take and derivatives), āerdre, āondre, āordre. 12 33 āre verbs Subgroup 3 Examples of Subgroup 1 vendre = to sell je vends, tu vends, il/elle/on vend, nous vendons, vous vendez, ils/elles vendent perdre = to lose je perds, tu perds, il/elle/on perd, nous perdons, vous perdez, ils/elles perdent reĢpondre = to reply je reĢponds, tu reĢponds, il/elle/on reĢpond, nous reĢpondons, vous reĢpondez, ils/elles reĢpondent 32 āre verbs Subgroup 2 The only difference between this subgroup and Subgroup 1 is that āt is added to the stem of the verb for the third person singular. This subgroup includes verbs ending in āompre, and conclure = to conclude, rire = to laugh and derivatives. Examples of Subgroup 2 rompre = to break je romps, tu romps, il/elle/on rompt, nous rompons, vous rompez, ils/elles rompent rire je ris, tu ris, il/elle/on rit, nous rions, vous riez, ils/elles rient conclure je conclus, tu conclus, il/elle/on conclut, nous concluons, vous concluez, ils/elles concluent 33 āre verbs Subgroup 3 Battre = to beat, mettre = to put and derivatives subgroup: this subgroup is distinctive in that a single ātā (instead of the double āttā that might be supposed) occurs in the singular. Examples of Subgroup 3 battre je bats, tu bats, il/elle/on bat, nous battons, vous battez, ils/elles battent mettre je mets, tu mets, il/elle/on met, nous mettons, vous mettez, ils/elles mettent 13 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 34 āre verbs Subgroup 4 Croire = to believe subgroup: this subgroup involves the addition of a āt for the third person singular, and āiā becomes āyā in the first and second persons plural. Example of Subgroup 4 croire je crois, tu crois, il/elle/on croit, nous croyons, vous croyez, ils croient 35 āre verbs Subgroup 5 Lire = to read and conduire = to drive subgroup: this subgroup involves the addition of a āt for the third person singular and of an āsā to the stem in all three persons of the plural. Examples of Subgroup 5 lire je lis, tu lis, il/elle/on lit, nous lisons, vous lisez, ils/elles lisent conduire je conduis, tu conduis, il/elle/on conduit, nous conduisons, vous conduisez, il/elles conduisent 36 āre verbs Subgroup 6 EĢcrire = to write subgroup: this subgroup involves the addition of a āt for the third person singular and of a āvā to the stem in all three persons of the plural. Example of Subgroup 6 eĢcrire jāeĢcris, tu eĢcris, il/elle/on eĢcrit, nous eĢcrivons, vous eĢcrivez, ils/elles eĢcrivent 37 āre verbs Subgroup 7 This subgroup contains a series of common verbs which are very irregular in formation, and each of which has a distinctive conjugation for the present tense. Examples of Subgroup 7 boire = to drink je bois, tu bois, il/elle/on boit, nous buvons, vous buvez, ils/elles boivent craindre = to fear je crains, tu crains, il/elle/on craint, nous craignons, vous craignez, ils/elles craignent dire = to say je dis, tu dis, il/elle/on dit, nous disons, vous dites, ils/elles disent faire = to do 14 42 āoir verbs Subgroup 3 je fais, tu fais, il/elle/on fait, nous faisons, vous faites, ils/elles font prendre = to take je prends, tu prends, il/elle/on prend, nous prenons, vous prenez, ils/elles prennent vivre = to live je vis, tu vis, il/elle/on vit, nous vivons, vous vivez, ils/elles vivent and the supreme irregular āre verb eĢtre = to be je suis, tu es, il/elle/on est, nous sommes, vous eĢtes, ils/elles sont 38 Group 4 āoir Verbs 39 Present tense of Group 4 āoir verbs Even more so than with Group 3 āre verbs, stem alterations and the existence of small subgroups are extremely common in this group. Normally the first and second persons plural forms reflect the infinitive; the other forms are more distant from the original stem. 40 āoir verbs Subgroup 1 ācevoir subgroup: a number of stem alterations occur and ācā becomes ācĢ§ā before āoā (compare 20, 44, 75). Example of Subgroup 1 recevoir = to receive je recĢ§ois, tu recĢ§ois, il/elle/on recĢ§oit, nous recevons, vous recevez, ils/elles recĢ§oivent 41 āoir verbs Subgroup 2 Voir = to see and its derivatives subgroup: āiā becomes āyā in first and second persons plural. For other verbs in āvoir see Subgroups 1 and 3. Example of Subgroup 2 voir je vois, tu vois, il/elle/on voit, nous voyons, vous voyez, ils/elles voient 42 āoir verbs Subgroup 3 As with Subgroup 7 of āre verbs, this subgroup contains a series of verbs that are very irregular in formation, and each of which has a distinctive conjugation for the present tense. The majority are very common. Examples of Subgroup 3 asseoir = to sit ā this verb (normally pronominal) has two conjugations for the present tense, the first of which is the more commonly used ā 15 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 1 je māassieds, tu tāassieds, il/elle/on sāassied, nous nous asseyons, vous vous asseyez, ils/elles sāasseyent 2 je māassois, tu tāassois, il/elle/on sāassoit, nous nous assoyons, vous vous assoyez, ils/elles sāassoient avoir = to have jāai, tu as, il/elle/on a, nous avons, vous avez, ils/elles ont devoir = to have to je dois, tu dois, il/elle/on doit, nous devons, vous devez, ils/elles doivent falloir = to be necessary ā an impersonal verb used only in the third person singular ā il faut pleuvoir = to rain ā an impersonal verb used only in the third person singular ā il pleut pouvoir = to be able to je peux (puis-je is used in the interrogative ā see 161), tu peux, il/elle/on peut, nous pouvons, vous pouvez, ils/elles peuvent savoir = to know je sais, tu sais, il/elle/on sait, nous savons, vous savez, ils/elles savent valoir = to be worth je vaux, tu vaux, il/elle/on vaut, nous valons, vous valez, ils/elles valent vouloir = to want je veux, tu veux, il/elle/on veut, nous voulons, vous voulez, ils/elles veulent Imperfect tense 43 Using and forming the imperfect tense Usage As will be explained in 129, the imperfect tense has a number of functions ā mainly to indicate the passage of time or the repetition of an action or event in the past. In all cases, except eĢtre, the imperfect tense is formed by taking the first person plural form of the verb, and replacing the āons ending by the appropriate imperfect ending. Endings The endings for all verbs without exception are 16 44 Examples of the imperfect tense Groups 1ā4 singular āais āais āait plural āions āiez āaient 44 Examples of the imperfect tense Groups 1ā4 Group 1 porter je portais, tu portais, il/elle/on portait, nous portions, vous portiez, ils/elles portaient commencer je commencĢ§ais, tu commencĢ§ais, il/elle/on commencĢ§ait, nous commencions, vous commenciez, ils/elles commencĢ§aient manger je mangeais, tu mangeais, il/elle/on mangeait, nous mangions, vous mangiez, ils/elles mangeaient aller jāallais, tu allais, il/elle/on allait, nous allions, vous alliez, ils/elles allaient Group 2 finir je finissais, tu finissais, il/elle/on finissait, nous finissions, vous finissiez, ils/elles finissaient partir je partais, tu partais, il/elle/on partait, nous partions, vous partiez, ils/elles partaient Group 3 vendre je vendais, tu vendais, il/elle/on vendait, nous vendions, vous vendiez, ils/elles vendaient eĢtre jāeĢtais, tu eĢtais, il/elle/on eĢtait, nous eĢtions, vous eĢtiez, ils/elles eĢtaient Group 4 recevoir je recevais, tu recevais, il/elle/on recevait, nous recevions, vous receviez, ils/elles recevaient 17 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR voir je voyais, tu voyais, il/elle/on voyait, nous voyions, vous voyiez, ils/elles voyaient pouvoir je pouvais, tu pouvais, il/elle/on pouvait, nous pouvions, vous pouviez, ils/elles pouvaient avoir jāavais, tu avais, il/elle/on avait, nous avions, vous aviez, ils/elles avaient Future and conditional tenses 45 Using the future and conditional tenses Because these two tenses are formed in a very similar way, it is convenient to treat them together. Usage As will be explained in 135, 138, the future tense refers to events that have yet to take place, the conditional to āthe future in the pastā and to express doubt or probability. 46 Endings of future and conditional tenses In the majority of cases, forming the future and conditional tenses is a relatively simple matter. For all Group 1 āer verbs (except aller and envoyer ā see 49), the following endings are added to the stem. However, the stem undergoes variation in a few cases ā see 48. Future tense singular plural āerai āerons āeras āerez āera āeront Conditional tense singular plural āerais āerions āerais āeriez āerait āeraient For all Group 2 āir verbs (except cueillir ā see 51), the following endings are added to the stem ā Future tense singular āirai āiras āira plural āirons āirez āiront Conditional tense singular plural āirais āirions āirais āiriez āirait āiraient For Group 3 āre verbs, the following endings are added to the stem. All the subgroups form their future and conditional tenses in the same way, with the exception of eĢtre and faire ā see 54. 18 48 Stem changes of Group 1 āer verbs Future tense singular ārai āras āra plural ārons ārez āront Conditional tense singular plural ārais ārions ārais āriez ārait āraient For Group 4 āoir verbs, the situation is, inevitably, more complex. The endings are the same as for Group 3 āre verbs, but it is the stem that needs to be noted. 47 Examples of future and conditional tenses of Group 1 āer verbs Future tense singular je porterai tu porteras il/elle/on portera plural nous porterons vous porterez ils/elles porteront Conditional tense singular plural je porterais nous porterions tu porterais vous porteriez il/elle/on ils/elles porterait porteraient 48 Stem changes of Group 1 āer verbs Subgroup 1 Verbs ending in āeler and āeter 1 some double the final consonant of the stem in all persons of the singular and the plural; 2 others change the unstressed e of the stem to eĢ. Examples appeler future jāappellerai, tu appelleras, il/elle/on appellera, nous appellerons, vous appellerez, ils/elles appelleront conditional jāappellerais, tu appellerais, il/elle/on appellerait, nous appellerions, vous appelleriez, ils/elles appelleraient jeter future je jetterai, tu jetteras, il/elle/on jettera, nous jetterons, vous jetterez, ils/elles jetteront conditional je jetterais, tu jetterais, il/elle/on jetterait, nous jetterions, vous jetteriez, ils/elles jetteraient 19 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR acheter future jāacheĢterai, tu acheĢteras, il/elle/on acheĢtera, nous acheĢterons, vous acheĢterez, ils/elles acheĢteront conditional jāacheĢterais, tu acheĢterais, il/elle/on acheĢterait, nous acheĢterions, vous acheĢteriez, ils/elles acheĢteraient Subgroup 2 Verbs with āeā as final vowel of stem ā the āeā becomes āeĢā throughout both tenses. Example mener future je meĢnerai, tu meĢneras, il/elle/on meĢnera, nous meĢnerons, vous meĢnerez, ils/elles meĢneront conditional je meĢnerais, tu meĢnerais, il/elle/on meĢnerait, nous meĢnerions, vous meĢneriez, ils/elles meĢneraient However, verbs with āeĢā as final vowel of stem retain āeĢā: espeĢrer future jāespeĢrerai, tu espeĢreras, il/elle/on espeĢrera, nous espeĢrerons, vous espeĢrerez, ils/elles espeĢreront conditional jāespeĢrerais, tu espeĢrerais, il/elle/on espeĢrerait, nous espeĢrerions, vous espeĢreriez, ils/elles espeĢreraient 49 Group 1 āer verbs with radical stem variation Aller and envoyer both have highly irregular stems. aller future jāirai, tu iras, il/elle/on ira, nous irons, vous irez, ils/elles iront conditional jāirais, tu irais, il/elle/on irait, nous irions, vous iriez, ils/elles iraient envoyer future jāenverrai, tu enverras, il/elle/on enverra, nous enverrons, vous enverrez, ils/elles enverront 20 52 Group 2 āir verbs: radical stem variation conditional jāenverrais, tu enverrais, il/elle/on enverrait, nous enverrions, vous enverriez, ils/elles enverraient 50 Examples of future and conditional tenses of Group 2 āir verbs finir future je finirai, tu finiras, il/elle/on finira, nous finirons, vous finirez, ils/elles finiront conditional je finirais, tu finirais, il/elle/on finirait, nous finirions, vous finiriez, ils/elles finiraient dormir future je dormirai, tu dormiras, il/elle/on dormira, nous dormirons, vous dormirez, ils/elles dormiront conditional je dormirais, tu dormirais, il/elle/on dormirait, nous dormirions, vous dormiriez, ils/elles dormiraient 51 āir verbs Subgroup 3 Cueillir, etc Just as the present tense of these verbs is formed differently from the norm, so are the future and conditional. Here and in the following sections the stems and endings for the first person singular and first person plural only for both tenses are given. je cueillerai, nous cueillerons, je cueillerais, nous cueillerions 52 Group 2 āir verbs with radical stem variation A number of verbs have highly irregular stems. tenir je tiendrai, nous tiendrons, je tiendrais, nous tiendrions venir je viendrai, nous viendrons, je viendrais, nous viendrions courir je courrai, nous courrons, je courrais, nous courrions mourir je mourrai, nous mourrons, je mourrais, nous mourrions 21 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 53 Future and conditional tenses of Group 3 āre verbs Future tense singular je vendrai tu vendras il/elle/on vendra plural nous vendrons vous vendrez ils/elles vendront Conditional tense singular plural je vendrais nous vendrions tu vendrais vous vendriez il/elle/on ils/elles vendrait vendraient 54 The exceptions eĢtre and faire eĢtre future je serai, tu seras, il/elle/on sera, nous serons, vous serez, ils/elles seront conditional je serais, tu serais, il/elle/on serait, nous serions, vous seriez, ils/elles seraient faire future je ferai, tu feras, il/elle/on fera, nous ferons, vous ferez, ils/elles feront conditional je ferais, tu ferais, il/elle/on ferait, nous ferions, vous feriez, ils/elles feraient 55 Future and conditional tenses of Group 4 āoir verbs Some of these verbs undergo radical stem alteration. Subgroup 1 ā verbs in ācevoir Future tense singular je recevrai tu recevras il/elle/on recevra plural nous recevrons vous recevrez ils/elles recevront Conditional tense singular plural je recevrais nous recevrions tu recevrais vous recevriez il/elle/on ils/elles recevrait recevraient Subgroup 2 ā voir Future tense singular je verrai tu verras il/elle/on verra 22 plural nous verrons vous verrez ils/elles verront Conditional tense singular plural je verrais nous verrions tu verrais vous verriez il/elle/on ils/elles verrait verraient 56 Present participles Other Group 4 verbs avoir jāaurai, nous aurons, jāaurais, nous aurions devoir je devrai, nous devrons, je devrais, nous devrions falloir il faudra, il faudrait pleuvoir il pleuvra, il pleuvrait pouvoir je pourrai, nous pourrons, je pourrais, nous pourrions savoir je saurai, nous saurons, je saurais, nous saurions valoir je vaudrai, nous vaudrons, je vaudrais, nous vaudrions vouloir je voudrai, nous voudrons, je voudrais, nous voudrions Participles There are two participles: the present participle and the past participle. 56 Present participles These are normally formed by adding the ending āant to the stem of the first person plural of the verb. Examples Group 1 āer verbs porter portant Subgroups appeler ā appelant; acheter ā achetant; mener ā menant; espeĢrer ā espeĢrant; commencer ā commencĢ§ant; manger ā mangeant; aller ā allant Group 2 āir verbs Subgroups finir 23 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR finissant partir partant cueillir ā cueillant; tenir ā tenant; mourir ā mourant Group 3 āre verbs Subgroups vendre - vendant; rompre - rompant; battre - battant; croire - croyant; lire - lisant; eĢcrire - eĢcrivant; conduire - conduisant; craindre - craignant; boire - buvant; dire - disant; faire - faisant; prendre - prenant; vivre - vivant eĢtre - eĢtant Group 4 āoir verbs Subgroups recevoir - recevant; voir - voyant; asseoir - asseyant; devoir - devant; falloir - no present participle; mouvoir - mouvant; pleuvoir - pleuvant; pouvoir ā pouvant; valoir ā valant; vouloir ā voulant 57 Exceptions There are a very few exceptions to this principle ā avoir - ayant savoir - sachant 58 Past participles The groups form their past participles in distinctive ways. 59 Formation of past participles Groups 1ā3 Group 1 āer verbs The āer of the infinitive is replaced by āeĢ Examples porter ā porteĢ, appeler ā appeleĢ, acheter ā acheteĢ Group 2 āir verbs The āir of the infinitive is replaced by āi Examples finir - fini, partir - parti, cueillir - cueilli, haıĢr - haıĢ However, there are certain exceptions. Ending in āu tenir - tenu, venir - venu and derivatives courir - couru, veĢtir - veĢtu Ending in āert ouvrir - ouvert, also couvrir, deĢcouvrir, offrir, souffrir. Mourir has a distinctive past participle - mort 24 63 Avoir or eĢtre ? Group 3 āre verbs Many Group 3 āre verbs form their past participle in āu Examples vendre ā vendu, rompre ā rompu, battre ā battu, croire ā cru, lire ā lu, taire ā tu = fell silent, apparaıĢtre ā apparu = appeared (note croıĢtre ā cruĢ = grew), vaincre ā vaincu = conquered, boire ā bu. However, many verbs in this group form their past participles in distinctive ways. 60 Group 3 āre verbs with distinctive past participles absoudre ā absous = absolved, eĢcrire ā eĢcrit, suivre ā suivi = followed, conduireā conduit, craindre ā craint, dire ā dit, faire ā fait, prendre ā pris, naıĢtre ā neĢ, eĢtre ā eĢteĢ 61 Past participles of Group 4 āoir verbs All the verbs in this group (with the exception of asseoir, past participle ā assis) form their past participle in āu, but often with considerable modification of the stem. Examples recevoir ā recĢ§u, voir ā vu, devoir ā duĢ, but the form indicating feminine agreement is due, falloir ā fallu, pleuvoir ā plu, pouvoir ā pu, savoir ā su, valoir ā valu, vouloir ā voulu, avoir ā eu Compound tenses 62 General comments The compound tenses of all verbs are formed by adding an auxiliary verb, either avoir or eĢtre, to the past participle of the verb. Certain verbs are always conjugated with avoir, others with eĢtre; a few may in certain circumstances be conjugated with one or the other auxiliary verb. 63 Avoir or eĢtre? Since the number of verbs conjugated with eĢtre is comparatively small, the focus here is upon such verbs. Verbs conjugated with eĢtre The majority of these verbs are intransitive, in other words they are not followed by a direct object. Most of them, but not all, indicate a movement. The verbs are ā aller, arriver = to arrive, demeurer = to stay, descendre = to go down, entrer = to enter and rentrer = to go home, monter = to go up, mourir, naıĢtre, partir, passer = to pass, rester = to stay, retourner = to return, sortir = to go out, tomber = to fall, venir and its derivatives convenir = to suit, devenir = to become, intervenir = to intervene, parvenir = to reach, revenir = to return, survenir = to happen. Verbs that are pronominal also always form their compound tenses with eĢtre ā see 104. 25 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 64 Verbs conjugated with eĢtre and agreement In the case of these verbs, agreement between the past participle and the subject is compulsory ā if the subject is feminine, an āe is added to the participle; if the subject is plural, an ās is added, if the subject is masculine or is used generically; an āes is added if the subject is feminine plural. Examples Lorsquāelle est entreĢe, je me suis dit que cāeĢtait ma chance = when she came in, I said to myself, nowās my chance Elle est devenue un objet de deĢsir = she became an object of desire Ses deux fils sont venus me demander du conseil = his two sons came and asked me for advice Il y a des hommes qui ne sont pas sortis de lāenfance, meĢme sāils portent des costumes = there are some men who have not left childhood, even if they wear suits Jāai rencontreĢ beaucoup de filles qui sont tombeĢes amoureuses au moins une fois par mois = Iāve met lots of girls who fell in love at least once a month Comprenant quāil y avait une lueur dāespoir, elles sont revenues au centre chaque jour = realising that there was a glimmer of hope, they came back to the centre every day In the case of vous, an ās or āes is added only if the reference is to a plural subject; if vous refers to a singular subject, then no extra ending is added, unless a feminine subject is involved ā thus masculine singular ApreĢs cette aventure, vous eĢtes sagement rentreĢ aupreĢs de votre femme et vous eĢtes enfin devenu raisonnable = after this escapade, you returned quietly to your wife and at last became sensible masculine plural Vous avez porteĢ des pantalons aĢ pattes dāeĢleĢphant ā vous vous eĢtes moqueĢs du bon gouĢt = you wore flares ā you didnāt care about good taste feminine singular Peut-eĢtre avez-vous eu un parent exigeant ā face aĢ lui vous vous eĢtes sentie impuissante et vulneĢrable = perhaps you had a demanding parent ā confronted by him or her you felt powerless and vulnerable Vous eĢtes resteĢe sans nouvelles de lui, et puis le beau garcĢ§on aĢ qui vous aviez donneĢ vos coordonneĢes vous contacte = you hadnāt had any news from him, and then the handsome guy youād given your details to contacts you feminine plural Mesdemoiselles, il faut faire attention au web cameĢra qui vous permet dāeĢtre filmeĢes et vues sur lāeĢcran de votre patron = girls, you must beware of the web-cam which allows you to be filmed and seen on screen by your boss 26 67 Perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Si vous fumez ou eĢtes entoureĢes de fumeurs, vous risquez de vous preĢparer une cinquantaine peĢnible = if you smoke or are surrounded by smokers, youāre in danger of preparing a very uncomfortable scenario for yourself at fifty 65 Verbs which may be conjugated with either avoir or eĢtre 1 Some of the verbs listed in 63 may be used transitively as well as intransitively. If they are used transitively, accompanied by a direct object, they are conjugated with avoir and not eĢtre, and no agreement with the subject takes place. The verbs are descendre, monter, passer, rentrer, retourner, sortir Examples Elle a descendu le coffre = she brought down the trunk Nous avons monteĢ leurs bagages = we took their luggage up Ils ont passeĢ le mois de janvier en Espagne = they spent January in Spain Il a rentreĢ son chien aĢ cause du bruit = he brought his dog into the house because of the noise Elle a retourneĢ le vase pour eĢvaluer sa qualiteĢ = she turned the vase over to get an idea of its quality Ils ont sorti les deĢchets = they brought the rubbish out 2 Another group of verbs (not listed in 63) may be conjugated with either auxiliary without the matter of transitivity being involved. The normal procedure is ā when an action is involved, avoir is used; when a state is implied, it is eĢtre which is used. Examples Ce magazine a paru le 29 janvier = this magazine came out on 29 January Ce magazine est paru depuis longtemps = this magazine came out a long time ago also accourir, apparaıĢtre, disparaıĢtre Perfect tense 66 Formation The perfect tense is formed by combining the present tense of avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb. 67 Perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 1 āer verbs porter jāai porteĢ, tu as porteĢ, il/elle/on a porteĢ, nous avons porteĢ, vous avez porteĢ, ils/elles ont porteĢ 27 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR aller je suis alleĢ/alleĢe, tu es alleĢ/alleĢe, il est alleĢ, elle est alleĢe, on est alleĢ, nous sommes alleĢs/alleĢes, vous eĢtes alleĢ/alleĢe/alleĢs/alleĢes, ils sont alleĢs, elles sont alleĢes Group 2 āir verbs finir jāai fini, tu as fini, il/elle/on a fini, nous avons fini, vous avez fini, ils/elles ont fini partir je suis parti/partie, tu es parti/partie, il/on est parti, elle est partie, nous sommes partis/parties, vous eĢtes parti/partie/partis/parties, ils sont partis, elles sont parties ouvrir jāai ouvert, tu as ouvert, il/elle/on a ouvert, nous avons ouvert, vous avez ouvert, ils/elles ont ouvert mourir je suis mort/morte, tu es mort/morte, il/on est mort, elle est morte, nous sommes morts/mortes, vous eĢtes mort/morte/morts/mortes, ils sont morts, elles sont mortes Group 3 āre verbs vendre jāai vendu, tu as vendu, il/elle/on a vendu, nous avons vendu, vous avez vendu, ils/elles ont vendu prendre jāai pris, tu as pris, il/elle/on a pris, nous avons pris, vous avez pris, ils/elles ont pris descendre je suis descendu/descendue, tu es descendu/descendue, il/on est descendu, elle est descendue, nous sommes descendus/descendues, vous eĢtes descendu/descendue/descendus/descendues, ils sont descendus, elles sont descendues Group 4 āoir verbs recevoir jāai recĢ§u, tu as recĢ§u, il/elle/on a recĢ§u, nous avons recĢ§u, vous avez recĢ§u, ils/elles ont recĢ§u pouvoir 28 69 Pluperfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs jāai pu, tu as pu, il/elle/on a pu, nous avons pu, vous avez pu, ils/elles ont pu Pluperfect tense 68 Formation The pluperfect tense is formed by combining the imperfect tense of avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb. 69 Pluperfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 1 āer verbs porter jāavais porteĢ, tu avais porteĢ, il/elle/on avait porteĢ, nous avions porteĢ, vous aviez porteĢ, ils/elles avaient porteĢ aller jāeĢtais alleĢ/alleĢe, tu eĢtais alleĢ/alleĢe, il/on eĢtait alleĢ, elle eĢtait alleĢe, nous eĢtions alleĢs/alleĢes, vous eĢtiez alleĢ/alleĢe/alleĢs/alleĢes, ils eĢtaient alleĢs, elles eĢtaient alleĢes Group 2 āir verbs finir jāavais fini, tu avais fini, il/elle/on avait fini, nous avions fini, vous aviez fini, ils/elles avaient fini partir jāeĢtais parti/partie, tu eĢtais parti/partie, il/on eĢtait parti, elle eĢtait partie, nous eĢtions partis/parties, vous eĢtiez parti/partie/partis/parties, ils eĢtaient partis, elles eĢtaient parties mourir jāeĢtais mort/morte, tu eĢtais mort/morte, il/on eĢtait mort, elle eĢtait morte, nous eĢtions morts/mortes, vous eĢtiez mort/morte/morts/mortes, ils eĢtaient morts, elles eĢtaient mortes Group 3 āre verbs vendre jāavais vendu, tu avais vendu, il/elle/on avait vendu, nous avions vendu, vous aviez vendu, ils/elles avaient vendu descendre jāeĢtais descendu/descendue, tu eĢtais descendu/descendue, il/on eĢtait descendu, elle eĢtait descendue, nous eĢtions descendus/descendues, vous eĢtiez descendu/descendue/descendus/descendues, ils eĢtaient descendus, elles eĢtaient descendues 29 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Group 4 āoir verbs recevoir jāavais recĢ§u, tu avais recĢ§u, il/elle/on avait recĢ§u, nous avions recĢ§u, vous aviez recĢ§u, ils/elles avaient recĢ§u pouvoir jāavais pu, tu avais pu, il/elle/on avait pu, nous avions pu, vous aviez pu, ils/elles avaient pu Future perfect tense 70 Formation The future perfect tense is formed by combining the future tense of avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb. 71 Future perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 1 āer verbs porter jāaurai porteĢ, tu auras porteĢ, il/elle/on aura porteĢ, nous aurons porteĢ, vous aurez porteĢ, ils/elles auront porteĢ aller je serai alleĢ/alleĢe, tu seras alleĢ/alleĢe, il/on sera alleĢ, elle sera alleĢe, nous serons alleĢs/alleĢes, vous serez alleĢ/alleĢe/alleĢs/alleĢes, ils seront alleĢs, elles seront alleĢes Group 2 āir verbs finir jāaurai fini, tu auras fini, il/elle/on aura fini, nous aurons fini, vous aurez fini, ils/elles auront fini partir je serai parti/partie, tu seras parti/partie, il/on sera parti, elle sera partie, nous serons partis/parties, vous serez parti/partie/partis/ parties, ils seront partis, elles seront parties ouvrir jāaurai ouvert, tu auras ouvert, il/elle/on aura ouvert, nous aurons ouvert, vous aurez ouvert, ils/elles auront ouvert mourir je serai mort/morte, tu seras mort/morte, il/on sera mort, elle sera morte, nous serons morts/mortes, vous serez mort/morte/morts/ mortes, ils seront morts, elles seront mortes 30 73 Conditional perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 3 āre verbs vendre jāaurai vendu, tu auras vendu, il/elle/on aura vendu, nous aurons vendu, vous aurez vendu, ils/elles auront vendu prendre jāaurai pris, tu auras pris, il/elle/on aura pris, nous aurons pris, vous aurez pris, ils/elles auront pris descendre je serai descendu/descendue, tu seras descendu/descendue, il/on sera descendu, elle sera descendue, nous serons descendus/descendues, vous serez descendu/descendue/descendus/descendues, ils seront descendus, elles seront descendues Group 4 āoir verbs recevoir jāaurai recĢ§u, tu auras recĢ§u, il/elle/on aura recĢ§u, nous aurons recĢ§u, vous aurez recĢ§u, ils/elles auront recĢ§u pouvoir jāaurai pu, tu auras pu, il/elle/on aura pu, nous aurons pu, vous aurez pu, ils/elles auront pu Conditional perfect tense 72 Formation The conditional perfect tense is formed by combining the conditional tense of avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb. 73 Conditional perfect tense of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 1 āer verbs porter jāaurais porteĢ, tu aurais porteĢ, il/elle/on aurait porteĢ, nous aurions porteĢ, vous auriez porteĢ, ils/elles auraient porteĢ aller je serais alleĢ/alleĢe, tu serais alleĢ/alleĢe, il/on serait alleĢ, elle serait alleĢe, nous serions alleĢs/alleĢes, vous seriez alleĢ/alleĢe/alleĢs/alleĢes, ils seraient alleĢs, elles seraient alleĢes Group 2 āir verbs finir jāaurais fini, tu aurais fini, il/elle/on aurait fini, nous aurions fini, vous auriez fini, ils/elles auraient fini 31 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR partir je serais parti/partie, tu serais parti/partie, il/on serait parti, elle serait partie, nous serions partis/parties, vous seriez parti/partie/partis/ parties, ils seraient partis, elles seraient parties ouvrir jāaurais ouvert, tu aurais ouvert, il/elle/on aurait ouvert, nous aurions ouvert, vous auriez ouvert, ils/elles auraient ouvert mourir je serais mort/morte, tu serais mort/morte, il/on serait mort, elle serait morte, nous serions morts/mortes, vous seriez mort/morte/morts/ mortes, ils seraient morts, elles seraient mortes Group 3 āre verbs vendre jāaurais vendu, tu aurais vendu, il/elle/on aurait vendu, nous aurions vendu, vous auriez vendu, ils/elles auraient vendu prendre jāaurais pris, tu aurais pris, il/elle/on aurait pris, nous aurions pris, vous auriez pris, ils/elles auraient pris descendre je serais descendu/descendue, tu serais descendu/descendue, il/on serait descendu, elle serait descendue, nous serions descendus/descendues, vous seriez descendu/descendue/descendus/descendues, ils seraient descendus, elles seraient descendues Group 4 āoir verbs recevoir jāaurais recĢ§u, tu aurais recĢ§u, il/elle/on aurait recĢ§u, nous aurions recĢ§u, vous auriez recĢ§u, ils/elles auraient recĢ§u pouvoir jāaurais pu, tu aurais pu, il/elle/on aurait pu, nous aurions pu, vous auriez pu, ils/elles auraient pu Past historic tense 74 Past historic A tense that is mainly restricted to the written medium (see 130) and which involves many irregularities of stem in Groups 3 and 4. 32 78 Examples: Group 2 āir verbs 75 Past historic tense of Group 1 āer verbs All āer verbs (even including aller) form their past historic tense regularly, by adding the endings listed below to their stem. The Subgroup 5 verbs, commencer and manger, etc, form their past historic tense according to the principles presented above ā see 20. The following endings are added to the stem. singular āai āas āa plural āaĢmes āaĢtes āeĢrent 76 Examples of Group 1 āer verbs porter je portai, tu portas, il/elle/on porta, nous portaĢmes, vous portaĢtes, ils/elles porteĢrent commencer je commencĢ§ai, tu commencĢ§as, il/elle/on commencĢ§a, nous commencĢ§aĢmes, vous commencĢ§aĢtes, ils/elles commenceĢrent manger je mangeai, tu mangeas, il/elle/on mangea, nous mangeaĢmes, vous mangeaĢtes, ils/elles mangeĢrent aller jāallai, tu allas, il/elle alla, nous allaĢmes, vous allaĢtes, ils/elles alleĢrent 77 Past historic tense of Group 2 āir verbs All Subgroup 1 and Subgroup 3 (cueillir) verbs and many Subgroup 2 verbs form their past historic tense in the same way. The following endings are added to the stem. singular āis āis āit plural āıĢmes āıĢtes āirent 78 Examples of Group 2 āir verbs finir je finis, tu finis, il/elle/on finit, nous finıĢmes, vous finıĢtes, ils/elles finirent partir je partis, tu partis, il/elle/on partit, nous partıĢmes, vous partıĢtes, ils/elles partirent 33 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR cueillir je cueillis, tu cueillis, il/elle/on cueillit, nous cueillıĢmes, vous cueillıĢtes, ils/elles cueillirent 79 āir verbs Subgroup 4 venir and tenir have a distinctive form in the past historic ā venir je vins, tu vins, il/elle/on vint, nous vıĢnmes, vous vıĢntes, ils/elles vinrent tenir je tins, tu tins, il/elle/on tint, nous tıĢnmes, vous tıĢntes, ils/elles tinrent 80 āir verbs exceptions to Subgroup 2 and mourir Certain āir verbs form their past historic tense with the following endings. singular āus āus āut plural āuĢmes āuĢtes āurent Examples of āir verbs forming their past historic in āuā courir je courus, tu courus, il/elle/on courut, nous couruĢmes, vous couruĢtes, ils/elles coururent mourir je mourus, tu mourus, il/elle/on mourut, nous mouruĢmes, vous mouruĢtes, ils/elles moururent 81 Past historic tense of Group 3 āre verbs It will be remembered, from the presentation of the present tense of this group of verbs, that there are many subgroups. Since there are so many anomalies with this group of verbs in the past historic tense, the most straightforward way of presenting them is individually. Certain āre verbs form their past historic with endings in āiā and others in āuā. Those verbs with endings in āiā will be dealt with first, then those whose endings are in āuā. 82 Group 3 āre verbs with past historic endings in āiā singular āis āis āit plural āıĢmes āıĢtes āirent Example of āre verbs with endings in āiā vendre 34 84 Group 3 āre verbs: past historic endings in āuā je vendis, tu vendis, il/elle/on vendit, nous vendıĢmes, vous vendıĢtes, ils/elles vendirent Battre, perdre, reĢpondre, rompre follow a similar pattern. 83 Group 3 āre verbs with stem variation conduire: the stem acquires an āsā, as follows je conduisis, tu conduisis, il/elle/on conduisit, nous conduisıĢmes, vous conduisıĢtes, ils/elles conduisirent craindre, joindre and other verbs in āaindre/āoindre: the stem changes from āaind/āoind to āaign/āoign. craindre je craignis, tu craignis, il/elle/on craignit, nous craignıĢmes, vous craignıĢtes, ils/elles craignirent joindre ā je joignis, nous joignıĢmes dire and rire ā the āiā of the stem is absorbed into the ending; consequently at times the verb form is the same as the present tense. The past historic forms are je dis, tu dis, il/elle/on dit, nous dıĢmes, vous dıĢtes, ils/elles dirent eĢcrire ā the stem acquires a āvā, as follows ā jāeĢcrivis, tu eĢcrivis, il/elle/on eĢcrivit, nous eĢcrivıĢmes, vous eĢcrivıĢtes, ils/elles eĢcrivirent faire je fis, tu fis, il/elle/on fit, nous fıĢmes, vous fıĢtes, ils/elles firent mettre ā the stem is reduced to mā; the forms are je mis, tu mis, il/elle/on mit, nous mıĢmes, vous mıĢtes, ils/elles mirent prendre je pris, tu pris, il/elle/on prit, nous prıĢmes, vous prıĢtes, ils/elles prirent 84 Group 3 āre verbs with past historic endings in āuā The endings are singular plural āus āuĢmes āus āuĢtes āut āurent Quite often stem variation is also involved. Examples of āre verbs with endings in āuā boire je bus, tu bus, il/elle/on but, nous buĢmes, vous buĢtes, ils/elles burent 35 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR conclure je conclus, tu conclus, il/elle/on conclut, nous concluĢmes, vous concluĢtes, ils/elles conclurent croire je crus, tu crus, il/elle/on crut, nous cruĢmes, vous cruĢtes, ils/elles crurent eĢtre je fus, tu fus, il/elle/on fut, nous fuĢmes, vous fuĢtes, ils/elles furent lire je lus, tu lus, il/elle/on lut, nous luĢmes, vous luĢtes, ils/elles lurent vivre je veĢcus, tu veĢcus, il/elle/on veĢcut, nous veĢcuĢmes, vous veĢcuĢtes, ils/elles veĢcurent 85 Past historic tense of Group 4 āoir verbs It will be remembered, from the presentation of the present tense of this group of verbs, that many of them form that tense in highly irregular ways ā see 39. The same applies to the past historic. As with Group 3 āre verbs, some form their past historics in āiā, others ā the majority ā in āuā. Group 4 āoir endings of past historic singular āis āis āit plural āıĢmes āıĢtes āirent singular āus āus āut plural āuĢmes āuĢtes āurent 86 Group 4 āoir verbs with past historic endings in āiā sāasseoir je māassis, tu tāassis, il/elle/on sāassit, nous nous assıĢmes, vous vous assıĢtes, il/elles sāassirent voir je vis, tu vis, il/elle/on vit, nous vıĢmes, vous vıĢtes, ils/elles virent 87 Group 4 āoir verbs with past historic endings in āuā avoir jāeus, tu eus, il/elle/on eut, nous euĢmes, vous euĢtes, ils/elles eurent devoir je dus, tu dus, il/elle/on dut, nous duĢmes, vous duĢtes, ils/elles durent falloir 36 90 Examples: Group 1ā4 verbs il fallut pleuvoir il plut pouvoir je pus, tu pus, il/elle/on put, nous puĢmes, vous puĢtes, ils/elles purent recevoir je recĢ§us, tu recĢ§us, il/elle/on recĢ§ut, nous recĢ§uĢmes, vous recĢ§uĢtes, ils/elles recĢ§urent savoir je sus, tu sus, il/elle/on sut, nous suĢmes, vous suĢtes, ils/elles surent valoir je valus, tu valus, il/elle/on valut, nous valuĢmes, vous valuĢtes, ils/elles valurent vouloir je voulus, tu voulus, il/elle/on voulut, nous vouluĢmes, vous vouluĢtes, ils/elles voulurent Past anterior tense 88 General comments This is the least common of the indicative tenses and is only used in conjunction with the past historic, itself very uncommon in spoken French and in informal writing ā see 133. 89 Formation The past anterior tense is formed by combining the past historic tense of avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb. 90 Examples of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 1 porter jāeus porteĢ, nous euĢmes porteĢ aller je fus alleĢ(e), nous fuĢmes alleĢ(e)s Group 2 finir jāeus fini, nous euĢmes fini 37 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR partir je fus parti(e), nous fuĢmes parti(e)s Group 3 vendre jāeus vendu, nous euĢmes vendu descendre je fus descendu(e), nous fuĢmes descendu(e)s Group 4 recevoir jāeus recĢ§u, nous euĢmes recĢ§u pouvoir jāeus pu, nous euĢmes pu 1.3 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present subjunctive tense 91 Formation The present subjunctive is normally formed by taking the third person plural form of the present indicative tense, deleting the ending āent and adding the appropriate endings. Obtaining the stem ā portent ā portā, finissent ā finissā, courent ā courā, vendent ā vendā, recĢ§oivent ā recĢ§oivā The endings are singular plural āe āions āes āiez āe āent Note that the usual stem variations apply according to the ending added. 92 Group 1 examples of the present subjunctive porter je porte, tu portes, il/elle/on porte, nous portions, vous portiez, ils/elles portent appeler jāappelle, nous appelions jeter 38 95 Group 3 examples: present subjunctive je jette, nous jetions acheter jāacheĢte, nous achetions mener je meĢne, nous menions espeĢrer jāespeĢre, nous espeĢrions commencer je commence, nous commencions manger je mange, nous mangions 93 Group 1 verb which diverges from the normal pattern ā aller jāaille, tu ailles, il/elle/on aille, nous allions, vous alliez, ils/elles aillent 94 Group 2 examples of the present subjunctive finir je finisse, tu finisses, il/elle/on finisse, nous finissions, vous finissiez, ils/elles finissent courir je coure, tu coures, il/elle/on coure, nous courions, vous couriez, ils/elles courent cueillir je cueille, nous cueillions venir je vienne, nous venions 95 Group 3 examples of the present subjunctive vendre je vende, tu vendes, il/elle/on vende, nous vendions, vous vendiez, ils/elles vendent rompre je rompe, nous rompions battre 39 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR je batte, nous battions croire je croie, nous croyions conduire je conduise, nous conduisions eĢcrire jāeĢcris, nous eĢcrivions dire je dise, nous disions 96 Group 3 verbs which diverge from the normal pattern eĢtre je sois, tu sois, il/elle/on soit, nous soyons, vous soyez, ils/elles soient faire je fasse, tu fasses, il/elle/on fasse, nous fassions, vous fassiez, ils/elles fassent 97 Group 4 examples of the present subjunctive recevoir je recĢ§oive, tu recĢ§oives, il/elle/on recĢ§oive, nous recevions, vous receviez, ils/elles recĢ§oivent voir je voie, tu voies, il/elle/on voie, nous voyions, vous voyiez, ils/elles voient devoir je doive, tu doives, il/elle/on doive, nous devions, vous deviez, ils/elles doivent 98 Group 4 verbs which diverge from the normal pattern avoir jāaie, tu aies, il/elle/on ait, nous ayons, vous ayez, ils/elles aient pouvoir je puisse, tu puisses, il/elle/on puisse, nous puissions, vous puissiez, ils/elles puissent savoir 40 100 Examples of the imperfect subjunctive je sache, tu saches, il/elle/on sache, nous sachions, vous sachiez, ils/elles sachent vouloir je veuille, tu veuilles, il/elle/on veuille, nous voulions, vous vouliez, ils/elles veuillent Imperfect subjunctive tense 99 Formation and usage The imperfect subjunctive is extremely rare in everyday usage ā see 145. When it occurs, it is normally the third person singular form that is found. It is normally formed by taking the first person singular form of the past historic tense, deleting the last letter and adding the appropriate endings. Obtaining the stem ā portai ā portaā, finis ā finiā, courus ā couruā, vendis ā vendiā, recĢ§us ā recĢ§uā The endings are singular plural āsse āssions āsses āssiez āĖt āssent Note that for the third person singular a circumflex accent is added to the vowel of the stem. 100 Examples of the imperfect subjunctive Group 1 porter je portasse, tu portasses, il/elle portaĢt, nous portassions, vous portassiez, ils/elles portassent aller jāallasse, tu allasses, il/elle/on allaĢt, nous allassions, vous allassiez, ils/elles allassent Group 2 finir je finisse, tu finisses, il/elle/on finıĢt, nous finissions, vous finissiez, ils/elles finissent courir je courusse, tu courusses, il/elle/on couruĢt, nous courussions, vous courussiez, ils/elles courussent 41 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Group 3 vendre je vendisse, tu vendisses, il/elle/on vendıĢt, nous vendissions, vous vendissiez, ils/elles vendissent eĢtre je fusse, tu fusses, il/elle/on fuĢt, nous fussions, vous fussiez, ils/elles fussent Group 4 recevoir je recĢ§usse, tu recĢ§usses, il/elle/on recĢ§uĢt, nous recĢ§ussions, vous recĢ§ussiez, ils/elles recĢ§ussent avoir jāeusse, tu eusses, il/elle/on euĢt, nous eussions, vous eussiez, ils/elles eussent pouvoir je pusse, tu pusses, il/elle/on puĢt, nous pussions, vous pussiez, ils/elles pussent Perfect and pluperfect subjunctive tenses 101 Formation The perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the present subjunctive of the auxiliary verbs avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb, and the pluperfect subjunctive similarly by combining the imperfect subjunctive of the auxiliary verbs avoir or eĢtre with the past participle of the verb. 102 Examples of Group 1ā4 verbs Group 1 jāaie porteĢ, jāeusse porteĢ Group 2 jāaie fini, jāeusse fini Group 3 jāaie vendu, jāeusse vendu jāaie eĢteĢ, jāeusse eĢteĢ Group 4 jāaie recĢ§u, jāeusse recĢ§u jāaie eu, jāeusse eu 42 104 Compound tenses Pronominal verbs 103 Pronominal verbs A pronominal verb is one which is accompanied by an unstressed object pronoun (see 208) in all its forms. The verbs are conjugated in exactly the same way as non-pronominal verbs ā those ending in āer are conjugated like other verbs ending in āer with the same qualifications as apply to the latter (subgroups); and the same applies to the other groups of verbs. The pronouns are me, te, se (for third person singular and plural), nous, vous. Present tense Group 1 se lever = to get up je me leĢve, tu te leĢves, il/elle/on se leĢve, nous nous levons, vous vous levez, ils/elles se leĢvent Group 2 se souvenir = to remember je me souviens, tu te souviens, il/elle/on se souvient, nous nous souvenons, vous vous souvenez, ils/elles se souviennent Group 3 se plaindre = to complain je me plains, tu te plains, il/elle/on se plaint, nous nous plaignons, vous vous plaignez, ils/elles se plaignent Group 4 sāasseoir = to sit down je māassieds, tu tāassieds, il/elle/on sāassied, nous nous asseyons, vous vous asseyez, ils/elles sāasseyent 104 Compound tenses The major difference between pronominal and non-pronominal verbs occurs in the area of compound tense formation. Whereas the majority of non-pronominal verbs use avoir as their auxiliary when they form their compound tenses (see 63, 64), and only a small minority do not, all pronominal verbs without exception use eĢtre for their compound tenses ā se lever ā je me suis leveĢ(e) se souvenir ā je me suis souvenu(e) se plaindre ā je me suis plaint(e) sāasseoir ā je me suis assis(e) 43 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 105 Agreement of past participles The fact that the compound tenses of pronominal verbs are conjugated with eĢtre and not avoir has consequences for the agreement of the past participles ā see 64. However, the situation is not quite so straightforward as with non-pronominal verbs conjugated with eĢtre. Agreement depends upon the syntactic status of the object pronoun ā whether it is direct object or indirect object. In the former case, agreement occurs; in the latter it does not. It is important, therefore, to interpret the value of the pronouns correctly. 106 The variable values of reflexive pronouns ā how to interpret the pronouns The pronouns that are used in conjunction with pronominal verbs have a number of values. 1 They may be direct objects The pronoun is directly affected by the action of the verb ā je me lave = I get washed, I wash myself However, at times the action exerted by the verb is less obvious ā je me couche = I go to bed je me suis assis = I sat down elle sāest promeneĢe = she went for a walk In all these cases, in compound tenses, the past participle agrees with the subject of the verb. 2 They may be indirect objects In this case the pronoun is not directly affected by the action of the verb, and no agreement occurs ā je me suis dit que . . . = I said to myself that . . . je me lave les mains = I am washing my hands ā here les mains is the direct object, what is being washed; the indirect object indicates that the hands belong to the subject (see 257). 3 They may be used reflexively In such circumstances the pronouns indicate that the subjects are doing something to themselves. This applies to all the previous examples given in 1 and 2. je me lave = I wash myself je me couche = I put myself to bed Elle se croyait enceinte = she thought she was pregnant (literally she thought herself pregnant) 44 106 Variable values of reflexive pronouns 4 They may be used without a reflexive value The pronoun has no independence from the verb, and the verb and pronoun constitute a single semantic entity ā sāabstenir = to abstain, sāen aller = to go away, se douter = to suspect, sāendormir = to go to sleep, sāeĢvanouir = to faint, se meĢfier = to mistrust, se repentir = to repent In all these cases, in compound tenses, the past participle agrees with the subject of the verb. 5 They may have a reciprocal value The pronoun is used to convey the fact that several subjects are doing the same thing to each other. The pronoun may be direct or indirect object ā Direct object ā sāadmirer = to admire each other, sāaimer = to love each other, se deĢtester = to hate each other, se regarder = to look at each other Indirect object ā se dire (la veĢriteĢ) = to tell each other (the truth), sāeĢcrire = to write to each other, sāenvoyer (un mail) = to send each other (an e-mail), se raconter (des histoires) = to tell each other (stories) A consequence of this is that certain verbs may be ambiguous in interpretation, sometimes being reflexive, sometimes reciprocal. Examples se connaıĢtre in the singular a verb like se connaıĢtre is reflexive ā je me connais = I know (= understand) myself ā but in the plural, it may be used 1 reciprocally ā ils se connaissent = they know each other or 2 reflexively ā ils se connaissent = they know (= understand) themselves. se poser The same would apply to se poser des questions ā ils se posent des questions = they ask each other questions or they ask themselves questions. En Afrique, la nourriture, cāest culturel. Les maris ne se posent pas la question de savoir si leur eĢpouse cuisine bien = in Africa food is a cultural matter. Husbands donāt ask themselves whether their wife is a good cook se dire 1 Les analystes se sont dits deĢcĢ§us par le reĢsultat net du troisieĢme trimestre = the analysts declared themselves disappointed by the net result of the third term 2 Les analystes se sont dit des histoires pour eĢgayer les reĢsultats deĢcevants = the analysts told each other stories to enliven the disappointing results 45 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR In 1 the analysts are describing themselves (direct object) as disappointed; in 2 they are telling stories (direct object) to themselves (indirect object). A way of avoiding this potential ambiguity is to add the expression lāun lāautre in the appropriate form (for number and gender) in order to reinforce the reciprocal value ā Les hommes politiques se sont feĢliciteĢs dāavoir reĢussi leur campagne = the politicians congratulated themselves on the success of their campaign Les hommes politiques se sont feĢliciteĢs les uns les autres dāavoir reĢussi leur campagne = the politicians congratulated each other on the success of their campaign Sophie et Jessica se sont maquilleĢes = Sophie and Jessica made themselves up / put their make-up on Sophie et Jessica se sont maquilleĢes lāune lāautre = Sophie and Jessica made each other up / put each otherās make-up on 6 As an alternative to the passive voice The pronominal form of many verbs may be used instead of or to avoid the passive voice ā see 114. Le francĢ§ais se parle au QueĢbec = French is spoken in Quebec Il est comptable ā cĢ§a se voit bien = heās an accountant, that can easily be seen (= thatās obvious) Cette expression ne sāemploie plus = that expression is no longer used Cette plante ne se trouve que dans treĢs peu de jardins = this plant is only found in a few gardens 107 Occasional difficulty in deciding whether the pronoun is direct or indirect object It is not always immediately clear, especially for an English speaker who tries to translate the French pronominal verb directly into English, whether the object pronoun is indirect or direct. Sometimes a momentās reflexion is necessary to establish which pronoun is involved; at other times, in order to grasp the relationship between the pronoun and the verb, mental gymnastics are required, as some of the examples quoted above illustrate. The case of se souvenir = to remember and se rappeler = to remember As far as se souvenir = to remember (see below) is concerned, the se is direct object, but, in the case of se rappeler = to remember, it is indirect object ā the test here is that se souvenir is followed by de, so that what is remembered depends upon a preposition, consequently making the se direct object (= I remind myself ); whereas in the case of se rappeler what is remembered is the direct object and consequently the pronoun, as with se laver earlier, indicates who is being reminded (= I recall to myself (?)). Elle sāest souvenue de mon anniversaire but elle sāest rappeleĢ mon anniversaire = she remembered my birthday If the pronominal verb is followed by de, the pronoun is treated as a direct object. 46 109 Verbs that are always/sometimes pronominal 108 The agreement in compound tenses of pronominal verbs with direct objects and those with indirect objects 1 Perfect tense of pronominal verbs with a direct object pronoun se laver je me suis laveĢ/laveĢe, tu tāes laveĢ/laveĢe, il sāest laveĢ, elle sāest laveĢe, nous nous sommes laveĢs/laveĢes, vous vous eĢtes laveĢ/laveĢe/laveĢs/laveĢes, ils se sont laveĢs, elles se sont laveĢes Other examples ā sāasseoir, sāattaquer = to attack, se baigner = to have a swim, se battre = to fight, se blesser = to hurt yourself, se cacher = to hide, se coucher = to go to bed, sāeĢtendre = to stretch out, sāhabiller = to get dressed, sāinstaller = to settle down, se lever, se mettre debout = to stand up, se mettre en route = to set out, se promener, se raser = to get shaved, se retrouver = to turn up, se rouler = to roll, to wrap yourself up 2 Perfect tense of reflexive verbs with an indirect object pronoun se rendre compte = to realise je me suis rendu compte, tu tāes rendu compte, il/elle sāest rendu compte, nous nous sommes rendu compte, vous vous eĢtes rendu compte, ils/elles se sont rendu compte Other examples ā sāadmettre = to admit, se demander = to wonder, se dire = to say to yourself, sāeĢcrire = to write to yourself, se parler = to talk to yourself, se reprocher = to reproach yourself, and all examples where an action is being undertaken on part of the body ā se brosser les dents = to brush your teeth, se casser la jambe = to break a leg, se frotter les mains = to rub your hands, se laver le visage = to wash your face For agreement of past participles with a direct preceding object, see 214. 109 Verbs that are always pronominal and those that are sometimes pronominal It will have been clear from the above sections that certain verbs are always pronominal, whereas others sometimes are and sometimes are not. Most non-pronominal verbs may on occasions be used pronominally. A small selection of verbs which are always pronominal in form ā sāabstenir = to refrain, sāen aller = to go away, se blottir = to huddle up, sāeĢvanouir = to faint, se reĢfugier = to take refuge, se souvenir = to remember A small selection of verbs which have pronominal and non-pronominal forms ā cacher = to hide (an object) ā se cacher = to hide (yourself) laver = to wash ā se laver = to get washed lever = to raise up ā se lever = to get up nourrir = to feed ā se nourrir = to feed yourself promener = to take for a walk ā se promener = to go for a walk raser = to shave ā se raser = to have a shave 47 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Voice 110 Active and Passive Voice In simple terms, in the case of verbs in the active voice, the subject of the verb performs the action indicated by the verb. In the case of verbs in the passive voice, the subject of the verb undergoes the action indicated by the verb ā the object of an active verb becomes the subject of a passive verb ā Le ministre a manipuleĢ lāopinion publique = the minister manipulated public opinion ā Lāopinion publique a eĢteĢ manipuleĢe par le ministre = public opinion has been manipulated by the minister Sa femme le domine = his wife dominates him ā Il est domineĢ par sa femme = heās dominated by his wife 111 Restrictions on conversion from active to passive voice Unlike English, where an indirect object may be transformed into the subject of a passive verb (eg his girlfriend gave him the CD for his birthday āhe was given the CD for his birthday by his girlfriend), in French only direct objects can be so used. Indirect objects cannot become the subject of a verb in the passive voice. 112 Formation of the passive voice The passive is formed by combining the past participle of the verb with the appropriate tense of the auxiliary verb eĢtre. The past participle agrees with the subject of the verb. The conjugation of porter in the passive voice ā porter present tense passive ā je suis porteĢ/e, tu es porteĢ/e, il/on est porteĢ, elle est porteĢe, nous sommes porteĢs/es, vous eĢtes porteĢ/e/s/es, ils sont porteĢs, elles sont porteĢes imperfect tense passive ā jāeĢtais porteĢ/e, tu eĢtais porteĢ/e, il/on eĢtait porteĢ, elle eĢtait porteĢe, nous eĢtions porteĢs/es, vous eĢtiez porteĢ/e/s/es, ils eĢtaient porteĢs, elles eĢtaient porteĢes perfect tense passive ā jāai eĢteĢ porteĢ/e, tu as eĢteĢ porteĢ/e, il/on a eĢteĢ porteĢ, elle a eĢteĢ porteĢe, nous avons eĢteĢ porteĢs/es, vous avez eĢteĢ porteĢ/e/s/es, ils ont eĢteĢ porteĢs, elles ont eĢteĢ porteĢes future tense passive ā je serai porteĢ/e, tu seras porteĢ/e, il/on sera porteĢ, elle sera porteĢe, nous serons porteĢs/es, vous serez porteĢ/e/s/es, ils seront porteĢs, elles seront porteĢes 48 114 Avoiding and using the passive voice pluperfect tense passive ā jāavais eĢteĢ porteĢ/e, tu avais eĢteĢ porteĢ/e, il/on avait eĢteĢ porteĢ, elle avait eĢteĢ porteĢe, nous avions eĢteĢ porteĢs/es, vous aviez eĢteĢ porteĢ/e/s/es, ils avaient eĢteĢ porteĢs, elles avaient eĢteĢ porteĢes The other tenses, subjunctive as well as indicative, are formed according to the same pattern. 113 Examples of the passive voice Deux meĢdecins de Palerme sont soupcĢ§onneĢs dāavoir soigneĢ le parrain de Cosa Nostra = two doctors from Palermo are suspected of having treated the godfather of Cosa Nostra Un sondage a eĢteĢ reĢaliseĢ au mois de septembre = a survey was carried out in September Ce mois-ci vous serez soulageĢe dāajouter le mot « fin » aĢ votre manuscrit = this month youāll be relieved to add the word āfinishedā to your manuscript La certitude dāeĢtre trompeĢ gagne du terrain = the certainty of being cheated on gains ground Un accord a eĢteĢ passeĢ entre la preĢsidence du tribunal de Paris et le barreau = an agreement has been signed between the president of the Paris court and the bar Les deux meĢthodes donnent dāexcellents reĢsultats, aĢ condition quāelles soient exeĢcuteĢes par de vrais pros = the two methods give excellent results, provided that they are carried out by real professionals Un peu dāactiviteĢ sāimpose, car, meĢme si votre capital beauteĢ nāest pas encore entameĢ, il vaut mieux eĢtre preĢvoyante = a little activity is called for, because even if your beauty capital hasnāt yet been opened up, itās better to think ahead Votre patron nāest pas obligeĢ dāembaucher, meĢme si cāest lāesprit de la loi = your boss isnāt obliged to take on any extra staff, even if itās in the spirit of the law 114 Avoiding and using the passive voice In relative terms English uses more passive voice constructions than French. This is because French has a number of strategies that are regularly employed as alternatives to the passive voice. In other words, where a passive voice would be used in English, French sometimes uses a different construction. There are two strategies that are commonly used as alternatives to the passive voice in situations where, in English, a passive would be used. 1 The impersonal pronoun on On is much more common as a pronoun in French than its equivalent one is in English ā see 226 ā On dit que = it is said that On croit que = it is thought that On lui a reĢpareĢ sa voiture = his car has been repaired 49 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 2 The pronominal form of the verb Lāordinateur sāest inexorablement inteĢgreĢ dans le paysage professionnel = computers have inexorably become an integral part of the professional scene Une prise de conscience qui sāaccompagne dāune sacreĢe peĢriode de maturation = a pang of conscience accompanied by a jolly good period of growing up Nous pensons que ce retard sāexplique par une offre inacceptable = we think that this delay may be explained by an unacceptable offer See also 106. Using the passive voice As the examples in 113 have shown, despite the comment that French avoids the passive voice, there are many instances where the passive voice is used. These tend to be in technical and semi-technical circumstances ā in manuals, brochures, reports, official documents and so on. Exercises 1 Formation des verbes Pour chacun des verbes suivants, donnez la forme quāon vous demande ā indicatif le preĢsent premieĢre personne du singulier ā courir, craindre, cueillir, devoir, eĢcrire, eĢtre, lire, savoir, venir, vouloir deuxieĢme personne du pluriel ā aller, avoir, commencer, finir, manger, partir, pouvoir, prendre, voir, valoir lāimparfait deuxieĢme personne du singulier ā avoir, eĢtre, faire, finir, manger, perdre, recevoir, rire, valoir, vendre troisieĢme personne du pluriel ā aller, commencer, conduire, courir, devoir, jeter, porter, recevoir, savoir, vouloir le futur troisieĢme personne du singulier ā acheter, aller, boire, courir, eĢtre, pouvoir, savoir, venir, voir, vouloir premieĢre personne du pluriel ā aller, commencer, devoir, envoyer, jeter, mener, mourir, partir, tenir, vendre 50 Exercises le passeĢ simple troisieĢme personne du singulier ā aller, boire, croire, cueillir, eĢtre, porter, finir, pouvoir, savoir, vouloir deuxieĢme personne du pluriel ā avoir, conduire, courir, devoir, eĢcrire, faire, lire, mener, mettre, vivre subjonctif le preĢsent troisieĢme personne du singulier avoir, dire, eĢtre, faire, finir, jeter, porter, savoir, valoir, vouloir deuxieĢme personne du pluriel aller, boire, devoir, eĢtre, faire, manger, mettre, pouvoir, vendre, vouloir lāimparfait troisieĢme personne du singulier aller, avoir, boire, commencer, eĢtre, faire, finir, mener, savoir, vouloir premieĢre personne du pluriel acheter, courir, devoir, eĢtre, faire, partir, porter, pouvoir, vendre, vouloir 2 Les auxiliaires Avec quel auxiliaire est-ce que les verbes suivants se conjuguent? aller, arriver, sāasseoir, dire, falloir, mourir, naıĢtre, porter, pouvoir, recevoir, venir 3 Les verbes pronominaux Donnez les formes des verbes pronominaux suivants quāon vous demande; en plus donnez les pronoms sujets ā troisieĢme personne masculine du singulier et deuxieĢme personne du pluriel du preĢsent de lāindicatif ā sāasseoir, se laver, se lever, se plaindre, se souvenir troisieĢme personne feĢminine du singulier et deuxieĢme personne masculine du pluriel du passeĢ composeĢ de lāindicatif ā sāen aller, sāasseoir, se bercer, se laver, se lever, se meĢfier, se plaindre, se porter, se rappeler, se souvenir 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en transposant les verbes actifs en leur eĢquivalent passif; le cas eĢcheĢant, faites dāautres modifications pour garder le sens de la phrase ā 51 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR a. On peut utiliser le tableau eĢlectronique interactif comme un tableau normal ā le stylet remplace la craie. On peut eĢgalement y projeter des infos prises directement sur internet ouĢ on peut trouver cartes, photos, graphiques; on peut illustrer les cours facilement. b. Seule une solution associant robustesse et maıĢtrise totale de votre consommation peut vous satisfaire. c. Cāest aussi un conseiller qui vous accompagne aĢ chaque eĢtape de votre projet. d. La cleĢmentine confite, on la trouvera chez les confiseurs. 52 Chapter 2 Verbs: 2 2.1 USING VERBS Mood The imperative mood 115 The imperative The imperative is used to give commands and is, therefore, very common in everyday speech ā sit up, listen, donāt do that, forget it Certain sets of circumstances are very prone to generate large numbers of orders, which are then conveyed in the imperative mood ā parents to children (and vice versa), teachers to students, in the military, in arguments, in making arrangements. The written medium makes less extensive use of the imperative mood ā but it is common in manuals, recipes, instructions on products, etc. 116 The restricted forms of the imperative The imperative is the verb reduced to its minimum proportions ā no subject pronouns to use, used only with reference to the present time and with a very limited range of persons; in addition, sentences containing an imperative are often only one word long. 117 The forms of the imperative The imperative derives mainly from the āyouā-forms of the present tense of the verb, second person singular and second person plural; less frequently an imperative based on the first person plural occurs. 118 Forming the imperative For Group 1 āer verbs The singular imperative is derived from the second person singular forms of the present tense, forms ending in āes or āas (aller ā vas) (see 16), with the final ās deleted. This ās is reinstated in certain situations ā see below. The plural imperative is derived from the second person plural forms and the first person plural forms with no adjustment. For Groups 2 āir, 3 ā re and 4 āoir verbs The singular imperative is derived from the second person singular forms of the present tense without adjustment (see 23, 30, 40ā42). The ouvrir subgroup forms its singular imperative like a Group 1 āer verb. 53 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR The plural imperative is derived from the second person plural forms and the first person plural forms without adjustment. Examples Group 1 āer verbs porter ā porte, portez, portons jeter ā jette, jetez, jetons manger ā mange, mangez, mangeons aller ā va, allez, allons The ās that has been deleted to form the imperative is reinstated when the imperative is followed by the pronouns en and y ā Vas-y! = off you go! Parles-en! = talk about it! Group 2 āir verbs finir ā finis, finissez, finissons courir ā cours, courez, courons ouvrir ā ouvre, ouvrez, ouvrons venir ā viens, venez, venons Group 3 āre verbs vendre ā vends, vendez, vendons dire ā dis, dites, disons eĢcrire ā eĢcris, eĢcrivez, eĢcrivons faire ā fais, faites, faisons mettre ā mets, mettez, mettons Group 4 āoir verbs recevoir ā recĢ§ois, recevez, recevons 119 Exceptions There is a very small number of exceptions to the imperative-forming principle outlined above. However, the verbs involved are common ones ā avoir ā aie, ayez, ayons eĢtre ā sois, soyez, soyons savoir ā sache, sachez, sachons vouloir ā veuille, veuillez, veuillons 120 Forming the imperative of pronominal verbs The forms of the verb itself are created in exactly the same way as for non-pronominal verbs. The difference between the pronominal and non-pronominal imperative forms is that the former use the stressed form of the singular reflexive pronoun after the verb in positive situations, but unstressed forms of the pronoun before the verb in negative situations. 54 122 Alternatives to the imperative Positive se cacher ā cache-toi, cachez-vous, cachons-nous sāasseoir ā assieds-toi, asseyez-vous, asseyons-nous se taire ā tais-toi, taisez-vous, taisons-nous Negative ne pas se cacher ā ne te cache pas, ne vous cachez pas, ne nous cachons pas ne pas sāasseoir ā ne tāassieds pas, ne vous asseyez pas, ne nous asseyons pas ne pas se taire ā ne te tais pas, ne vous taisez pas, ne nous taisons pas 121 Meaning of the imperative The meaning of the second person forms is clear ā a direct order ā cours, courez = run mange, mangez = eat up assieds-toi, asseyez-vous = sit down The meaning of the first person plural form is less peremptory and is equivalent to English letās . . . mangeons ensemble = letās eat together asseyons-nous = letās sit down 122 Alternatives to the imperative 1 The infinitive used to give an order In the written medium, particularly on notices, in manuals and instructions, it is common for the infinitive to be used to give an order. The impression given is of a more polite, moderated command ā Ne pas marcher sur lāherbe = donāt walk on the grass Tenir au frais = keep in a cool place Battre les oeufs avec la creĢme = whisk the eggs and cream together 2 Using deĢfense to express a negative command In negative situations, usually associated with public notices, the word deĢfense (= prohibition) is sometimes used ā DeĢfense dāafficher = stick no bills DeĢfense de se pencher dehors = do not lean out 3 The future used to give an order See 135. 4 Using vouloir to attenuate the imperative See 163. 55 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 123 The imperative combined with object pronouns See 212. Indicative and subjunctive moods 124 The indicative and subjunctive moods and tenses Indicative mood Simple Present Imperfect Past historic Future Conditional Compound Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect Conditional perfect Past anterior Double compound Subjunctive mood Simple Present Imperfect Compound Perfect Pluperfect Present tense 125 Uses ā 1: present moment; 2: habitual time; 3: universal time Je mange is equivalent to English I eat (my lunch at one oāclock) and Iām eating (my lunch as quickly as possible). 1 To describe events happening at the present moment These fall into three main categories Those relating to the present moment proper Lāanniversaire de Johnny Halliday est sans aucun doute lāeĢveĢnement musical de lāanneĢe = Johnny Hallidayās birthday is without doubt the musical event of the year La France deĢpense pour sa deĢfense moins du dixieĢme du budget militaire ameĢricain = Franceās defence expenditure is less than a tenth of Americaās military budget Les reĢcents feux de foreĢt montrent quāil ne faut pas relaĢcher lāeffort pour trouver une solution aĢ ce probleĢme majeur du sud de lāEurope = the recent forest fires prove that it is vital not to relax efforts to find a solution to this very serious problem affecting southern Europe 56 127 Other uses of the present tense 2 Those relating to habitual time VoilaĢ la clef du mysteĢre ā ce littoral exquis apparaıĢt couvert deux jours sur trois par un brouillard aĢ couper au couteau = hereās the key to the mystery ā this exquisite coast-line is covered for two days out of three with a fog you could cut with a knife Elle rentre aĢ dix-sept heures tous les jours = she comes home every day at five oāclock Son menu-carte change toutes les trois semaines et les ideĢes fusent ici et laĢ = he changes the menu every three weeks, and new ideas spurt out everywhere 3 Those relating to universal time Toute reĢussite est un travail dāeĢquipe = every success story is a matter of team effort Deux et deux font quatre = two plus two makes four Une ville a besoin dāun systeĢme de transports auquel on peut faire confiance = a town needs a transport system that inspires confidence Avec lāaĢge, on apprend que les autres ont peut-eĢtre raison, meĢme si lāon est certain quāils ont tort = with age, we learn that other people may perhaps be right, even if weāre sure theyāre wrong 126 4: Marking continuous time In English it is possible to distinguish between a simple present tense (I wonder if we should go) and a continuous present tense (Iām wondering if we should go). French does not have this contrast. Je me demande = I wonder and Iām wondering However, if it is desirable for a French speaker to stress the length of time an action or event is taking, a special construction exists, involving (eĢtre) en train de ā A ce moment elle est en train de consideĢrer toutes les possibiliteĢs pour sa carrieĢre = at the moment sheās thinking about all her career possibilities Il est en train de dresser des plans pour lāavenir = heās (in the process of) drawing up plans for the future 127 Other uses of the present tense ā 5: future; 6: past 5 To refer to the near and not-so-near future Je viens te voir ce soir = Iāll come and see you this evening Nous arrivons dans un instant = weāll be arriving in a moment On part pour le Vietnam la semaine prochaine = weāre leaving for Vietnam next week See also the use of aller 136. 6 To refer to past time This use of the present tense is known as the historic present, and is very common in journalism and general literature, often to add a dramatic note or note of immediacy to the recounting of an incident. 57 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Au 18e sieĢcle les riches commencent aĢ partir en vacances. Pour eux la plage est une sorte de salon avec vue sur mer. On vient pour lāair marin et la beauteĢ des sites = in the eighteenth century, the rich began to go away on holiday. For them the beach was a sort of lounge with a sea-view. They went for the sea air and the beauty of the locations ApreĢs son arriveĢe en France, elle trouve un poste de jeune fille au pair. Elle accepte pour le salaire, 700 euros par mois = after she arrived in France, she found a job as an au pair. She took it because of the pay ā 700 euros a month Past tenses 128 Past tenses Three tenses may be used to express events taking place one step back in time from the perspective of the speaker/narrator: the imperfect, the perfect, the past historic. When it is a matter of two steps back from the perspective of the speaker/narrator, other tenses may be used: the pluperfect, the past anterior, the conditional perfect, the double compound. Imperfect tense 129 Uses ā1: duration; 2: interrupted time; 3: description; 4: repeated action Equivalent to English I ate my lunch at college every Tuesday, I was eating my lunch when the doorbell rang, I used to eat my lunch with my friends. 1 To express the duration of time Son crime? ā avoir botteĢ les fesses de deux garnements qui chahutaient dans sa classe = what was his crime? ā to have kicked the backside of a couple of tearaways who were making a nuisance of themselves in his class LāeĢpicier cherchait une plus importante part du marcheĢ en important des leĢgumes du Maroc = the grocer was hoping to get a larger share of the market by importing vegetables from Morocco Les repreĢsentants eĢtaient recĢ§us aĢ lāElyseĢe le 3 deĢcembre = the representatives were received by the President on 3 December Il eĢtait conscient de ce quāil faisait = he was aware of what he was doing 2 To express a period of time interrupted by an event La jeune femme a obtenu le droit aĢ un interview, pendant quāelle dansait avec la vedette = the young woman obtained the right to an interview, while she was dancing with the celeb Pendant quāil parlait, les enfants ont ri avec impuniteĢ = while he was speaking, the kids laughed with impunity 58 130 Past historic: uses Le chanteur qui roulait aĢ 201 km/h sur lāautoroute A10, a eĢteĢ arreĢteĢ par la police = the singer who was driving at 201 km an hour on the A10 motorway was arrested by the police 3 To describe a set of circumstances Jāai treĢs vite senti que je nāeĢtais pas un EuropeĢen, que je nāeĢtais pas un FrancĢ§ais, que jāeĢtais un NeĢgre, cāest tout (AimeĢ CeĢsaire) = I soon realised that I wasnāt a European, nor a Frenchman, but quite simply a Black En latin, il y avait trois genres, en francĢ§ais deux et en anglais seulement un = Latin had three genders, French two and English only one Le document eĢtait sans valeur juridique = the document was without legal value 4 To express a repeated or habitual action Lāusine produisait une cinquantaine de voitures par jour = the factory produced about fifty cars a day A lāeĢpoque, on estimait que beaucoup de conducteurs ignoraient les principes du code de la route = at that time, it was thought that many drivers did not know the principles of the highway code Il naviguait avec aisance dans la socieĢteĢ parisienne = he circulated effortlessly in Parisian society Past historic tense 130 Uses Il mangea is equivalent to English he ate, as in Le PreĢsident mangea avec ses inviteĢs dans la salle aĢ manger de lāElyseĢe = the President had lunch with his visitors in the dining room of the ElyseĢe Palace The past historic tense is used to refer to a point of time in the past with no link with or repercussion upon the present. However, this role may also be played by the perfect tense (see 131). Consequently, it is important to understand the different values of these two competing tenses as far as this usage is concerned. Usage of the past historic has tended to become restricted to certain situations. Written French ā it is the past tense most often used in fairly formal and formal written French ā especially the French of novels, and in some but not all journalism. Spoken French ā its use in spoken (as opposed to written) French is very much confined to very formal situations ā speeches, lectures, talks on the radio or television dealing particularly with historical matters. Using the past historic automatically evokes a formal situation ā it is completely inappropriate in normal spoken French. From a novel ā Marthe haussa les eĢpaules, prit un chandelier et courut au salon. Elle en revint, tenant un dictionnaire dāune main et se mit aĢ lire une deĢfinition = 59 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Martha shrugged her shoulders, took a candlestick and ran to the lounge. She came back with a dictionary in one hand and began to read out a definition From a news magazine Personne ne jugea bon dāapprofondir la question ā un comiteĢ international fut creĢeĢ, preĢsideĢ par Nicolas Nabokov qui usa de sa formidable eĢnergie . . . = no one thought it wise to go further into the matter ā an international committee was formed, with Nicolas Nabokov as chairman who used his extraordinary energy . . . NeĢe aĢ Tunis en 1948, elle abandonna ses eĢtudes de droit pour entrer aĢ FR3 Marseille comme preĢsentatrice = born in Tunis in 1948, she gave up her law studies to enter FR3 Marseille [a radio station] as a presenter Perfect tense 131 Uses ā1: past affecting present; 2: past divorced from present Jāai mangeĢ is equivalent to English I have eaten (my lunch already), I ate (my lunch early today). 1 The perfect tense is used to refer to a point of time in the past which has a link with or repercussion upon the present ā Qui a pris plus de 340 fois le Concorde? Cāest un certain Pascal Leborgne = who has flown Concorde more than 340 times? ā A certain Pascal Leborgne Le deĢfenseur de Nantes a eĢteĢ le symbole francĢ§ais. TreĢs bon avant la mi-temps, il a compleĢtement plongeĢ par la suite = the Nantes defender was a symbol of Franceās performance. He was very good in the first half, but faded completely subsequently Les ministres des Affaires sociales allemand, japonais et italien lāont interrogeĢ sur sa meĢthode = the German, Japanese and Italian Social Affairs ministers have questioned him on his method 2 To refer to a point of time in the past with no link with or repercussion upon the present It is in this usage that the perfect competes with the past historic (see 130). Note that in spoken French, the perfect tense is the normal tense for conveying past time. It is also used in written French, particularly in journalism but also in novels, especially in those written in an informal register. Compare the situation with the past historic, described above. AĢ 76 ans, Fidel Castro ressort [historic present, see 127] son leĢgendaire treillis. Il a deĢfileĢ en teĢte dāune manifestation contre les sanctions adopteĢes par lāUnion europeĢenne. Au cours dāun discours muscleĢ, il a menaceĢ les diplomates en poste de mesures de reĢtorsion = at 76 Fidel Castro got out his legendary combat fatigues and marched at the head of a demonstration against the sanctions adopted by the EU. In a vigorous speech, he threatened the diplomats in post with retaliatory measures 60 133 Past anterior: uses Pluperfect tense 132 Uses Equivalent to English I had eaten my lunch when my friend joined me 1 To refer to a point of time in the past that has taken place before another event in the past (in other words which occurs two stages back in the past from the standpoint of the present) Elle māa dit quāil lāavait suivie pendant deux semaines = she told me that he had followed her for two weeks Le directeur avait deĢcideĢ de punir les eĢtudiants qui avaient interrompu les cours quand on lāavait appeleĢ pour reĢpondre aux questions dāun journaliste = the head had decided to punish the students who had interrupted the classes when he was called to answer some questions from a reporter Il avait creĢeĢ de nombreuses eĢmissions de teĢleĢvision = he had produced a large number of television broadcasts Alessandra Mussolini avait afficheĢ son sens de la famille en se mariant aĢ Predappio, la ville ouĢ son peĢre est enterreĢ = A M had signalled her sense of the family by getting married at P, the town where her father was buried Les supporters du preĢsident ivoirien ont repris leur harceĢlement des troupes francĢ§aises qui avaient empeĢcheĢ les forces gouvernementales dāeffectuer une perceĢe vers le nord = supporters of the President of the Ivory Coast have resumed their harassment of French troops, who had prevented the government forces from making a breakthrough towards the north 2 To refer to a period of time in the past that has taken place before another event in the past Les Romains avaient occupeĢ la Gaule pendant quelques sieĢcles avant lāinvasion des Francs au 5eĢme sieĢcle = the Romans had occupied Gaul for several centuries before the invasion of the Franks in the 5th century Il est certain quāavant dāeĢcrire le livre, il avait passeĢ beaucoup de temps aĢ faire les recherches neĢcessaires = itās certain that before writing the book he had spent a lot of time in research for it ApreĢs un bref passage sur TF1, elle eĢtait revenue dans le service public pour animer de nombreuses eĢmissions = after a short time on TF1 [a TV station], she returned to the public service and presented a large number of programmes Past anterior tense 133 Uses Equivalent to English She called me after I had finished eating 61 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR The past anterior is used only in a very limited set of circumstances. Firstly, it is exclusively a written tense, and secondly it only occurs in subordinate clauses of time, when the tense of the verb of the main clause in the sentence is the past historic. (In other words, it is never found in combination with the perfect tense.) The most common conjunctions with which it occurs are apreĢs que = after, aussitoĢt que = as soon as, avant que = before, deĢs que = as soon as, lorsque = when, quand = when (see 465) ā DeĢs quāil eut signeĢ le contrat, tout le monde le feĢlicita = as soon as he had signed the contract, everyone congratulated him ApreĢs quāil eut creĢeĢ sa compagnie en 2002, il commencĢ§a ses expeĢriences sur les livres eĢlectroniques = after setting up his company in 2002, he began experimenting with electronic books Double compound past tense 134 Uses This tense complements the past anterior ā in other words it may be used when the circumstances that dictate the use of the past anterior occur in spoken rather than written French. However, the pluperfect may also be used in these circumstances ā Elle est sortie deĢs quāelle a eu recĢ§u (or avait recĢ§u) le message de son amie = she went out as soon as she had got the message from her friend Quand son ami a eu fini (or avait fini) son coke, ils ont quitteĢ le bar ensemble = when her boyfriend had finished his Coke, they left the bar together Future tense 135 Uses ā1: future; 2: attenuation of imperative 1 To refer to events that will take place in the future AĢ partir du 29 janvier nous embaucherons une douzaine de nouveaux employeĢs = on 29 January we will take on a dozen new employees Si tu manges moins de frites, tu ne prendras pas tant de poids = if you eat fewer chips, you wonāt put on so much weight Il ne fait pas de doute que les reĢformes des retraites finiront par eĢtre voteĢes = thereās no doubt that the pension reforms will eventually be approved Les meĢdailles leur seront remises par le ministre des affaires eĢtrangeĢres = the medals will be presented to them by the Minister of Foreign Affairs Le NoeĢl du personnel de Matignon nāaura pas lieu comme dāhabitude aĢ lāOpeĢra mais au MuseĢe des Arts forains = Christmas for the PMās staff will not take place as usual at the Opera but at the MuseĢe des Arts forains 2 As a means of attenuating the imperative ā see 122 Vous ouvrirez la feneĢtre, sāil vous plaıĢt = will you open the window, please? 62 138 Conditional: uses 1ā3 Je prendrai un kilo de bananes = Iāll have a kilo of bananas 136 Other ways of referring to the future 1 By using the present tense ā see 127 It should be noted that using the present tense instead of the future implies a less motivated intention ā Je passerai te voir ce soir suggests more determination than je passe te voir ce soir 2 By using aller + the infinitive The use of aller + infinitive suggests a stronger likelihood that something will happen Pour me maintenir en bonne santeĢ, je vais aller aĢ la piscine chaque samedi = to keep healthy Iām going to go to the pool every Saturday Pour expliquer le systeĢme, il va utiliser les mots du professeur = in order to explain the system, heās going to use the words of the professor Future perfect tense 137 Use Equivalent to English will have (eaten), the future perfect tense describes a future event from the standpoint of its completion ā JāespeĢre que dans deux ans nous aurons acheveĢ la reĢnovation de notre appartement = I hope that in two yearsā time we will have completed the refurbishment of our flat Il est astucieux ā son nouveau tube aura paru juste avant sa prochaine tourneĢe = heās a cunning so-and-so ā his new hit will have been released just before his next tour Conditional tense 138 Uses ā1: conveying future in reported speech; 2: as corollary of conditional clause; 3: conjecture 1 In reported speech to represent a future tense in direct speech ā Version in direct speech Elle a dit: « Jamais personne ne viendra me voir maintenant » = she said, āNo one will ever come and see me nowā Version in indirect speech Elle a dit que jamais personne ne viendrait la voir deĢs ce moment-laĢ = she said that no one would come and see her from that moment on Often there is no verb of speech introducing the reported item ā 63 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Ce ne serait point faire oeuvre de justice que de preĢfeĢrer les teĢneĢbres aĢ la lumieĢre = it wouldnāt be acting justly if we preferred darkness to light 2 In the main clause of a sentence containing a conditional clause (ie one introduced by si ā see 458) Si tu mangeais moins, tu perdrais facilement un kilo = if you ate less youād easily lose a couple of pounds Leur leĢgitimiteĢ serait bien plus forte sāils sāappliquaient aĢ eux-meĢmes les reĢformes demandeĢes aux autres = their legitimacy would be much stronger if they applied to themselves the reforms they demand of others 3 As a means of expressing uncertainty, an hypothesis or conjecture ā a use that does not have an equivalent in English; here a present or past tense is used with a suggestion that the event may not be entirely true ā Chez lāhomme le deĢsir serait avant tout visuel = it is suggested that for men desire is above all visual Les trois principaux dirigeants reĢclameraient deux millions dāeuros de dommages = itās reported that / apparently the three principal directors have put in a claim for two million euros damages Cette machine neutraliserait les menaces qui pourraient nous nuire = this machine, apparently, neutralises threats which might be harmful to us Le beĢgaiement serait trois fois plus freĢquent chez les hommes que chez les femmes = stammering is allegedly three times more common in men than in women Suivant certains experts de 7 aĢ 30% des cancers seraient imputables aĢ des facteurs environnementaux = according to certain experts, from 7 to 30% of cancers are attributable to environmental factors Selon un reĢcent rapport, la moitieĢ des fruits, leĢgumes et ceĢreĢales consommeĢs en France contiendrait des reĢsidus de pesticides = according to a recent report, half the fruit, vegetables and cereals consumed in France contain pesticide residues Conditional perfect tense 139 Uses ā1: conveying future perfect in reported speech; 2: hypothesis; 3: conjecture 1 In reported speech to represent a future perfect tense in direct speech: Version in direct speech On le lit dans la presse ā la compagnie aeĢrienne aura vendu 150 exemplaires de lāAir Bus par 2006 = itās in the papers ā the aviation company will have sold 150 models of the Air Bus by 2006 Version in indirect speech 64 141 Differences in sequence of tenses On a lu dans la presse que la compagnie aeĢrienne aurait vendu 150 exemplaires de lāAir Bus par 2006 = we read in the papers that the aviation company would have sold 150 models of the Air Bus by 2006 2 To refer to events that would have taken place if certain circumstances had been fulfilled Les performances de lāathleĢte auraient eĢteĢ beaucoup mieux, sāil avait employeĢ un autre entraıĢneur expeĢrimenteĢ = the athleteās performance would have been much better if he had used an experienced trainer Lāassociation nāaurait pas pu eĢchapper aĢ la saisie de ses biens sans les subventions des services du Premier ministre = the organisation would not have been able to avoid having its assets seized if it had not been for the grants made by the Prime Ministerās office Le porte-avions « CleĢmenceau » aurait duĢ se faire deĢmembrer dans un pays eĢloigneĢ = the aircraft carrier āCleĢmenceauā should have been dismantled in a far-away country 3 As a means of expressing uncertainty, an hypothesis or conjecture (see 138) ā Selon notre correspondant, la bombe aurait tueĢ une vingtaine de personnes = according to our correspondent, the bomb killed about twenty people Le maire aurait laĢcheĢ une veĢriteĢ qui tournait mal = apparently the mayor blurted out a truth which caused problems En 2003, de 8 aĢ 9% des FrancĢ§ais auraient recĢ§u au moins une fois dans lāanneĢe une eau dont la teneur en pesticides deĢpassait la norme = in 2003, from 8 to 9% of the French population had reportedly been supplied at least once during the year with water that exceeded the norm in pesticide content 140 Differences in tense usage in French and English Tense usage is very much the same in the two languages. However, there are a few important differences, in addition to those outlined under the tenses discussed above. They involve 1 Sequence of tenses ā that is to say, in sentences consisting of more than one clause. Although generally, the French pattern is very much the same as in English, there is one notable exception ā concerning the future and conditional tenses in time clauses. 2 The use of tenses with depuis, il y a, voici, voilaĢ. 3 The use of tenses with venir de = just. 141 Differences between French and English use of tenses ā1: sequence of tenses 1 Sequence of tenses involving the future and conditional tenses The problem centres on usage with subordinate clauses of time to refer to future events. In English, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause in such situations is either present or past, whereas in French a future or conditional tense is used 65 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Future tense in subordinate clause in French where English has present tense ā Quand tu visiteras la galerie, tu seras sans aucun doute impressionneĢ par les sculptures contemporaines = when you come to the gallery, you will undoubtedly be impressed by the contemporary sculptures Vous seconderez le chef de projet aussitoĢt que vous serez embaucheĢ = you will help the project leader as soon as you are taken on Future perfect in subordinate clause in French where English has past tense ā Lorsquāil aura fait ses preuves comme preĢsident, on sāattendra aĢ ce que la compagnie ameĢliore ses performances boursieĢres = when he has proved himself as managing director, it is to be expected that the companyās performance on the Stock Exchange will improve Vous serez en relation avec les diffeĢrents eĢtablissements de soin de la reĢgion, deĢs que lāeĢquipe aura eĢteĢ formeĢe = you will be in contact with the various care providers in the area as soon as the team has been set up Conditional tense in subordinate clause in French where English has past tense ā Il māa demandeĢ de trouver un traducteur de son roman, deĢs que les revues seraient positifs = he asked me to find someone to translate his novel as soon as the reviews were positive Elle māavait prieĢ de lui donner un coup de teĢleĢphone, quand jāaurais fini ma meĢmoire = she asked me to give her a ring when Iād finished my essay Conditional perfect tense in subordinate clause in French where English has pluperfect tense ā Elle lui a deĢclareĢ quāelle le ferait quand il lāaurait payeĢe = she stated that she would do it as soon as he had paid her AussitoĢt que la deĢmocratie aurait eĢteĢ eĢtablie dans les pays de lāEurope de lāEst, on pourrait proceĢder aĢ lāeĢlargissement de lāUnion europeĢenne = as soon as democracy was established in the countries of eastern Europe, the enlargement of the EU could proceed 142 Differences between French and English use of tenses ā2: depuis, il y a 2 The use of tenses with depuis, il y a, voici, voilaĢ When the present tense of a verb is used in French with depuis, it is equivalent to an English past tense. Depuis may be translated by for, when the emphasis is upon the duration of the time, and by since when the emphasis is upon the starting point of the time (see 348) ā duration Elle est comme cĢ§a depuis un an = sheās been like that for a year 66 143 Differences: venir de starting point Elle est comme cĢ§a depuis la mort de son chien = sheās been like that since her dog died duration Il est en prison depuis trois ans = heās been in prison for three years starting point Il est en prison depuis 2002 = heās been in prison since 2002 Other expressions can be used in the same way to achieve the same value ā Il y a / voilaĢ / voici trois ans quāil est en prison = heās been in prison for three years When the imperfect tense of a verb is used with depuis, it is equivalent to the English pluperfect tense ā Je lāeĢpiais depuis quelques minutes quand son petit ami est arriveĢ = I had been spying on her for some minutes when her boyfriend turned up Il eĢtait en prison depuis trois ans = he had been in prison for three years Il eĢtait en prison depuis 2002 = he had been in prison since 2002 The same expressions as mentioned above can again be used to achieve the same value ā Il y a / voilaĢ / voici trois ans quāil eĢtait en prison = he had been in prison for three years 143 Differences between French and English use of tensesā3: venir de 3 The case of venir de Venir de is used to correspond to the English adverb just in such expressions as she has just arrived, he had just begun. Where English uses a perfect tense, French uses the present tense of venir de ā Une note confidentielle vient dāeĢtre saisie par la justice = a confidential note has just been seized by the police Il vient dāeĢtre nommeĢ capitaine de lāeĢquipe nationale = he has just been appointed captain of the national team Where English uses a pluperfect tense, French uses the imperfect tense of venir de ā Elle venait de recevoir le prix de la meilleure actrice romantique, quand elle sāest eĢvanouie = she had just received the prize for best romantic actress when she fainted DeĢbut septembre, on a eu un peu de pluie, on venait de se dire que lāanneĢe ne serait pas merveilleuse ā puis le soleil est apparu et tout a muĢri = it rained a little at the beginning of September, we had just said to ourselves that the year wasnāt going to be that special ā then the sun came out and everything ripened 67 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Subjunctive mood 144 When to use the subjunctive The subjunctive mood of a verb is used only in certain grammatico-semantic situations. By āgrammatico-semanticā is meant 1 that a particular grammatical situation is required (the subjunctive is only used in subordinate clauses) 2 that certain types of meanings are expressed by the verb or expression governing the subordinate clause (eg joy, anger, doubt). There are also some situations where a choice of indicative or subjunctive mood exists. These two types of situations will be reviewed and illustrated below. 145 Use of tenses in the subjunctive In practice only two of the four tenses of the subjunctive are commonly used, the present and the perfect. The other two tenses, the imperfect and pluperfect, are restricted to very formal usage and almost exclusively in the written medium. This has implications for the sequence of tenses. 146 Sequence of tenses in the subjunctive Because only two tenses are available for use in normal circumstances, the sequence of tenses involving the subjunctive mood is different from that involving the indicative. Present tense ā this may be used in a subordinate clause governed by any tense in the main clause. Perfect tense ā this is used to correspond to the perfect, pluperfect, future perfect and conditional perfect tenses of the indicative mood. 147 Illustration of the sequence of tenses in the subjunctive Present tense Il faut quāelle parte lundi matin = she must leave Monday morning Il fallait quāelle parte lundi matin = she had to leave Monday morning Il faudra quāelle parte lundi matin = sheāll have to leave Monday morning Il faudrait quāelle parte lundi matin = she ought to leave Monday morning Il a fallu quāelle parte lundi matin = she had to leave Monday morning Il fallut quāelle parte lundi matin = she had to leave Monday morning Il avait fallu quāelle parte lundi matin = she had had to leave Monday morning Il aura fallu quāelle parte lundi matin = sheāll have had to leave Monday morning Il aurait fallu quāelle parte lundi mtin = she would have had to leave Monday morning Perfect tense Je ne crois pas quāelle soit partie = I donāt believe she left 68 148 Clauses introduced by conjunctive Je ne croyais pas quāelle soit partie = I didnāt believe she had left Il est arriveĢ avant quāelle soit partie = he arrived before she left Il eĢtait arriveĢ avant quāelle soit partie = he had arrived before she left AĢ moins quāelle ne soit partie, il ne serait pas venu = unless she had left, he would not have come Grammatical circumstances requiring the subjunctive 148 In clauses introduced by a conjunctive expression The expressions may be grouped in the following way according to their meanings ā although (see 457) ā bien que Bien que jāaie 40 ans, je viens de rencontrer lāhomme de mes reĢves = although Iām forty, Iāve just met the man of my dreams encore que Encore que vous soyez mal aĢ lāaise dans la compagnie des hommes, vous allez souvent vers eux = although youāre uncomfortable in menās company, you often seek them out malgreĢ que MalgreĢ quāelle sache que la nourriture est trop grasse, elle ceĢde aux deĢsirs de ses enfants de manger le fast-food = although she knows that the food is too fatty, she gives in to her childrenās wish to eat fast-food MalgreĢ que tu sois naturelle, vous gardez encore quelques mauvais reĢflexes = despite the fact youāre natural, you hang on to a few bad reactions quoique Quoique nous preĢfeĢrions rester au lit le matin, il faut savoir que cāest vers 6 ou 7 heures que le taux de testosteĢrone, qui favorise le deĢveloppement des muscles, est le plus eĢleveĢ = although we prefer staying in bed in the morning, we need to realise that itās around 6 or 7 oāclock that the level of testosterone, which promotes muscle development, is at its highest When this group of conjunctive expressions refer to future time, the future tense is used ā Quoique lāagence beĢneĢficiera de ce statut dans deux ans, pour le moment elle doit se contenter de la situation actuelle = although the agency will benefit from this status in a couple of yearsā time, for the moment it will have to put up with the present situation before (see 465) avant que Retrempez-les une heure, avant que la sauce soit preĢpareĢe = soak them for another hour before the sauce is prepared 69 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Avant que Paul soit sorti de ma vie, je nāavais jamais lāoccasion de rencontrer de nouvelles personnes = before Paul walked out of my life, I never had the chance to meet new people The verb in the subjunctive may optionally be preceded by an āexpletiveā ne, which adds nothing to the meaning ā the presence of the ne suggests a higher register of language ā Quatre jours avant que lāinvasion nāait eu lieu, les pilotes preĢparaient leurs helicopteĢres pour une guerre acharneĢe = four days before the invasion took place, the pilots were preparing their helicopters for a bitter war for fear that de crainte que Again the verb in the subjunctive may optionally be preceded by an āexpletiveā ne, which adds nothing to the meaning ā the presence of the ne suggests a higher register of language (see 417) ā Ceux qui sont hostiles aĢ une telle loi, le sont de crainte quāil nāy ait une eĢclosion dāeĢcoles que lāEtat ne pourra pas controĢler = those who are opposed to such a law are so for fear that there may be a proliferation of schools the State will not be able to control Vous regardez le plat de preĢs, de crainte quāil ne soit pas du tout aĢ votre gouĢt = you look at the dish closely, for fear that it isnāt to your taste de peur que The same remarks apply here as to de crainte que De peur que le reĢgime artistique soit supprimeĢ, je resterai directeur = for fear that the artistic reĢgime may be discontinued, I shall stay on as director however little pour autant que Pour autant quāil vous ait trompeĢe, vous avez raison de rompre avec lui = however little he may have cheated on you, youāre right to finish with him pour peu que Pour peu que nous regardions la teĢleĢvision, nous ne pouvons pas eĢviter son influence = however little we watch television, we cannot escape its influence in order that, so that (see 460) afin que Afin que vous soyez eĢpargneĢ le stress, respirez profondeĢment et . . . riez = in order to be spared stress, breathe deeply and . . . laugh de facĢ§on que / de facĢ§on aĢ ce que Je crois quāaĢ ce moment-laĢ jāavais besoin de me deĢculpabiliser, de facĢ§on que je me puisse me convaincre que je le faisais pour le bien-eĢtre de notre couple = I think that at that moment I needed to set aside any guilt so that I could convince myself that I was doing it for the benefit of the two of us 70 148 Clauses introduced by conjunctive De facĢ§on que lāinteĢreĢt quāil porte aĢ ce sujet soit manifesteĢ clairement, il a deĢcideĢ de faire un discours teĢleĢviseĢ = so that his interest in this subject may be clearly shown, he decided to make a speech on television de manieĢre que / de manieĢre aĢ ce que Portez les lunettes aĢ verres fumeĢs, de manieĢre quāelles vous fassent un look dāenfer = wear tinted glasses so that they give you a fabulous look de sorte que De sorte que vous puissiez avoir une soireĢe entre amis dans une ambiance chaude, il nāy a quāune seule adresse = so that you can have an evening among friends in a warm atmosphere, thereās just one address pour que La Ministre de la Recherche redouble dāefforts pour que le site de Cadarache soit preĢfeĢreĢ aĢ celui proposeĢ par les Japonais = the Minister of Research is redoubling her efforts so that the Cadarache site is preferred to the one proposed by the Japanese Bruxelles attendait ses rajustements pour quāil se mette en conformiteĢ avec les prescriptions de la Commission = Brussels waited for him to make some readjustments so that he would be in conformity with the Commissionās prescriptions In the case of de facĢ§on que, de manieĢre que and de sorte que, the subjunctive is used to express intention, not result. For examples of these expressions conveying result, when the indicative, not the subjunctive, is used, see 459. De facĢ§on aĢ ce que and de manieĢre aĢ ce que are replacing the shorter forms. not that non que / non pas que Elle preĢfeĢre rester chez elle, non quāelle ait peur de sortir = she prefers to stay at home, not that sheās afraid of going out On dit que la femme francĢ§aise consomme 8, 2 paires de collants chaque anneĢe et lāhomme 4, 1 slips ā non que je sache si cāest vrai ou non! = they say that a French woman gets through 8.2 pairs of tights a year and a man 4.1 pairs of underpants ā not that I know if itās right or not! provided that aĢ condition que Le syndicalisme fait partie du paysage social, aĢ condition que lāEtat se fasse respecter = trade unionism is part of the social fabric, provided that the State succeeds in making itself respected pourvu que Pourvu que tu sois laĢ aĢ dix-neuf heures, je peux te conduire aĢ la gare = provided youāre there at 7 oāclock, Iāll give you a lift to the station sous reĢserve que Il acceptait de le reconnaıĢtre sous reĢserve quāil nāy ait pas de conseĢquences deĢsagreĢables = he was prepared to admit it provided there were no unpleasant consequences 71 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR supposing that (see 458) aĢ supposeĢ que AĢ supposeĢ que vous vouliez consulter des bandes-annonces, des critiques cineĢ-dvd, faites un petit tour sur M6.fr = supposing you want to consult banner announcements, film and dvd crits, take a stroll through M6.fr supposant que Deux ex-fumeurs sur trois rechutent ā supposant que vous vouliez tenir, suivez ce conseil = two out of three ex-smokers relapse ā supposing you want to persevere, take this advice supposeĢ que SupposeĢ que tu aies raison, je nāose lui eĢcrire = supposing youāre right, I darenāt write to her unless (see 458) aĢ moins que In formal circumstances, ne is inserted before the verb; this ne has no real semantic value, but underlines the uncertain nature of the assertion (see 417). Elles parlent dāune peau plus lisse, plus raffermie, aĢ moins quāelles ne soient victimes dāune campagne de publiciteĢ irreĢsistible = they speak of a smoother, firmer skin ā unless theyāre victims of an irresistible advertising campaign Il doit trouver un nouveau partenaire, aĢ moins que les AmeĢricains ne raflent la mise = heās got to find a new partner, unless the Americans snap up the bait until (see 465) jusquāaĢ ce que JusquāaĢ ce quāil y ait des tests antidopage plus probants, les athleĢtes continueront dāabuser du systeĢme = until there are more conclusive antidrugs tests, athletes will continue to abuse the system Respirez doucement jusquāaĢ ce que votre respiration devienne plus reĢgulieĢre = breathe gently until your breathing becomes more regular Sometimes ne . . . que is used as an equivalent to English until (see 425) ā Ils ne prendront la ville dāassaut que lorsquāils seront certains que les civils lāont quitteĢe = they wonāt attack the town until theyāre sure the civilians have left whether . . . or (see 458) soit que . . . ou / soit que or que . . . ou ā see que below Soit que tu viennes chez moi ou que je vienne te chercher chez toi, nous aurons assez de temps = whether you come to my house or I come to yours, weāll have enough time Soit que vous perciez votre nombril vous-meĢme, soit que vous demandiez aĢ une amie de le faire, cāest toujours dangereux = whether you pierce your navel yourself or ask a friend to do it, itās still dangerous Que ce soit vrai ou non, je vais continuer = whether itās true or not, Iām going to carry on 72 149 Clauses depending on emotion Quāil sāagisse de votre vie amoureuse ou de vos liens amicaux, des tensions sont aĢ craindre = whether itās a matter of your love life or your friendships, tensions are inevitable Quāil soit blanc ou noir nāa aucune importance = whether heās white or black has no importance whatsoever while waiting for en attendant que En attendant que le docteur nous dise sāil y avait un probleĢme, mon oncle a quitteĢ son cabinet = while waiting for the doctor to tell us if there was a problem, my uncle walked out of the surgery Vous devenez impatiente en attendant quāil vous appelle = youāre becoming impatient waiting for him to give you a ring without sans que Il a continueĢ de se droguer sans quāon sāen soit remarqueĢ = he continued taking drugs without anyone noticing Les tics pompent beaucoup dāeĢnergie, sans que lāon sāen rende compte = tics demand a lot of energy, without us realising it La compagnie a poseĢ des conditions deĢmentes ā une publication en aveugle, sans meĢme que lāeĢditeur francĢ§ais puisse voir les photos = the company set some crazy conditions ā a blind publication, without the French publisher even being able to see the pictures 149 In clauses depending upon a verb or expression conveying an emotion Agreement / permission after consentir = to consent, permettre = to allow, refuser = to refuse Lāarbitre a permis que le jeu soit diffeĢreĢ aĢ cause de la neige = the referee allowed the game to be postponed because of the snow Elle a refuseĢ quāon vende ses peintures = she refused to let anyone sell her paintings Anxiety / anticipation after attendre = to wait, sāattendre (aĢ ce que) = to expect, veiller (aĢ ce que) = to make sure On sāattend aĢ ce que ce PDG hors norme devienne symbole dāune reĢgion industrielle qui reĢussit dans le secteur des technologies de pointe = it is to be expected that this exceptional managing director will become the symbol of an industrial region successful in the advanced technology sector Veillez aĢ ce que les enfants ne rentrent pas trop tard = make sure the children donāt come back too late 73 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Command / request after commander = to order, demander = to ask, to demand, exiger = to demand, insister (pour que) = to insist, ordonner = to order Ayant exigeĢ que les recommandations soient voteĢes, le preĢsident a passeĢ au prochain point de lāordre du jour = having required that the recommendations be voted upon, the chairman passed on to the next item on the agenda Il a insisteĢ pour que le transport alternatif ne soit utiliseĢ quāaĢ titre exceptionnel = he insisted that alternative transport should only be used in exceptional circumstances Jāai eĢteĢ si surprise que je ne demandais meĢme pas quāil le fasse encore une fois = I was so surprised that I didnāt even ask him to do it again Desire after aimer = to like, avoir envie = to want, deĢsirer = to desire, preĢfeĢrer = to prefer, souhaiter = to wish, tenir (aĢ ce que) = to want, vouloir = to want Il a preĢfeĢreĢ que le club renonce aĢ cette rupture avec la tradition = he preferred the club to abandon this break with tradition Je souhaite quāelle lance une campagne en faveur des parents pauvres qui eĢleĢvent seuls leurs enfants = my wish is that she will launch a campaign in favour of poor parents who bring up their children alone Il veut que ce soit elle qui fasse le premier pas = he wants her to be the one who makes the first move Fear / anger after avoir peur = to be afraid, craindre = to fear, de crainte = for fear, de peur = for fear, eĢtre embeĢtant = to be annoying, eĢtre faĢcheĢ = to be angry, eĢtre honteux = to be disgraceful, eĢtre meĢcontent = to be unhappy, sāindigner = to become indignant, redouter = to fear In the case of those verbs expressing fear, like the linked conjunctive expressions de crainte que, de peur que, the verb in the subjunctive may optionally be preceded by an āexpletiveā ne, which adds nothing to the meaning ā the presence of the ne suggests a higher register of language (see 417). Il avait peur que son eĢquipe ne soit eĢlimineĢe de la compeĢtition = he was afraid that his team would be eliminated from the competition Il est embeĢtant que les technologies avanceĢes aient de temps en temps meneĢ aĢ une perte dāeĢleĢgance = itās annoying that advances in technology have from time to time led to a loss in elegance Jāavais un peu peur quāelle fasse des comparaisons et quāelle nous mette des notes = I was afraid that she would make comparisons and give us marks Pleasure after eĢtre content = to be happy, eĢtre heureux = to be happy, eĢtre ravi = to be delighted, eĢtre satisfait = to be satisfied, se feĢliciter = to congratulate yourself, se reĢjouir = to be delighted 74 150 Clauses conveying avoiding, etc. Je suis contente que cet appareil te convienne = Iām pleased that this camera suits you Elle sāest reĢjouie que les gendarmes lāaient arreĢteĢ sur preĢsomption de viol = she was delighted that the police had arrested him on suspicion of rape Nous sommes ravis quāil ait passeĢ son permis poids lourd afin dāemmener ses chevaux aux concours dāeĢquitation = weāre delighted heās taken his heavy vehicle licence test so as to be able to drive his horses to the horse trials Sadness after eĢtre deĢsoleĢ = to be sorry, eĢtre triste = to be sad, se plaindre = to complain, regretter = to be sorry Je suis deĢsoleĢ que tu ne puisses pas venir ce soir = Iām sorry that you canāt come this evening Elle sāest plainte quāune minoriteĢ de spectateurs ait toujours exigeĢ plus de violence = she complained that a minority of viewers always demanded more violence Je regrette profondeĢment quāelle ait refuseĢ de me donner son adresse = I deeply regret that she refused to give me her address Surprise after sāeĢtonner = to be astonished, eĢtre choqueĢ = to be shocked, eĢtre surpris = to be surprised Je māeĢtonne que tu nāaies pas reĢussi aĢ ce test = Iām astonished you failed that test Cela ne me surprend pas que ces innovations aient eu lāeffet dāune bombe dans ce secteur conservateur = Iām not surprised that these innovations have had the effect of a bomb in that conservative area JāeĢtais choqueĢ quāelle ait mis son pied nu sur mon entrejambe = I was shocked that she put her bare foot on my inner thigh 150 In clauses depending upon a verb or expression conveying avoiding, chance, denial, evaluation, forbidding, (im)possibility, improbability, necessity, uncertainty Avoiding after empeĢcher = to prevent, eĢviter = to avoid Beaucoup de choses vous inteĢressent, mais vous devez empeĢcher quāelles veuillent vous maıĢtriser = lots of things interest you, but you have to avoid them wanting to dominate you Pour eĢviter que la discussion devienne trop houleuse, il est parti furieux = in order to prevent the discussion from becoming too agitated, he stormed out Chance after il arrive = it happens, il nāy a aucune chance = thereās no chance, il y a de grandes chances = thereās every chance, il y a le danger = thereās the danger, risquer = to take the risk 75 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Il arrive de temps en temps que je me sente en faveur de lāeuthanasie = there are times when I feel in favour of euthanasia Il arrive parfois que ma copine soit de bonne humeur le matin ā je suis euphorique pour toute la journeĢe = it sometimes happens that my girlfriend is in a good mood in the morning ā I feel over the moon all day long Il y a de grandes chances que le rhinoceĢros disparaisse dans quelques deĢcennies = the chances are high that rhinoceroses will disappear in a few decades Denial after nier = to deny La police a nieĢ que la victime nāait porteĢ quāun pied de table et non un fusil = the police denied that the victim was just carrying a table leg and not a rifle Elle a surpris tout le monde en niant quāelle veuille rester vierge jusquāau mariage = she surprised everybody by denying that she wanted to remain a virgin till she was married Evaluation after a large number of impersonal expressions ā il y a inteĢreĢt (aĢ ce que) = itās a good idea, il/cāest dommage = itās a shame, peu importe = it scarcely matters, ce nāest pas la peine = itās not worth the effort, il est bon = itās worthwhile, il est curieux = itās strange, il est important = itās important, il est juste = itās fair, il est normal = itās normal, il est paradoxal = itās paradoxical, il est preĢfeĢrable = itās preferable, il est rare = itās rare, il semble = it seems Peu importe que le spectacle ait eĢteĢ annuleĢ ā cela ne māinteĢressait pas du tout = it didnāt matter that the show was cancelled ā I wasnāt interested anyway Il est important que la compagnie trouve un second souffle = itās important for the company to get a second wind Il est rare que quelquāun puisse dire que personne ne lāa jamais aimeĢ = itās rare for anyone to be able to say that no one has ever loved them Note that when an indirect object is involved with il semble (= it seems to . . .), the indicative mood is used ā Il semble quāon ait proposeĢ trop dāactiviteĢs extrascolaires aux enfants = it seems that children have had too many extracurricular activities suggested to them Il me semble que certains sports sont susceptibles de mieux correspondre aĢ son tempeĢrament que dāautres = it seems to me that certain sports are likely to correspond better to her temperament than others Forbidding after deĢfendre = to forbid, interdire = to ban Il avait deĢfendu que sa fille aille aux boıĢtes de nuit = he had banned his daughter from going to nightclubs 76 150 Clauses conveying avoiding, etc. (Im)possibility and improbability after a large number of impersonal expressions ā il y a opportuniteĢ = the opportunity exists, il est (im)possible = itās (im)possible, il est improbable = itās unlikely, il est inadmissible = itās unacceptable, il est invraisemblable = itās unlikely, il se peut = itās possible, il est peu probable = itās unlikely DeĢs quāil a bu un coup de trop, il se peut quāil soit meĢconnaissable, incontroĢlable = after heās drunk a bit too much, itās possible that heās unrecognisable, uncontrollable Il nāest pas impossible quāil ait passeĢ discreĢtement et ait eĢchappeĢ aĢ notre surveillance = itās not impossible that he passed by discreetly and avoided our surveillance Il est peu probable que nous gagnions le match samedi = itās unlikely that weāll win the match on Saturday Although il est peu probable is followed by the subjunctive, il est probable = itās probable / probably is not ā Il est probable quāon trouvera un meĢdicament qui permettra de prolonger la dureĢe de vie de patients atteints dāun cancer de la prostate = they will probably find a cure which will allow patients suffering from prostate cancer to prolong their lives Necessity after a large number of impersonal expressions ā il est essentiel = itās essential, il est impeĢratif = itās imperative, il est ineĢvitable = itās inevitable, il est naturel = itās natural, il est neĢcessaire = itās necessary, il est temps = itās time, il faut = itās necessary, il sāen faut de peu = within a little Il est essentiel que la coque du bateau soit modifieĢe apreĢs son retour de lāAustralie = itās essential for the boatās hull to be modified after its return from Australia Il faut que vous vous interrogiez sur les raisons de votre deĢpendance = you must question yourself about the reasons for your dependency Il est temps que vous consideĢriez la possibiliteĢ de vous remarier = itās time you considered the possibility of remarriage Uncertainty after a large number of impersonal expressions ā il nāest pas certain = itās not certain, il est douteux = itās doubtful, il semble = it seems (but see Evaluation above), il nāest pas suĢr = itās not sure, il nāest pas vrai = itās not true, douter = to doubt ā and the following verbs when used negatively and/or interrogatively ā affirmer = to affirm, croire = to believe, dire = to say, penser = to think, trouver = to find Il nāavait jamais penseĢ quāil aille falloir voter une loi contre le vagabondage = he had never thought that it would be necessary to pass a law against vagrancy Quoique la feĢdeĢration de foot ait poursuivi le deĢpistage sanguin, il nāest pas vrai quāelle ait aussi reĢaliseĢ des tests urinaires = although the football federation undertook blood tests, it is not true that it undertook urine tests as well Je ne crois pas que ces rumeurs soient vraies = I donāt believe the rumours are true 77 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR With expressions like il nāy a pas de doute que = thereās no doubt that, which imply certainty, the indicative mood is used ā Il nāy a pas de doute que vous encouragerez son initiative en reĢpondant aĢ son sourire = thereās no doubt that youāll encourage her initiative if you respond to her smile 151 In relative clauses depending upon a superlative formed with plus or moins Cāest le projet le plus ambitieux que lāuniversiteĢ ait entrepris = itās the most ambitious project the university has undertaken Les lettres quāelle māa eĢcrites sont les plus tendres que jāaie jamais recĢ§ues = the letters she wrote me are the most loving ones Iāve ever received Cāest le moins quāon puisse dire = itās the least you can say The situation is less clear-cut with other types of superlative ā see 155. 152 In noun clauses introduced by le fait que or que alone Le fait que le PreĢsident ait dit non aux AmeĢricains donne aĢ penser = the fact that the President said no to the Americans gives food for thought Le fait quāil nāy ait peu ou pas dāimpoĢt sur les fortunes attire beaucoup de FrancĢ§ais en Suisse = the fact that there is little or no wealth tax attracts a good many French to Switzerland Que les ceĢleĢbriteĢs veuillent rester anonymes autant que possible est bien connu = itās well known that celebs want to stay anonymous as much as possible Que vous ayez gagneĢ eĢtait une grande surprise pour tout le monde = that you won was a great surprise for everyone 153 In clauses depending upon a range of indefinite expressions, equivalent to English words ending in āever ā pronouns whoever, whatever, adjective whatever, adverbs however, wherever (See 457.) qui que = whoever, anyone qui que is normally used in conjunction with eĢtre; if a verb other than eĢtre is required, the expression qui que ce soit is used as subject or object or after a preposition, followed by qui + the required verb in the subjunctive mood, as appropriate ā Qui que vous soyez = whoever you are Il deĢfie qui que ce soit de descendre cette piste = he challenges anyone to go down that piste Qui que ce soit qui teĢleĢphone, dis-lui que je suis sortie = whoever phones, tell them Iāve gone out 78 153 Clauses with indefinite expressions Jāai envoyeĢ cette photo pour qui que ce soit qui lāappreĢcie = Iāve sent this photo for whoever will appreciate it An alternative to qui que is quiconque which is used with the indicative and not the subjunctive mood ā Quiconque a dit cela est fou = whoever said that is stupid Dis aĢ quiconque veut eĢcouter que les tarifs seront reĢduits ce soir = tell anyone who wants to listen that prices are going to be reduced this evening Il sait cela mieux que quiconque = he knows that better than anyone quoi qui / quoi que = whatever, pronoun As with qui que, quoi qui / quoi que is normally used in conjunction with eĢtre; if a verb other than eĢtre is required, the expression quoi que ce soit is used as subject ā but not object, when other verbs may be combined with it ā Quoi quāil en soit = be that as it may Quoi que ce soit qui vous eĢnerve, essayez de rester calme = whatever gets on your nerves, try to stay calm Quoi que tu fasses, prenez des vitamines = whatever you do, take vitamins Quoi que tu dises, il nāen demeure pas moins que . . . = whatever you say, the fact remains that . . . Sur quoi que ce soit que tu tāappuies = whatever you rely on The following expressions are very common ā Quoi quāil arrive / quoi qui se passe = whatever happens If it occurs in a negative expression, quoi que ce soit = anything Tu ne peux pas lui dire quoi que ce soit = you canāt tell her anything quelque que = whatever, adjective There are two possible constructions ā Quelques veĢtements que tu portes, Quels que soient les veĢtements que tu portes, tu me sembles toujours tr eĢs sexy = whatever clothes you wear, you always look sexy to me In the first instance quelque is written as a single word, precedes the noun and agrees with it in number (it is invariable for gender). In the second instance, it is combined with eĢtre (as happens with qui que and quoi que), is written as two words, quel + que, and quel agrees in number and gender ā ļ£¼ ` Quelles que soient les pi eces que tu ļ£½ tu en trouveras dans notre ` pr eĢf eres, theĢaĢtre = ļ£¾ ` ` Quelques pi eces que tu pr eĢf eres, whatever plays you prefer, youāll find some in our theatre 79 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Les militaires doivent toujours eĢtre disponibles quelles que soient les circonstances = soldiers must always be available whatever the circumstances quelque = however quelque occurs as a single word before an adjective which it qualifies and, because it is an adverb, it is invariable in number and gender ā Quelque dur quāil travaille, il ne semble jamais apprendre quoi que ce soit = however hard he works, he never seems to learn anything Quelque riches quāils soient, ils ne veulent jamais donner de lāargent aux oeuvres caritatives = however rich they are, they never want to make a donation to a charity There are a number of alternatives to this adverbial usage of quelque ā si, pour, aussi, tout Si / pour / aussi seĢduisant que cela puisse paraıĢtre, il vaut mieux lāeĢviter = however attractive it may appear, itās better to avoid it La passion, toute amoureuse quāelle se preĢtende, ne naıĢt pas de lāidylle pas plus quāelle nāy conduit pas = passion, however loving it may be, does not develop from an idyll any more than it leads to one It is worthwhile comparing the following examples which show the varying forms and usages of quelque / quel que ā ļ£¼ Quelque difficulteĢ que nous rencontrions ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ Quelle que soit la difficulteĢ nous avons lāintention de ´ erer ´ Quelles que soient les difficulteĢs = ļ£“ persev ļ£“ ļ£¾ Quelque difficile que ce soit however difficult it is, we intend persevering ouĢ que = wherever, anywhere OuĢ que tu ailles, je te suivrai dans mon coeur = wherever you go Iāll follow you in my heart OuĢ que tu caches ce magazine, je le trouverai = wherever you hide that magazine, Iāll find it Instead of using ouĢ que in this way, partout ouĢ + indicative mood may be used ā Partout ouĢ tu vas, je te suivrai dans mon coeur = anywhere you go, Iāll follow you in my heart For usage with nāimporte qui / quoi / quel / ouĢ ā see 246, 457. Grammatical circumstances where the subjunctive may be used 154 Optional subjunctive In the previous sets of cases, the use of the subjunctive mood was obligatory. However, there are also a number of other sets of circumstances where its use is optional. Whether to use the subjunctive or not in these circumstances is largely a matter of style ā the more 80 156 Situations where subjunctive is optional formal the style adopted by the speaker, the more likely it is that the subjunctive mood will be used; the more informal the style adopted, the more likely it is that the indicative mood rather than the subjunctive will be used. 155 In clauses depending upon a superlative not formed with plus or moins and upon such expressions as dernier, premier, seul informal Cāest le meilleur / le pire magazine pour jeunes que je connais = itās the best / worst young personsā magazine I know Cāest la dernieĢre fois que je te le dis = itās the last time I tell you Cāest le premier certificat quāelle a recĢ§u = itās the first certificate sheās received Jāai lāintention de vivre au maximum la seule vie que jāai = I intend living the only life I have to the full formal Cāest la meilleure pieĢce de theĢaĢtre que jāaie jamais vue = itās the best play Iāve ever seen La reĢunion a eĢteĢ preĢsideĢe par la dernieĢre personne que jāeusse reĢveĢe dāy trouver = the meeting was chaired by the last person I imagined finding there Cāest la seule chose quāelle ait entendue parmi tous les bruits qui eĢtaient crieĢs autour dāelle = itās the only thing she heard amongst all the noises shouted around her 156 Other situations where the subjunctive is optional There are a few verbs with which the use of the subjunctive is optional. This especially involves verbs that are used negatively or interrogatively (see 149, 150). The deciding factor is whether the proposition in the subordinate clause is seen as hypothetical or depending upon a subjective interpretation of the proposition, or whether it is seen as real or actual. In the former case, the subjunctive mood is used; in the latter, the indicative. Verbs coming under this heading are ā accepter = to accept, admettre = to admit, comprendre = to understand, concevoir = to conceive, envisager = to envisage, expliquer = to explain, voir = to see Jāadmets quāil est beaucoup plus intelligent que moi = I admit heās a lot more intelligent than me Admettons quāelle ait fini son travail, cela nāexcuse pas son manque dāattention = admitting sheās finished her work, thatās no excuse for not paying attention Elle comprenait que la possibiliteĢ de poursuivre sa carrieĢre choisie deĢpendait de son application au travail = she understood that the possibility of pursuing her chosen career depended on her application to work Je ne comprends pas que tu puisses parler aĢ ta meĢre comme cĢ§a = I donāt understand how you can talk to your mother like that 81 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR On voit que le deĢcor politique ne sāeĢclaircit gueĢre = we can see that the political scene scarcely gets any clearer OuĢ voyez-vous laĢ-dedans que la ReĢpublique tienne son rang? = where do you see in that action that the Republic preserves its reputation? The subjunctive mood is not usually used in a relative clause following the indefinite article. When, however, the sense of the proposition is less than fully certain, the subjunctive mood may be used to underline this ā Il a besoin dāun meĢdecin qui comprend les allergies = he needs a doctor who understands allergies (and there is such a doctor) Il a besoin dāun meĢdecin qui comprenne les allergies = he needs a doctor who understands allergies (and such a doctor may not exist) Coucher pour coucher ā non! Je nāai pas rencontreĢ dāhomme qui en vaille la peine! Je patiente = to sleep with someone for the sake of it ā no. Iāve not met a man whoās worth the trouble. Iām waiting Elle māa dit quāelle a besoin dāun homme qui puisse satisfaire ses reĢves ā et ce ne sera pas moi = she told me that she needs a man who can satisfy her dreams ā and itās not me 157 Use with apreĢs que ApreĢs que is normally followed by a verb in the indicative mood in the subordinate clause. However, the subjunctive mood is also found (see 465) ā ApreĢs que le patient a eĢteĢ traiteĢ pour la deĢpression, il ne faut pas perdre de vue ses besoins aĢ long terme = after the patient has been treated for depression, itās important not to lose sight of his long-term needs Trois mois apreĢs quāelle ait accoucheĢ de son premier beĢbeĢ, son partenaire lāa quitteĢe = three months after she had given birth to her first child, her partner left her Je change la litieĢre du chat immeĢdiatement apreĢs quāil y ait passeĢ = I change the catās litter tray immediately after itās used it 158 Pluperfect subjunctive equivalent to conditional perfect Sometimes in formal circumstances, sometimes ironically, sometimes in semi-fixed constructions, the pluperfect subjunctive is used as an alternative to the conditional perfect ā this occurs most frequently in the third person singular, only rarely elsewhere ā On a promeneĢ le vieux porte-avions dāun bout aĢ lāautre de la MeĢditerraneĢe comme on euĢt fait dāun peĢtrolier pourri = theyāve dragged the old aircraft carrier from one end of the Med. to another as they would have done with a rusty tanker Qui lāeuĢt dit, qui lāeuĢt cru, que la question du voile nous bassinerait jusquāaĢ faire sortir quelques fantoĢmes des placards de lāHistoire? = who would have said, who would have thought that the issue of the [Islamic] veil would come to raise ghosts from the cupboards of History? 82 160 devoir Qui euĢt cru que le modeste theĢ est lāune des meilleures boissons pour la santeĢ? = who would have thought that unassuming tea is one of the best drinks from the health point of view? Modal verbs 159 Definition of a modal verb Modal verbs constitute a set of verbs that express a variety of attitudes concerning events and the participants in those events ā obligation, permission, possibility, probability. In English such verbs as can, may, must, should, ought belong to this set of verbs. In French, the verbs involved are ā devoir = to have to, pouvoir = to be able to, savoir = to know how to, vouloir = to want to. A major problem for English speakers is discovering the correlation between English modal verbs and their French equivalents. The principal reason for this is that English modal verbs are frequently anomalous in the formation of their tenses. 160 devoir Equivalent to English must, have to, ought, should, devoir expresses moral certainty, probability, intention, obligation ā il doit = he must, he has to Il peut arriver quāapreĢs une fausse couche, les femmes aient plus de mal aĢ concevoir car le corps comme le mental doivent eĢtre preĢts = it can happen that, after a miscarriage, women find it harder to conceive, because their body as well as their mental state has to be ready = obligation Vous devez penser quāil est alleĢ trop loin = you must think heās gone too far = probability Je dois eĢtre en retard = I must be late = probability Il doit eĢtre parti aĢ dix-huit heures = he must have / probably left at 6 oāclock = obligation Il doit partir aĢ dix-huit heures = he must / has to / has got to leave at 6 oāclock = intention Il doit eĢtre parti aĢ dix-huit heures = he must be gone by 6 oāclock = obligation il devait = he used to, he had to, he was to, he must have Il devait partir aĢ dix-huit heures chaque soir pour arriver chez lui aĢ vingt heures = he had to / used to leave at 6 oāclock every evening to get home by 8 Il devait partir aĢ dix-huit heures, mais hier il a changeĢ de routine = he was to leave [or = was in the habit of leaving] at 6 oāclock, but yesterday he changed his routine Il devait eĢtre fatigueĢ quand il a eu lāaccident = he must have been tired when he had the accident 83 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR il a duĢ = he must have, he had to Il a duĢ partir aĢ dix-huit heures, mais il nāest pas rentreĢ = he must have left at 6 oāclock, but he didnāt come home Il a duĢ finir sa reĢdaction avant de partir = he had to finish his essay before leaving Il nāa pas duĢ comprendre = he must not have understood (= he probably did not understand) il devra = he will have to Il devra finir sa reĢdaction avant de partir = heāll have to finish his essay before leaving il devrait = he should, he ought to Il devrait finir sa reĢdaction avant de partir = he ought to / should finish his essay before leaving il avait duĢ = he must have, he had had to Il avait duĢ finir sa reĢdaction avant de partir = he had had / must have to finish his essay before leaving il aura duĢ = he will have had to Il aura duĢ finir sa reĢdaction avant de partir = he will have had to finish his essay before leaving il aurait duĢ = he ought to have, he should have Il aurait duĢ finir sa reĢdaction avant de partir = he should have / ought to have finished his essay before leaving (see 139 for the use of the conditional perfect implying it is alleged that) Note ā the impersonal verb falloir = to be necessary may be used as an alternative to devoir in certain circumstances ā Il faut venir ce soir = you [or other appropriate subject] must come this evening Il avait fallu demander conseil au pharmacien = it had been necessary / we [or other appropriate subject] had had to ask the chemist for advice Pour gagner le prix, il fallait eĢcrire un poeĢme = to win the prize, you had to write a poem Il faudrait une semaine dāhospitalisation pour se reĢtablir = a weekās hospitalisation would be necessary for recuperation Il aurait fallu choisir une couleur diffeĢrente pour ses cheveux = she [or other appropriate subject] should have / ought to have chosen a different colour for her hair Remember that as a transitive verb devoir = to owe Il me doit cinq euros = he owes me five euros 161 pouvoir Equivalent to English to be able to (physically), can, could, may, might, pouvoir expresses possibility, granting permission, capability, politeness 84 161 pouvoir elle peut = possibility Elle peut arriver aĢ tout moment = she may arrive at any moment Elle peut le faire elle-meĢme = she can do it herself Note the expression il se peut que + subjunctive (see 150) ā Il se peut que nous oublions le nom du professeur = itās possible that weāll / we may forget the teacherās name = granting permission Elle peut sortir si elle a fini sa reĢpeĢtition = she can go out if sheās finished practising Tu ne peux pas sortir ce soir = you canāt go out this evening Puis-je ouvrir la feneĢtre? = may I open the window? Note that this special form of the first person singular of the present tense of pouvoir is used only in inverted questions (see 472). = capability Je peux nager sous lāeau = I can swim underwater (but see later) = politeness Puis- je vous aider? Je peux vous aider? = may I help you? elle pouvait = she could, she was able to Elle pouvait se souvenir de son nom = she could / was able to remember his name Elle ne pouvait pas se souvenir de son nom = she couldnāt / wasnāt able to remember his name The imperfect tense is used here because a mental state is being referred to (see 129). elle a pu = she could, she was able to, she managed to Elle a pu accomplir tout cela en deux heures = she was able to / managed to finish all that in two hours Elle a pu courir plus vite que dāhabitude parce quāelle avait peur = she could / was able to run faster than usual because she was afraid The perfect tense is used here because single events accomplished in a short space of time are being referred to. elle pourra = she can, she will be able to Elle pourra sortir quand elle aura fini sa reĢpeĢtition = she can / will be able to go out when sheās finished practising elle pourrait = she could, she might (be able to) Elle pourrait accomplir beaucoup plus si elle le voulait = she could do a lot more if she wanted Il se pourrait que nous ne le fassions pas = we might not be able to do it 85 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR CĢ§a pourrait eĢtre le cas = that might be the case On lui a dit quāelle ne pourrait pas entrer en fac sans diploĢmes = they told her she couldnāt / wouldnāt be able to go to university without qualifications elle avait pu = she had been able to Elle avait pu y aller parce que sa famille avait financeĢ le projet = she had been able to go, because her family had financed the project elle aura pu = she will have been able Avec de telles ressources, elle aura pu sāen occuper = with such resources, she will have been able to deal with it elle aurait pu = she would have been able to, she might have, she could have Elle aurait pu preĢparer un clafoutis extraordinaire si elle avait eu des framboises = she could have made a fantastic clafoutis if she had had some raspberries Il aurait pu le perdre = he might have lost it Est-ce que tu aurais pu le faire sans moi? = could you have done it without me? Note 1 ā whereas pouvoir = to be able, to have the physical capability, savoir = to be able, to have the intellectual capability (see 162) ā Elle sait parler francĢ§ais = she can speak French Elle peut monter aĢ cheval en deĢpit de son handicap physique = she can ride a horse in spite of her physical handicap Note 2 ā there are alternatives to using pouvoir ā peut-eĢtre = perhaps, il est possible que = itās possible that ā ļ£¼ Elle viendra peut-eĢtre demain ļ£½ Peut-eĢtre quāelle viendra demain = she may come tomorrow ļ£¾ Il est possible quāelle vienne demain Note 3 ā usage with peut-eĢtre ā peut-eĢtre can occupy three positions in a clause, depending upon the amount of prominence the user wishes to give it ā 1 peut-eĢtre in initial position followed by que and normal word order; 2 peut-eĢtre in initial position with inversion of the subject and verb if the subject is a pronoun; or, if it is a noun, with the noun subject in initial position followed by peut-eĢtre, followed by inversion of the verb and a subject pronoun echoing the noun 3 peut-eĢtre following the verb ā ļ£¼ Peut-eĢtre que votre perseĢveĢrance portera ses fruits ļ£½ = perhaps your Votre perseĢveĢrance, peut-eĢtre portera-t-elle ses fruits perseverance will ļ£¾ Votre perseĢveĢrance portera peut-eĢtre ses fruits bear fruit 86 163 vouloir Note 4 ā with verbs of perception, such as voir, entendre, sentir, can, could etc, are not translated at all ā Je ne vois rien = I canāt see a thing Elle nāentendait pas ce que disait le prof = she couldnāt hear what the teacher said 162 savoir Equivalent to English to know, to know how, to be able (intellectually) je sais Je sais quāelle est arriveĢe = I know sheās arrived Je sais jouer aĢ la peĢtanque = I can / know how to play bowls Je sais comment elle māa trompeĢ = I know how she deceived me 163 vouloir Equivalent to English to want to, to wish to, to like to il veut = he wants to, heās willing to Il veut entreprendre une enqueĢte sur le bruit = he wants to undertake an investigation into noise il voulait = he wanted to, he was willing to Il voulait devenir membre dāune association dāinformation pour les diabeĢtiques = he wanted to become a member of a support group for diabetics The imperfect tense is used here because a mental state is being referred to (see 129). il a voulu = he wanted to, he tried to Il a voulu trouver un poste, mais il nāy en avait pas = he tried to find a job, but there werenāt any The perfect tense is used here because a single event curtailed by lack of time is being referred to. il voudra = heāll want to, heāll be willing to ApreĢs avoir fait deux ou trois tractations en haut, on voudra passer aĢ des exercices plus difficiles = after doing two or three pull-ups, youāll want to move on to more difficult exercises il voudrait = heād like to, heād want to Il voudrait voir le directeur = he would like / wanted to see the principal Est-ce que tu viendras ce soir? ā Je voudrais bien, mais je ne me sens pas bien = are you coming this evening? ā Iād like to, but Iām not feeling very well 87 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR il avait voulu = he had wanted to, he had been willing to, he had tried to Il avait voulu croire que lāhomme est brave et juste, mais lāexpeĢrience lāa vite deĢsillusionneĢ = he had wanted to believe that man is brave and just, but experience soon disillusioned him il aurait voulu = he would have liked to, he would have wanted to Il aurait voulu eĢtre persuadeĢ quāelle avait plus de talent, mais heĢlas, ce nāeĢtait pas vrai = he would have liked to believe that she had more talent, but, alas, that wasnāt the case Note 1 ā English would referring to a future event that may or may not take place is normally conveyed by the conditional tense of the verb (see 138) ā Elle viendrait si elle avait le temps = she would come if she had the time Note 2 ā English would may also be used to indicate a habitual action in the past and is then conveyed by the imperfect tense in French (see 129) ā Elle venait tous les vendredis = she would come every Friday Note 3 ā the imperative of vouloir may be used to express a polite command (see 122) ā Veuille venir aĢ 20 heures = please come at 8 oāclock Veuillez fermer la feneĢtre = would you mind closing the window? Veuillez vous asseoir = please sit down Note 4 ā the conditional and conditional perfect of aimer are sometimes used as alternatives to the conditional and conditional perfect of vouloir ā Jāaimerais tout recommencer = Iād like to start all over again Jāaurais aimeĢ tout recommencer = Iād have liked to start all over again Impersonal verbs 164 Impersonal verbs Certain verbs are only used with the third person singular form il, which in such circumstances is equivalent to English it. Although the pronoun is invariable, the verb changes for tense. The verbs fall into the following categories ā 1 Verbs relating to the weather Il geĢle = itās freezing Il fait jour = itās daylight Il neige = itās snowing Il pleut = itās raining 88 165 Defective verbs Il tonne = itās thundering Quel temps fait-il? = whatās the weather like? Il fait beau/mauvais/chaud/froid = the weather is fine/awful/hot/cold Il fait un temps gris = itās overcast Il fait du soleil/vent = itās sunny/windy 2 Impersonal expressions il y a = there is il faut que (+ subjunctive) = itās necessary (see 150) il sāagit de = itās a matter/question of il semble/paraıĢt que (+ subjunctive) = it seems that (see 150) il arrive = it happens (see 150) Il māarrive de temps en temps dāen dire trop = it sometimes happens that I say too much 3 Expressions involving eĢtre Quelle heure est-il? ā Il est dix-huit heures = whatās the time? ā Itās 6 oāclock (see 440) Il est temps de/que (+ subjunctive) = itās time to/that (see 150) Il est question de/que (+ subjunctive) = itās a matter of/that (see 150) Il eĢtait une fois = once upon a time Il est possible / impossible / probable / peu probable / vrai / faux, etc = itās possible/ impossible/likely/unlikely/true/wrong (see 150) Defective verbs 165 Defective verbs Certain verbs do not have a complete conjugation for each tense. These are known as defective verbs. They tend to be rather archaic, rare verbs. absoudre = to absolve, bruire = to rustle, choir/deĢchoir = to fall, clore = to close, dissoudre = to dissolve, frire = to fry, ouıĢr = to hear (past participle only, ouıĢ), traire = to milk Most of these verbs mainly occur as infinitives and past participles, often acting as adjectives; their conjugated forms have by and large disappeared from common use. Tous sont dāaccord que ce dossier nāest jamais clos = everyone agrees that this file is never closed Quand votre partenaire vous quitte pour une autre, on se sent deĢchu dans un univers terne et vide = when your partner leaves you for someone else, you feel abandoned in an empty, drab world La fusion avec lāautre, cāest lāexpeĢrience inouıĢe = to become united with your partner is an incredible experience However, one or two have lost only a few tenses ā absoudre and dissoudre have retained all tenses except the past historic and imperfect subjunctive; frire no longer has the imperfect or past historic tenses or the simple subjunctive tenses. Even so, the tenses that are retained are very rarely used. 89 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Exercises 1 Les impeĢratifs ā reĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en donnant les formes de lāimpeĢratif qui conviennent. a DONāT FORGET de fermer le reĢcipient avant de mouliner son contenu. b Le look gothique est aĢ la page. BE AWARE toutefois quāil faut en user avec modeĢration. c Avec un blouson en cuir, DARE les grosses ceintures clouteĢes ou aĢ boucle en argent. d Vous avez des probleĢmes de pellicules et pas de shampooing adeĢquat? TAKE deux aspirines effervescentes, DISSOLVE THEM dans un verre dāeau et RUB le cuir chevelu avec la preĢparation obtenue. e AllongeĢ sur le dos, la main droite derrieĢre la teĢte, STRETCH votre jambe droite aĢ la verticale et BEND celle de gauche, le pied au sol. En expirant, BRING votre main gauche TOWARDS de votre cheville droite. DO cinq seĢries de 15 reĢpeĢtitions. f AVOID de poser la question brutalement. g CONCENTRATE, CALM votre coeur: le stress se calme aĢ son tour et disparaıĢt. h SEASON de sel, poivre et quatre-eĢpices. MIX. INCORPORATE les morceaux de foie gras. COVER. COOK 1h 30 au bain-marie dans le four. ALLOW TO refroidir. KEEP 48h au reĢfrigeĢrateur. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez le texte suivant en style indirect, en changeant les temps du verbe, les pronoms, etc Commencez ainsi ā PlaneĢte Foot a demandeĢ aĢ Thierry quels sentiments . . . PlaneĢte Foot: Thierry, quels sentiments tāont traverseĢ lāesprit lorsque lāarbitre a donneĢ le coup de sifflet final de la dernieĢre journeĢe du championnat anglais? Thierry Henry: Terminer un championnat invaincu, cāest vraiment formidable. Mais, sur le coup, je ne māen rends pas compte. Tu sais que lāarbitre a siffleĢ, mais deĢjaĢ, on eĢtait champions depuis presque un mois et, cinq jours apreĢs, on sait que lāon joue le BreĢsil au Stade de France. On nāa pas reĢellement le temps dāen profiter. Tu ne lāappreĢcies pas vraiment. Il faut passer aĢ autre chose. 3 Subjonctif ou indicatif? ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en donnant la forme du verbe qui convient ā a Il faut bien que votre cheĢri SE DEĢTENDRE de temps en temps. b Je veux tāembrasser avant que on EĢTRE de retour aĢ Calais. c La premieĢre fois que je le VOIR, cāeĢtait en classe de seconde. d Je veux quāelle SāEN SORTIR vite. e Cāest le cinquieĢme de ce type quāelle CONNAIĢTRE. f Pour que le sommeil EĢTRE reĢellement reĢparateur, mettez votre esprit et votre corps en veille. g Utilisez plusieurs cotons en vous deĢmaquillant jusquāaĢ ce que vous LEVER toute trace de votre maquillage. h Dans certaines seĢries les filles nāheĢsitent pas aĢ se bagarrer, que ce EĢTRE les forces du mal ou les vampires. i Il faut pondeĢrer deux criteĢres majeurs: la proportion de blessures enregistreĢes par sport en fonction du nombre des pratiquants et la graviteĢ de celles-ci, quel que EĢTRE le niveau de pratique. 90 Exercises j En cas de surchauffe, un dispositif de coupure thermique eĢvite que le robot (ne) PARTIR en fumeĢe. k Dommage que tu ne EĢTRE pas laĢ. l Si votre chapeau est vert clair avec des deĢtails graphiques, la fille que vous draguez pensera que vous AVOIR de lāhumour. m La seule chose quāil SAVOIR de son peĢre cāest quāil a probablement eĢtudieĢ ici. n GarcĢ§ons et filles ont des relations homosexuelles aĢ cet aĢge sans que ce EĢTRE deĢfinitif. 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en donnant la forme du verbe modal qui convient ā a Ils comprennent vite que pour reĢussir ils HAVE TO fabriquer leurs propres produits. b La compagnie WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN ABLE TO reĢussir ses campagnes de publiciteĢ, sans ses produits phares. c Quel MIGHT eĢtre lāobjet dāune nouvelle loi? d Il HAD TO eĢviter dāinsulter ses colleĢgues. e Paris et Berlin DID NOT WANT TO eĢdulcorer un projet qui donne aĢ chaque EĢtat membre un nombre de voix plus en rapport avec son poids deĢmographique. f Le handball francĢ§ais CAN bien compter 220 000 licencieĢs dans tous les coins du territoire. g Si ce traitement ne suffit pas, le dermatologue WILL BE ABLE TO vous prescrire des meĢdicaments adapteĢs. h Pour un soutien de poitrine optimal, deux mesures HAVE TO eĢtre prises en compte, celle du tour de buste (le chiffre) et celle des bonnets (la lettre). i Des en-cas aux desserts les plus fins, le robot de cuisine CAN tout faire. j Si lāinsolation est grave, elle MAY neĢcessiter une hospitalisation, et la victime WILL HAVE TO eĢtre aĢ jeun. k Il est seul aĢ TO BE ABLE TO atteindre sa cible de facĢ§on seĢlective. l Si je lāavais rencontreĢe, je WOULD HAVE BEEN ABLE TO lāaimer, mais pas māentendre avec elle. m On se rassure comme on CAN. n En Coupe dāEurope on ne MUST pas ceĢder lāavantage aĢ lāadversaire. o On ne SHOULD pas accepter cet eĢloge funeĢbre de la presse ā lāavenir appartient aĢ la teĢleĢvision digitale: la presse eĢcrite est finie. 91 Chapter 3 Tabular treatment of verbs 166 Order of presentation The verbs are presented by major group, as set out in 1ā114, indicative mood tenses first and then subjunctive mood tenses. In the tables references are made to those sections where special mention is made of the particular tense of the verb. 175ā176 provides an alphabetical list of verbs. The list does not include regular Group 1 āer verbs, but contains ā 1 those verbs treated in the discursive section 2 those treated in the tabular section 3 other common verbs not mentioned in either of those sections. In this case an indication is given of which verb, dealt with in the two main sections, the verb is related to or conjugated like. One or two verbs require separate treatment, as they do not relate to any other verbs. For verbs conjugated with eĢtre in compound tenses, in order to economise on space and density of information, not every permutation of past participle endings has been indicated ā third person singular and plural and second person plural have been shown as permitting variation in the form of the participle. However, it should be remembered that depending upon the gender of the subject of the other persons, an āe may have to be added (eg je suis alleĢe, tu es alleĢe, nous sommes alleĢes, vous eĢtes alleĢe, vous eĢtes alleĢes). 92 porte portes porte portons portez portent 16 acheĢte acheĢtes acheĢte achetons achetez acheĢtent 18 vais vas va allons allez vont 21 porter aller acheter present verb allais allais allait allions alliez allaient 44 portais portais portait portions portiez portaient 44 achetais achetais achetait achetions achetiez achetaient imperfect porterai porteras portera porterons porterez porteront 47 acheĢterai acheĢteras acheĢtera acheĢterons acheĢterez acheĢteront 48 irai iras ira irons irez iront 49 future porterais porterais porterait porterions porteriez porteraient 47 acheĢterais acheĢterais acheĢterait acheĢterions acheĢteriez acheĢteront 48 irais irais irait irions iriez iraient 49 conditional All verbs ending in āer are conjugated like porter, unless they figure in the table below. 167 Group 1 āer verbs Group 1 āer Verbs INDICATIVE MOOD allai allas alla allaĢmes allaĢtes alleĢrent 76 portai portas porta portaĢmes portaĢtes porteĢrent 76 achetai achetas acheta achetaĢmes achetaĢtes acheteĢrent past historic suis alleĢ es alleĢ est alleĢ(e) sommes alleĢs eĢtes alleĢ(es) sont alleĢ(e)s 67 ai porteĢ as porteĢ a porteĢ avons porteĢ avez porteĢ ont porteĢ 67 ai acheteĢ as acheteĢ a acheteĢ avons acheteĢ avez acheteĢ ont acheteĢ perfect allant 56 achetant 56 portant 56 present participle espeĢrer envoyer espeĢre espeĢres espeĢre espeĢrons espeĢrez espeĢrent 19 appelle appelles appelle appelons appelez appellent 18 commence commences commence commencĢ§ons commencez commencent 20 envoie envoies envoie envoyons envoyez envoient appeler commencer present verb espeĢrais espeĢrais espeĢrait espeĢrions espeĢriez espeĢraient commencĢ§ais commencĢ§ais commencĢ§ait commencions commenciez commencĢ§aient 44 envoyais envoyais envoyait envoyions envoyiez envoyaient appelais appelais appelait appelions appeliez appelaient imperfect enverrai enverras enverra enverrons enverrez enverront 49 espeĢrerai espeĢreras espeĢrera espeĢrerons espeĢrerez espeĢreront 48 appellerai appelleras appellera appellerons appellerez appelleront 48 commencerai commenceras commencera commencerons commencerez commenceront future enverrais enverrais enverrait enverrions enverriez enverraient 49 espeĢrerais espeĢrerais espeĢrerait espeĢrerions espeĢreriez espeĢreraient 48 appellerais appellerais appellerait appellerions appelleriez appelleront 48 commencerais commencerais commencerait commencerions commenceriez commenceraient conditional espeĢrai espeĢras espeĢra espeĢraĢmes espeĢraĢtes espeĢreĢrent commencĢ§ai commencĢ§as commencĢ§a commencĢ§aĢmes commencĢ§aĢtes commenceĢrent 76 envoyai envoyas envoya envoyaĢmes envoyaĢtes envoyeĢrent appelai appelas appela appelaĢmes appelaĢtes appeleĢrent past historic ai espeĢreĢ as espeĢreĢ a espeĢreĢ avons espeĢreĢ avez espeĢreĢ ont espeĢreĢ ai envoyeĢ as envoyeĢ a envoyeĢ avons envoyeĢ avez envoyeĢ ont envoyeĢ ai commenceĢ as commenceĢ a commenceĢ avons commenceĢ avez commenceĢ ont commenceĢ ai appeleĢ as appeleĢ a appeleĢ avons appeleĢ avez appeleĢ ont appeleĢ perfect espeĢrant 56 envoyant commencĢ§ant 56 appelant 56 present participle mener manger jeter jette jettes jette jetons jetez jettent 18 mange manges mange mangeons mangez mangent 20 meĢne meĢnes meĢne menons menez meĢnent 19 mangeais mangeais mangeait mangions mangiez mangeaient 44 menais menais menait menions meniez menaient jetais jetais jetait jetions jetiez jetaient meĢnerai meĢneras meĢnera meĢnerons meĢnerez meĢneront 48 jetterai jetteras jettera jetterons jetterez jetteront 48 mangerai mangeras mangera mangerons mangerez mangeront meĢnerais meĢnerais meĢnerait meĢnerions meĢneriez meĢneront 48 jetterais jetterais jetterait jetterions jetteriez jetteront 48 mangerais mangerais mangerait mangerions mangeriez mangeraient mangeai mangeas mangea mangeaĢmes mangeaĢtes mangeĢrent 76 menai menas mena menaĢmes menaĢtes meneĢrent jetai jetas jeta jetaĢmes jetaĢtes jeteĢrent ai meneĢ as meneĢ a meneĢ avons meneĢ avez meneĢ ont meneĢ ai mangeĢ as mangeĢ a mangeĢ avons mangeĢ avez mangeĢ ont mangeĢ ai jeteĢ as jeteĢ a jeteĢ avons jeteĢ avez jeteĢ ont jeteĢ menant 56 mangeant 56 jetant finis finis finit finissons finissez finissent 24 cours cours court courons courez courent 25 cueille cueilles cueille cueillons cueillez cueillent 26 dors dors finir dormir cueillir courir present verb dormais dormais cueillais cueillais cueillait cueillions cueilliez cueillaient finissais finissais finissait finissions finissiez finissaient 44 courais courais courait courions couriez couraient imperfect finirai finiras finira finirons finirez finiront 50 courrai courras courra courrons courrez courront 52 cueillerai cueilleras cueillera cueillerons cueillerez cueilleront 51 dormirai dormiras future finirais finirais finirait finirions finiriez finiraient 50 courrais courrais courrait courrions courriez courraient 52 cueillerais cueillerais cueillerait cueillerions cueilleriez cueilleraient 51 dormirais dormirais conditional 1 those like finir which form the three persons plural with āissā between stem and ending; 2 those like courir which do not. Remember that Group 2 verbs are of two main types ā 168 Group 2 āir verbs Group 2 āir Verbs finis finis finit finıĢmes finıĢtes finirent 78 courus courus courut couruĢmes couruĢtes coururent 80 cueillis cueillis cueillit cueillıĢmes cueillıĢtes cueillirent 78 dormis dormis past historic ai dormi as dormi ai cueilli as cueilli a cueilli avons cueilli avez cueilli ont cueilli ai fini as fini a fini avons fini avez fini ont fini 67 ai couru as couru a couru avons couru avez couru ont couru perfect dormant cueillant courant finissant 56 present participle venir partir ouvrir mourir pars pars part partons partez partent 25 viens viens vient venons venez viennent 27 dort dormons dormez dorment 27 meurs meurs meurt mourons mourez meurent 28 ouvre ouvres ouvre ouvrons ouvrez ouvrent partais partais partait partions partiez partaient 44 venais venais venait venions veniez venaient ouvrais ouvrais ouvrait ouvrions ouvriez ouvraient mourais mourais mourait mourions mouriez mouraient dormait dormions dormiez dormaient viendrai viendras viendra viendrons viendrez viendront 52 partirai partiras partira partirons partirez partiront dormira dormirons dormirez dormiront 50 mourrai mourras mourra mourrons mourrez mourront 52 ouvrirai ouvriras ouvrira ouvrirons ouvrirez ouvriront viendrais viendrais viendrait viendrions viendriez viendraient 52 partirais partirais partirait partirions partiriez partiraient dormirait dormirions dormiriez dormiraient 50 mourrais mourrais mourrait mourrions mourriez mourraient 52 ouvrirais ouvrirais ouvrirait ouvririons ouvririez ouvriraient partis partis partit partıĢmes partıĢtes partirent 78 vins vins vint vıĢnmes vıĢntes vinrent 78 mourus mourus mourut mouruĢmes mouruĢtes moururent 80 ouvris ouvris ouvrit ouvrıĢmes ouvrıĢtes ouvrirent dormit dormıĢmes dormıĢtes dormirent suis mort es mort est mort(e) sommes morts eĢtes mort(e/s) sont mort(e)s 67 ai ouvert as ouvert a ouvert avons ouvert avez ouvert ont ouvert 67 suis parti es parti est parti(e) sommes partis eĢtes parti(e/s) sont parti(e)s 67 suis venu es venu est venu(e) sommes venus eĢtes venu(e/s) sont venu(e)s a dormi avons dormi avez dormi ont dormi venant partant 56 ouvrant mourant bats bats bat battons battez battent 33 bois bois boit buvons buvez boivent 37 conclus conclus conclut concluons concluez concluent 38 conduis conduis conduit conduisons battre conduire conclure boire present verb conduisais conduisais conduisait conduisions concluais concluais concluait concluions concluiez concluaient buvais buvais buvait buvions buviez buvaient battais battais battait battions battiez battaient imperfect conduirai conduiras conduira conduirons conclurai concluras conclura conclurons conclurez concluront boirai boiras boira boirons boirez boiront battrai battras battra battrons battrez battront future Remember that Group 3 verbs belong to a number of subgroups. 169 Group 3 āre verbs Group 3 āre Verbs conduirais conduirais conduirait conduirions conclurais conclurais conclurait conclurions concluriez concluraient boirais boirais boirait boirions boiriez boiraient battrais battrais battrait battrions battriez battraient conditional bus bus but buĢmes buĢtes burent 84 conclus conclus conclut concluĢmes concluĢtes conclurent 84 conduisis conduisis conduisit conduisıĢmes battis battis battit battıĢmes battıĢtes battirent past historic ai conduit as conduit a conduit avons conduit ai conclu as conclu a conclu avons conclu avez conclu ont conclu ai bu as bu a bu avons bu avez bu ont bu ai battu as battu a battu avons battu avez battu ont battu perfect conduisant 56 concluant buvant 56 battant 56 present participle eĢcrire dire croire craindre conduisez conduisent 35 crains crains craint craignons craignez craignent 37 crois crois croit croyons croyez croient 34 dis dis dit disons dites disent 37 eĢcris eĢcris eĢcrit eĢcrivons eĢcrivez eĢcrivent 36 eĢcrivais eĢcrivais eĢcrivait eĢcrivions eĢcriviez eĢcrivaient disais disais disait disions disiez disaient croyais croyais croyait croyions croyiez croyaient craignais craignais craignait craignions craigniez craignaient conduisiez conduisaient eĢcrirai eĢcriras eĢcrira eĢcrirons eĢcrirez eĢcriront dirai diras dira dirons direz diront croirai croiras croira croirons croirez croiront craindrai craindras craindra craindrons craindrez craindront conduirez conduiront eĢcrirais eĢcrirais eĢcrirait eĢcririons eĢcririez eĢcriraient dirais dirais dirait dirions diriez diraient croirais croirais croirait croirions croiriez croiraient craindrais craindrais craindrait craindrions craindriez craindront conduiriez conduiraient conduisıĢtes conduisirent 83 craignis craignis craignit craignıĢmes craignıĢtes craignirent 83 crus crus crut cruĢmes cruĢtes crurent 84 dis dis dit dıĢmes dıĢtes dirent 83 eĢcrivis eĢcrivis eĢcrivit eĢcrivıĢmes eĢcrivıĢtes eĢcrirent 83 ai eĢcrit as eĢcrit a eĢcrit avons eĢcrit avez eĢcrit ont eĢcrit ai dit as dit a dit avons dit avez dit ont dit ai cru as cru a cru avons cru avez cru ont cru ai craint as craint a craint avons craint avez craint ont craint avez conduit ont conduit eĢcrivant 56 disant 56 croyant craignant 57 suis es est sommes eĢtes sont 37 fais fais fait faisons faites font 37 lis lis lit lisons lisez lisent 35 mets mets met mettons mettez mettent 33 eĢtre mettre lire faire present verb mettais mettais mettait mettions mettiez mettaient lisais lisais lisait lisions lisiez lisaient eĢtais eĢtais eĢtait eĢtions eĢtiez eĢtaient 44 faisais faisais faisait faisions faisiez faisaient imperfect mettrai mettras mettra mettrons mettrez mettront serai seras sera serons serez seront 54 ferai feras fera ferons ferez feront 54 lirai liras lira lirons lirez liront future mettrais mettrais mettrait mettrions mettriez mettraient serais serais serait serions seriez seraient 54 ferais ferais ferait ferions feriez feraient 54 lirais lirais lirait lirions liriez liraient conditional fus fus fut fuĢmes fuĢtes furent 84 fis fis fit fıĢmes fıĢtes firent 83 lus lus lut luĢmes luĢtes lurent 84 mis mis mit mıĢmes mıĢtes mirent 83 past historic ai mis as mis a mis avons mis avez mis ont mis a lu as lu a lu avons lu avez lu ont lu ai fait as fait a fait avons fait avez fait ont fait ai eĢteĢ as eĢteĢ a eĢteĢ avons eĢteĢ avez eĢteĢ ont eĢteĢ perfect mettant lisant 56 faisant 56 eĢtant 56 present participle rompre rire reĢpondre prendre perdre perds perds perd perdons perdez perdent 31 prends prends prend prenons prenez prennent 37 reĢponds reĢponds reĢpond reĢpondons reĢpondez reĢpondent 31 ris ris rit rions riez rient 32 romps romps rompt rompais rompais rompait riais riais riait riions riiez riaient reĢpondais reĢpondais reĢpondait reĢpondions reĢpondiez reĢpondaient prenais prenais prenait prenions preniez prenaient perdais perdais perdait perdions perdiez perdaient romprai rompras rompra rirai riras rira rirons rirez riront reĢpondrai reĢpondras reĢpondra reĢpondrons reĢpondrez reĢpondront prendrai prendras prendra prendrons prendrez prendront perdrai perdras perdra perdrons perdrez perdront romprais romprais romprait rirais rirais rirait ririons ririez riraient reĢpondrais reĢpondrais reĢpondrait reĢpondrions reĢpondriez reĢpondraient prendrais prendrais prendrait prendrions prendriez prendraient perdrais perdrais perdrait perdrions perdriez perdraient rompis rompis rompit ris ris rit rıĢmes rıĢtes rirent pris pris prit prıĢmes prıĢtes prirent 83 reĢpondis reĢpondis reĢpondit reĢpondıĢmes reĢpondıĢtes reĢpondirent perdis perdis perdit perdıĢmes perdıĢtes perdirent ai rompu as rompu a rompu ai ri as ri a ri avons ri avez ri ont ri ai pris as pris a pris avons pris avez pris ont pris 67 ai reĢpondu as reĢpondu a reĢpondu avons reĢpondu avez reĢpondu ont reĢpondu ai perdu as perdu a perdu avons perdu avez perdu ont perdu rompant 56 riant reĢpondant prenant 56 perdant vivre vendre verb rompions rompiez rompaient rompons rompez rompent 32 vends vends vend vendons vendez vendent 31 vis vis vit vivons vivez vivent 37 vendais vendais vendait vendions vendiez vendaient 44 vivais vivais vivait vivions viviez vivaient imperfect present vendrai vendras vendra vendrons vendrez vendront 53 vivrai vivras vivra vivrons vivrez vivront romprons romprez rompront future vendrais vendrais vendrait vendrions vendriez vendraient 53 vivrais vivrais vivrait vivrions vivriez vivraient romprions rompriez rompraient conditional vendis vendis vendit vendıĢmes vendıĢtes vendirent 83 veĢcus veĢcus veĢcut veĢcuĢmes veĢcuĢtes veĢcurent 84 rompıĢmes rompıĢtes rompirent past historic ai vendu as vendu a vendu avons vendu avez vendu ont vendu 67 ai veĢcu as veĢcu a veĢcu avons veĢcu avez veĢcu ont veĢcu avons rompu avez rompu ont rompu perfect vivant vendant 56 present participle assieds assieds assied asseyons asseyez asseyent 42 ai as a avons avez ont 42 dois dois doit devons devez doivent 42 faut 42 pleut 42 (sā)asseoir pleuvoir falloir devoir avoir present verb pleuvait fallait avais avais avait avions aviez avaient 44 devais devais devait devions deviez devaient asseyais asseyais asseyait asseyions asseyiez asseyaient imperfect aurai auras aura aurons aurez auront 55 devrai devras devra devrons devrez devront 55 faudra 55 pleuvra 55 assieĢrai assieĢras assieĢra assieĢrons assieĢrez assieĢront future aurais aurais aurait aurions auriez auraient 55 devrais devrais devrait devrions devriez devraient 55 faudrait 55 pleuvrait 55 assieĢrais assieĢrais assieĢrait assieĢrions assieĢriez assieĢraient conditional Remember that Group 4 verbs are very diverse in their tense formations. 170 Group 4 āoir verbs Group 4 āoir Verbs assis assis assit assıĢmes assıĢtes assirent 86 eus eus eut euĢmes euĢtes eurent 87 dus dus dut duĢmes duĢtes durent 87 fallut 87 plut 87 past historic a plu a fallu ai duĢ as duĢ a duĢ avons duĢ avez duĢ ont duĢ ai eu as eu a eu avons eu avez eu ont eu suis assis es assis est assis(e) sommes assis eĢtes assis(e/s) sont assis(es) perfect pleuvant 56 ā devant 56 ayant 57 asseyant 56 present participle peux peux peut pouvons pouvez peuvent 42 recĢ§ois recĢ§ois recĢ§oit recevons recevez recĢ§oivent 40 sais sais sait savons savez savent 42 pouvoir savoir recevoir present verb pouvais pouvais pouvait pouvions pouviez pouvaient 44 recevais recevais recevait recevions receviez recevaient 44 savais savais savait savions saviez savaient imperfect pourrai pourras pourra pourrons pourrez pourront 55 recevrai recevras recevra recevrons recevrez recevront 55 saurai sauras saura saurons saurez sauront 55 future pourrais pourrais pourrait pourrions pourriez pourraient 55 recevrais recevrais recevrait recevrions recevriez recevraient 55 saurais saurais saurait saurions sauriez sauraient 55 conditional pus pus put puĢmes puĢtes purent 87 recĢ§us recĢ§us recĢ§ut recĢ§uĢmes recĢ§uĢtes recĢ§urent 87 sus sus sut suĢmes suĢtes surent 87 past historic ai pu as pu a pu avons pu avez pu ont pu 67 ai recĢ§u as recĢ§u a recĢ§u avons recĢ§u avez recĢ§u ont recĢ§u 67 ai su as su a su avons su avez su ont su perfect sachant 57 recevant 56 pouvant 56 present participle vouloir voir valoir vaux vaux vaut valons valez valent 42 vois vois voit voyons voyez voient 41 veux veux veut voulons voulez veulent 42 voyais voyais voyait voyions voyiez voyaient 44 voulais voulais voulait voulions vouliez voulaient valais valais valait valions valiez valaient vaudrai vaudras vaudra vaudrons vaudrez vaudront 55 verrai verras verra verrons verrez verront 55 voudrai voudras voudra voudrons voudrez voudront 55 vaudrais vaudrais vaudrait vaudrions vaudriez vaudraient 55 verrais verrais verrait verrions verriez verraient 55 voudrais voudrais voudrait voudrions voudriez voudraient 55 valus valus valut valuĢmes valuĢtes valurent 87 vis vis vit vıĢmes vıĢtes virent 87 voulus voulus voulut vouluĢmes vouluĢtes voulurent 87 ai voulu as voulu a voulu avons voulu avez voulu ont voulu ai vu as vu a vu avons vu avez vu ont vu ai valu as valu a valu avons valu avez valu ont valu voulant 56 voyant 56 valant 56 porte portes porte portions portiez portent 92 acheĢte acheĢtes acheĢte achetions achetiez acheĢtent 92 aille ailles aille allions alliez aillent 93 porter aller acheter present verb 171 Group 1 āer verbs Group 1 āer Verbs SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD allasse allasses allaĢt allassions allassiez allassent 100 portasse portasses portaĢt portassions portassiez portassent 100 achetasse achetasses achetaĢt achetassions achetassiez achetassent imperfect sois alleĢ sois alleĢ soit alleĢ(e) soyons alleĢs soyez alleĢ(e/s) soient alleĢ(e)s aie acheteĢ aies acheteĢ ait acheteĢ ayons acheteĢ ayez acheteĢ aient acheteĢ aie porteĢ aies porteĢ ait porteĢ ayons porteĢ ayez porteĢ aient porteĢ perfect fusse alleĢ fusses alleĢ fuĢt alleĢ(e) fussions alleĢs fussiez alleĢ(e/s) fussent alleĢ(e)s eusse acheteĢ eusses acheteĢ euĢt acheteĢ eussions acheteĢ eussiez acheteĢ eussent acheteĢ eusse porteĢ eusses porteĢ euĢt porteĢ eussions porteĢ eussiez porteĢ eussent porteĢ pluperfect espeĢrer envoyer commencer appeler espeĢre espeĢres appelle appelles appelle appelions appeliez appellent 92 commence commences commence commencions commenciez commencent 92 envoie envoies envoie envoyions envoyiez envoient espeĢrasse espeĢrasses envoyasse envoyasses envoyaĢt envoyassions envoyassiez envoyassent commencĢ§asse commencĢ§asses commencĢ§aĢt commencĢ§assions commencĢ§assiez commencĢ§assent appelasse appelasses appelaĢt appelassions appelassiez appelassent aie espeĢreĢ aies espeĢreĢ aie envoyeĢ aies envoyeĢ ait envoyeĢ ayons envoyeĢ ayez envoyeĢ aient envoyeĢ aie commenceĢ aies commenceĢ ait commenceĢ ayons commenceĢ ayez commenceĢ aient commenceĢ aie appeleĢ aies appeleĢ ait appeleĢ ayons appeleĢ ayez appeleĢ aient appeleĢ eusse espeĢreĢ eusses espeĢreĢ eusse envoyeĢ eusses envoyeĢ euĢt envoyeĢ eussions envoyeĢ eussiez envoyeĢ eussent envoyeĢ eusse commenceĢ eusses commenceĢ euĢt commenceĢ eussions commenceĢ eussiez commenceĢ eussent commenceĢ eusse appeleĢ eusses appeleĢ euĢt appeleĢ eussions appeleĢ eussiez appeleĢ eussent appeleĢ mener manger verb espeĢraĢt espeĢrassions espeĢrassiez espeĢrassent espeĢre espeĢrions espeĢriez espeĢrent 92 mange manges mange mangions mangiez mangent 92 meĢne meĢnes meĢne menions meniez meĢnent 92 menasse menasses menaĢt menassions menassiez menassent mangeasse mangeasses mangeaĢt mangeassions mangeassiez mangeassent imperfect present aie meneĢ aies meneĢ ait meneĢ ayons meneĢ ayez meneĢ aient meneĢ aie mangeĢ aies mangeĢ ait mangeĢ ayons mangeĢ ayez mangeĢ aient mangeĢ ait espeĢreĢ ayons espeĢreĢ ayez espeĢreĢ aient espeĢreĢ perfect eusse meneĢ eusses meneĢ euĢt meneĢ eussions meneĢ eussiez meneĢ eussent meneĢ eusse mangeĢ eusses mangeĢ euĢt mangeĢ eussions mangeĢ eussiez mangeĢ eussent mangeĢ euĢt espeĢreĢ eussions espeĢreĢ eussiez espeĢreĢ eussent espeĢreĢ pluperfect finisse finisses finisse finissions finissiez finissent 94 coure coures coure courions couriez courent 94 cueille cueilles cueille cueillions cueilliez cueillent 94 dorme dormes dorme dormions dormiez dorment finir dormir cueillir courir present verb 172 Group 2 āir verbs Group 2 āir Verbs dormisse dormisses dormıĢt dormissions dormissiez dormissent finisse finisses finıĢt finissions finissiez finissent 100 courusse courusses couruĢt courussions courussiez courussent 100 cueillisse cueillisses cueillıĢt cueillissions cueillissiez cueillissent imperfect aie dormi aies dormi ait dormi ayons dormi ayez dormi aient dormi aie cueilli aies cueilli ait cueilli ayons cueilli ayez cueilli aient cueilli aie couru aies couru ait couru ayons couru ayez couru aient couru aie fini aies fini ait fini ayons fini ayez fini aient fini perfect eusse dormi eusses dormi euĢt dormi eussions dormi eussiez dormi eussent dormi eusse cueilli eusses cueilli euĢt cueilli eussions cueilli eussiez cueilli eussent cueilli eusse couru eusses couru euĢt couru eussions couru eussiez couru eussent couru eusse fini eusses fini euĢt fini eussions fini eussiez fini eussent fini pluperfect present meure meures meure mourions mouriez meurent ouvre ouvres ouvre ouvrions ouvriez ouvrent parte partes parte partions partiez partent vienne viennes vienne venions veniez viennent 94 verb mourir ouvrir partir venir vinsse vinsses vıĢnt vinssions vinssiez vinssent partisse partisses partıĢt partissions partissiez partissent ouvrisse ouvrisses ouvrıĢt ouvrissions ouvrissiez ouvrissent mourusse mourusses mouruĢt mourussions mourussiez mourussent imperfect sois venu sois venu soit venu(e) soyons venus soyez venu(e/s) soient venu(e)s sois parti sois parti soit parti(e) soyons partis soyez parti(e/s) soient parti(e)s aie ouvert aies ouvert ait ouvert ayons ouvert ayez ouvert aient ouvert sois mort sois mort soit mort(e) soyons morts soyez mort(e/s) soient mort(e)s perfect fusse venu fusses venu fuĢt venu(e) fussions venus fussiez venu(e/s) fussent venu(e)s fusse parti fusses parti fuĢt parti(e) fussions partis fussiez parti(e/s) fussent parti(e)s eusse ouvert eusses ouvert euĢt ouvert eussions ouvert eussiez ouvert eussent ouvert fusse mort fusses mort fuĢt mort(e) fussions morts fussiez mort(e/s) fussent mort(e)s pluperfect batte battes batte battions battiez battent 95 boive boives boive buvions buviez boivent conclue conclues conclue concluions concluiez concluent conduise conduises conduise conduisions conduisiez conduisent 95 battre conclure conduire boire present verb 173 Group 3 āre verbs Group 3 āre Verbs conduisisse conduisisses conduisıĢt conduisissions conduisissiez conduisissent conclusse conclusses concluĢt conclussions conclussiez conclussent busse busses buĢt bussions bussiez bussent battisse battisses battıĢt battissions battissiez battissent imperfect aie conduit aies conduit ait conduit ayons conduit ayez conduit aient conduit aie conclu aies conclu ait conclu ayons conclu ayez conclu aient conclu aie bu aies bu ait bu ayons bu ayez bu aient bu aie battu aies battu ait battu ayons battu ayez battu aient battu perfect eusse conduit eusses conduit euĢt conduit eussions conduit eussiez conduit eussent conduit eusse conclu eusses conclu euĢt conclu eussions conclu eussiez conclu eussent conclu eusse bu eusses bu euĢt bu eussions bu eussiez bu eussent bu eusse battu eusses battu euĢt battu eussions battu eussiez battu eussent battu pluperfect craigne craignes craigne craignions craigniez craignent croie croies croie croyions croyiez croient 95 dise dises dise disions disiez disent 95 eĢcrive eĢcrives eĢcrive eĢcrivions eĢcriviez eĢcrivent 95 sois sois soit soyons craindre croire eĢtre eĢcrire dire present verb fusse fusses fuĢt fussions eĢcrivisse eĢcrivisses eĢcrivıĢt eĢcrivissions eĢcrivissiez eĢcrivissent disse disses dıĢt dissions dissiez dissent crusse crusses cruĢt crussions crussiez crussent craignisse craignisses craignıĢt craignissions craignissiez craignissent imperfect aie eĢteĢ aies eĢteĢ ait eĢteĢ ayons eĢteĢ aie eĢcrit aies eĢcrit ait eĢcrit ayons eĢcrit ayez eĢcrit aient eĢcrit aie dit aies dit ait dit ayons dit ayez dit aient dit aie cru aies cru ait cru ayons cru ayez cru aient cru aie craint aies craint ait craint ayons craint ayez craint aient craint perfect eusse eĢteĢ eusses eĢteĢ euĢt eĢteĢ eussions eĢteĢ eusse eĢcrit eusses eĢcrit euĢt eĢcrit eussions eĢcrit eussiez eĢcrit eussent eĢcrit eusse dit eusses dit euĢt dit eussions dit eussiez dit eussent dit eusse cru eusses cru euĢt cru eussions cru eussiez cru eussent cru eusse craint eusses craint euĢt craint eussions craint eussiez craint eussent craint pluperfect mette mettes mette mettions mettiez mettent perde perdes perde perdions perdiez perdent prenne prennes prenne prenions preniez prennent mettre perdre prendre lire faire soyez soient 96 fasse fasses fasse fassions fassiez fassent 96 lise lises lise lisions lisiez lisent prisse prisses prıĢt prissions prissiez prissent perdisse perdisses perdıĢt perdissions perdissiez perdissent misse misses mıĢt missions missiez missent lusse lusses luĢt lussions lussiez lussent fussiez fussent 100 fisse fisses fıĢt fissions fissiez fissent aie pris aies pris ait pris ayons pris ayez pris aient pris aie perdu aies perdu ait perdu ayons perdu ayez perdu aient perdu aie mis aies mis ait mis ayons mis ayez mis aient mis aie lu aies lu ait lu ayons lu ayez lu aient lu aie fait aies fait ait fait ayons fait ayez fait aient fait ayez eĢteĢ aient eĢteĢ eusse pris eusses pris euĢt pris eussions pris eussiez pris eussent pris eusse perdu eusses perdu euĢt perdu eussions perdu eussiez perdu eussent perdu eusse mis eusses mis euĢt mis eussions mis eussiez mis eussent mis eusse lu eusses lu euĢt lu eussions lu eussiez lu eussent lu eusse fait eusses fait euĢt fait eussions fait eussiez fait eussent fait eussiez eĢteĢ eussent eĢteĢ reĢponde reĢpondes reĢponde reĢpondions reĢpondiez reĢpondent rie ries rie riions riiez rient rompe rompes rompe rompions rompiez rompent 95 vende vendes vende vendions vendiez vendent 95 vive vives vive vivions viviez vivent reĢpondre rire rompre vivre vendre present verb vendisse vendisses vendıĢt vendissions vendissiez vendissent 100 veĢcusse veĢcusses veĢcuĢt veĢcussions veĢcussiez veĢcussent rompisse rompisses rompıĢt rompissions rompissiez rompissent risse risses rıĢt rissions rissiez rissent reĢpondisse reĢpondisse reĢpondıĢt reĢpondissions reĢpondissiez reĢpondissent imperfect aie veĢcu aies veĢcu ait veĢcu ayons veĢcu ayez veĢcu aient veĢcu aie vendu aies vendu ait vendu ayons vendu ayez vendu aient vendu aie rompu aies rompu ait rompu ayons rompu ayez rompu aient rompu aie ri aies ri ait ri ayons ri ayez ri aient ri aie reĢpondu aies reĢpondu ait reĢpondu ayons reĢpondu ayez reĢpondu aient reĢpondu perfect eusse veĢcu eusses veĢcu euĢt veĢcu eussions veĢcu eussiez veĢcu eussent veĢcu eusse vendu eusses vendu euĢt vendu eussions vendu eussiez vendu eussent vendu eusse rompu eusses rompu euĢt rompu eussions rompu eussiez rompu eussent rompu eusse ri eusses ri euĢt ri eussions ri eussiez ri eussent ri eusse reĢpondu eusses reĢpondu euĢt reĢpondu eussions reĢpondu eussiez reĢpondu eussent reĢpondu pluperfect asseye asseyes asseye asseyions asseyiez asseyent aie aies ait ayons ayez aient 98 doive doives doive devions deviez doivent 97 faille pleuve puisse puisses puisse pouvions pouviez puissent 98 (sā)asseoir pleuvoir pouvoir falloir devoir avoir present verb 174 Group 4 āoir verbs Group 4 āoir Verbs pusse pusses puĢt pussions pussiez pussent 100 pluĢt falluĢt assisse assisses assıĢt assissions assissiez assissent eusse eusses euĢt eussions eussiez eussent 100 dusse dusses duĢt dussions dussiez dussent imperfect aie pu aies pu ait pu ayons pu ayez pu aient pu ait plu ait fallu aie duĢ aies duĢ ait duĢ ayons duĢ ayez duĢ aient duĢ sois assis sois assis soit assis(e) soyons assis soyez assis (e/s) soient assis(es) aie eu aies eu ait eu ayons eu ayez eu aient eu perfect eusse pu eusses pu euĢt pu eussions pu eussiez pu eussent pu euĢt plu euĢt fallu eusse duĢ eusses duĢ euĢt duĢ eussions duĢ eussiez duĢ eussent duĢ fusse assis fusses assis fuĢt assis(e) fussions assis fussiez assis (e/s) fussent assis(es) eusse eu eusses eu euĢt eu eussions eu eussiez eu eussent eu pluperfect recĢ§oive recĢ§oives recĢ§oive recevions receviez recĢ§oivent 97 sache saches sache sachions sachiez sachent 98 vaille vailles vaille valions valiez vaillent voie voies voie voyions voyiez voient 97 veuille veuilles veuille voulions vouliez veuillent 98 recevoir voir vouloir valoir savoir present verb voulusse voulusses vouluĢt voulussions voulussiez voulussent visse visses vıĢt vissions vissiez vissent valusse valusses valuĢt valussions valussiez valussent susse susses suĢt sussions sussiez sussent recĢ§usse recĢ§usses recĢ§uĢt recĢ§ussions recĢ§ussiez recĢ§ussent imperfect aie voulu aies voulu ait voulu ayons voulu ayez voulu aient voulu aie vu aies vu ait vu ayons vu ayez vu aient vu aie valu aies valu ait valu ayons valu ayez valu aient valu aie su aies su ait su ayons su ayez su aient su aie recĢ§u aies recĢ§u ait recĢ§u ayons recĢ§u ayez recĢ§u aient recĢ§u perfect eusse voulu eusses voulu euĢt voulu eussions voulu eussiez voulu eussent voulu eusse vu eusses vu euĢt vu eussions vu eussiez vu eussent vu eusse valu eusses valu euĢt valu eussions valu eussiez valu eussent valu eusse su eusses su euĢt su eussions su eussiez su eussent su eusse recĢ§u eusses recĢ§u euĢt recĢ§u eussions recĢ§u eussiez recĢ§u eussent recĢ§u pluperfect Exercises Exercises ReĢeĢcrivez les passage suivants en donnant les formes du verbe qui conviennent ā a Naissance de la haine dans le couple « Je DEĢPEĢRIR en son absence. Je me VIDER de mon sens. Il SUPPORTER mal. En fait, je VOULOIR EĢTRE lui. Mais il CHANGER les reĢgles du jeu; lāintranquilliteĢ me RENDRE haineuse. » « Elle me ENTRAIĢNER dans cette intensiteĢ et se LASSER. Je AVOIR la haine » RECONNAIĢTRE Franck, « Je SE SENTIR MANIPULER et PERDRE. » « Si je AVOIR 20 ans, je le QUITTER avec un plan de reconqueĢte; mais aĢ mon aĢge, je SAVOIR que le temps PASSER EĢTRE PERDRE pour son deĢsir. Je POUVOIR SE FLINGUER parce que tout EĢTRE JOUER et que je EĢTRE lasse. » b Mon patron et moi Ce lundi-laĢ, je CAUSER aĢ PeĢneĢlope preĢs de la machine aĢ cafeĢ. Mon patron PASSER devant nous et me LANCER, sans meĢme nous REGARDER: « Je POUVOIR te VOIR, sāil te PLAIRE? », le « sāil te PLAIRE » qui FINIR un ton au-dessus du « Je POUVOIR te VOIR . . .», un « sāil te PLAIRE » qui VOULOIR DIRE: « Si cĢ§a te PLAIRE pas, ce EĢTRE pareil. » Je JETER mon gobelet et je OBEĢIR docile comme un chien. Je SENTIR dans mon dos le regard de PeĢneĢlope PLANTER devant le distributeur dāexpressos. Ce EĢTRE en SUIVRE le patron dans le couloir que je SAVOIR ce que je AVOIR aĢ faire. Je DIRE: « HerveĢ! », avec le « veĢ » de HerveĢ un ton au-dessus. Il SE RETOURNER et je lui SAUTER aĢ la gorge en PLANTER mes incisives dans son cou trop gras. Il MOURIR en GIGOTER comme un ver, dans le sang quāil AVOIR toujours tieĢde. c Le Land Rover Si par essence toutes les automobiles CONCEVOIR pour le voyage, certaines en DEVENIR des icoĢnes. Ce EĢTRE le cas du Land Rover dont la simple apparition EĢVOQUER la jungle la plus profonde, les sables du deĢsert. Le « land » EĢTRE une leĢgende vivante. Il CREĢER en 1947 et aĢ lāorigine CONSTRUIRE avec une carrosserie aluminium qui REĢCUPEĢRER sur les carlingues des avions de chasse. Depuis ce temps-laĢ, il POURSUIVRE sa carrieĢre sans que rien ne SEMBLER POUVOIR le ARREĢTER. Quoi quāen DIRE certains, cette automobile RESTER un extraordinaire moyen de transport. d Jāaime le mec quāil ne faut pas Tu ne CONVOITER point. « Les filles EĢTRE jalouses et envieuses meĢme entre elles » PLAISANTER Victor GeĢrard. Elles VOULOIR toujours ce que AVOIR leurs copines. MeĢme leur mec. Alors quand Anne, votre meilleure amie, vous ANNONCER toute fieĢre quāenfin elle METTRE ses mains sur Matthieu . . . Hier encore, vous ne le REMARQUER meĢme pas, mais aujourdāhui il AVOIR tout de suite beaucoup plus dāinteĢreĢt. Avec le temps, les regards SE FAIRE de plus en plus APPUYER entre vous et lui. Il FALLOIR SE RENDRE aĢ lāeĢvidence: vous CRAQUER pour ce beau brun! e Jāai gueĢri de mon heĢpatite C Le virus DISPARAIĢTRE, mais il FALLOIR toutefois CONTINUER les injections hebdomadaires dāinterfeĢron. Je SE RENSEIGNER via Internet. Je SAVOIR que lāinterfeĢron EĢTRE une substance naturelle PRODUIRE par les cellules CHARGER de DEĢFENDRE lāorganisme. Cela me RASSURER lors des injections, que je FAIRE moi-meĢme. Je SE SENTIR de plus en plus FATIGUER mais je 117 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR SāACCROCHER. Lāenthousiasme de mon heĢpatologue me PORTER. Mais je DEĢCIDER de CHERCHER de lāaide ailleurs et je SE FAIRE PRESCRIRE des seĢances de kineĢsitheĢrapie, qui me REĢCONFORTER. Je aussi FAIRE appel aĢ un acupuncteur dans lāideĢe de mieux FAIRE CIRCULER les eĢnergies ā cela me AIDER aĢ SOULAGER mes douleurs musculaires. 118 Chapter 4 Verb list 175 Using the list This list contains the most frequently used French verbs. However, it does not include verbs conjugated like porter, ie those hundreds of verbs belonging to Group 1 āer verbs. Each verb occurs in the first column with its meaning, and in the second column has a reference to another verb with which its conjugation is identical or very closely linked, when the verb itself occurs in the tabular section. By referring to the verb mentioned in the second column, it will be possible to deduce the forms of the paradigm of the verb that is being looked up. For example, to discover the paradigm of abattre, it is simply a matter of consulting the battre entry in the Tables above, and making the appropriate adjustments to abattre in the light of the information contained there (169, 173), where reference is also made to the discursive section (33, 56). 176 The list verb conjugated like abattre = to knock down abolir = to abolish aboutir = to finish up aboyer = to bark abreĢger = to abridge absoudre = to absolve battre finir finir essayer espeĢrer + manger present ā absous/absous/absout/absolvons/absolvez/ absolvent; but no past historic tense or imperfect subjunctive; past participle ā absous venir espeĢrer espeĢrer finir courir cueillir acheter mener present ā acquiers/acquiers/acquiert/ acqueĢrons/acqueĢrez/ acquieĢrent; future and conditional ā acquerrai, etc; acquerrais, etc; past historic ā acquis/ acquis/ acquit/acquıĢmes/acquıĢtes/acquirent; past participle acquis espeĢrer mettre sāabstenir = to abstain acceĢder = to reach acceĢleĢrer = to speed up accomplir = to accomplish accourir = to run up accueillir = to welcome acheter = to buy achever = to complete acqueĢrir = to acquire adheĢrer = to stick admettre = to admit 119 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR verb conjugated like adoucir = to soften affaiblir = to weaken affermir = to strengthen affliger = to afflict affranchir = to liberate agacer = to annoy agir = to act agrandir = to enlarge aller = to go allonger = to lengthen alourdir = to weigh down alteĢrer = to affect amaigrir = to slim amener = to bring annoncer = to announce apercevoir = to notice apparaıĢtre = to appear appartenir = to belong appeler = to call applaudir = to applaud apprendre = to learn appuyer = to support assaillir = to attack (sā)asseoir = to sit (down) atteindre = to reach finir finir finir manger finir commencer finir finir aller manger finir espeĢrer finir mener commencer recevoir paraıĢtre venir appeler finir prendre essayer cueillir (sā)asseoir present ā atteins/atteins/atteint/atteignons/atteignez/ atteignent; past historic ā atteignis/atteignis/atteignit/ atteignıĢmes/atteignıĢtes/atteignirent ; past participle ā atteint vendre commencer finir avoir commencer finir battre essayer finir finir espeĢrer boire finir manger essayer finir jeter espeĢrer espeĢrer appeler manger manger attendre = to wait avancer = to advance avertir = to warn avoir = to have balancer = to sway bannir = to banish battre = to beat beĢgayer = to stammer beĢnir = to bless blanchir = to whiten blaspheĢmer = to blaspheme boire = to drink bondir = to leap bouger = to move broyer = to crush brunir = to burnish cacheter = to seal ceĢder = to yield ceĢleĢbrer = to celebrate chanceler = to totter changer = to change charger = to load 120 176 The list verb conjugated like cheĢrir = to cherish choisir = to choose combattre = to fight commencer = to begin commercer = to trade commettre = to commit compleĢter = to complete comprendre = to understand compromettre = to compromise conceĢder = to concede concevoir = to conceive conclure = to conclude conduire = to drive confondre = to confound connaıĢtre = to know conqueĢrir = to conquer consentir = to consent consideĢrer = to consider construire = to construct contraindre = to constrain contredire = to contradict contrefaire = to counterfeit convaincre = to convince convenir = to admit, to agree convertir = to convert corrompre = to corrupt coudoyer = to mix with courir = to run couvrir = to cover craindre = to fear crever = to burst croire = to believe cueillir = to gather cuire = to cook deĢbattre = to discuss deĢcevoir = to deceive deĢcharger = to unload deĢcourager = discourage deĢcouvrir = to discover deĢcrire = to describe deĢdicacer = dedicate deĢduire = to deduce deĢfaillir = to faint deĢfaire = to undo deĢfendre = to defend deĢfinir = to define deĢgager = to free finir finir battre commencer commencer mettre espeĢrer prendre mettre espeĢrer recevoir conclure conduire reĢpondre paraıĢtre venir + acqueĢrir courir espeĢrer conduire craindre dire but 2nd pers pl present ā contredisez faire vaincre venir finir rompre essayer courir ouvrir craindre mener croire cueillir conduire battre recevoir manger manger ouvrir eĢcrire commencer conduire faillir faire vendre finir manger 121 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 122 verb conjugated like deĢgeler = to defrost deĢlibeĢrer = to discuss deĢmeĢnager = to move deĢmolir = to demolish deĢnoncer = to denounce deĢpeindre = to depict deĢpendre = to depend deĢplacer = to dislodge deĢplaire = to displease deĢranger = to disturb descendre = to descend deĢsespeĢrer = to despair deĢsobeĢir = to disobey desseĢcher = to dry out deĢtendre = to release deĢtruire = to destroy devancer = to outstrip devenir = to become devoir = to owe digeĢrer = to digest dire = to speak diriger = to direct disparaıĢtre = to disappear dissoudre = to dissolve divertir = to entertain dormir = to sleep eĢblouir = to dazzle eĢchanger = to exchange eĢclaircir = to clarify eĢcrire = to write eĢgayer = to enliven eĢlargir = to broaden eĢlever = to raise eĢlire = to elect embellir = to embellish eĢmettre = to emit emmener = to lead employer = to employ encourager = to encourage endommager = to damage enfoncer = to push in engager = to hire enlacer = to embrace enlaidir = to make ugly enlever = to take off ennuyer = to bore eĢnoncer = to pronounce enrichir = to enrich entendre = to hear acheter espeĢrer manger finir commencer atteindre prendre commencer plaire manger vendre espeĢrer finir espeĢrer vendre conduire commencer venir devoir espeĢrer dire manger paraıĢtre absoudre; but no past historic or imperfect subjunctive finir dormir finir manger finir eĢcrire essayer finir mener lire finir mettre mener essayer manger manger commencer manger commencer finir mener essayer commencer finir vendre 176 The list verb conjugated like entrelacer = to intertwine entreprendre = to undertake entretenir = to maintain entrevoir = to glimpse eĢnumeĢrer = to enumerate envahir = to invade envisager = to envisage envoyer = to send eĢpeler = to spell eĢponger = to mop eĢriger = to erect espeĢrer = to hope essayer = to try commencer prendre essuyer = to wipe eĢtablir = to establish eĢteindre = to extinguish eĢtendre = to stretch eĢtinceler = to sparkle eĢtre = to be eĢtreindre = to embrace exageĢrer = to exaggerate exceĢder = to exceed exclure = to exclude faiblir = to weaken faillir = to almost faire = to do falloir = to be necessary feindre = to feign fendre = to split feuilleter = to leaf through finir = to finish fleĢchir = to bend foncer = to tear along fondre = to melt forcer = to force franchir = to cross freĢmir = to shudder froncer = to frown fuir = to flee garantir = to guarantee garnir = to garnish geindre = to whine geler = to freeze geĢmir = to groan grandir = to get bigger grimacer = to grimace grincer = to creak venir voir espeĢrer finir manger envoyer appeler manger manger espeĢrer y > i in sg + 3rd pers pl present tense; in future and conditional āiā is used throughout ā essaierai, etc; essaierais, etc essayer finir atteindre vendre appeler eĢtre atteindre espeĢrer espeĢrer conclure finir present ā faux/faux/faut/faillons/faillez/faillent faire falloir atteindre vendre jeter finir finir commencer reĢpondre commencer finir finir commencer courir + y instead of i for 1st and 2nd pl in present finir finir atteindre acheter finir finir commencer commencer 123 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR verb conjugated like grossir = to get fatter gueĢrir = to cure haıĢr = to hate finir finir finir + keeps diaeresis in pl, not sg, of present tense; retains diaeresis throughout past historic acheter acheter manger espeĢrer conclure espeĢrer manger espeĢrer eĢcrire conduire espeĢrer dire but 2nd pers pl present ā interdisez espeĢrer espeĢrer rompre venir conduire finir finir jeter present ā joins/joins/joint/joignons/joignez/joignent; atteindre finir manger commencer commencer espeĢrer espeĢrer lire manger conduire but past historic luis/luis/luit/luıĢmes/luıĢtes/ luirent finir venir mener manger dire but pl present ā maudissez/maudissons/maudissent paraıĢtre haleter = to pant harceler = to harass immerger = to immerse incineĢrer = to cremate inclure = to include infeĢrer = to infer infliger = to inflict inquieĢter = to worry inscrire = to enrol instruire = to teach interceĢder = to intercede interdire = to forbid interfeĢrer = to interfere interpreĢter = to interpret interrompre = to interrupt intervenir = to intervene introduire = to introduce jaillir = to spurt jaunir = to turn yellow jeter = to throw joindre = to join jouir = to enjoy juger = to judge lacer = to lace up lancer = to throw leĢcher = to lick libeĢrer = to liberate lire = to read loger = to lodge luire = to glow maigrir = to slim maintenir = to maintain malmener = to manhandle manger = to eat maudire = to curse meĢconnaıĢtre = to misunderstand meĢdire = to malign meĢlanger = to mix menacer = to threaten meĢnager = to handle mener = to lead mentir = to lie mettre = to put 124 dire but 2nd pers pl present ā meĢdisez manger commencer manger mener courir ā 1st pers present ā mens mettre 176 The list verb conjugated like mordre = to bite mourir = to die munir = to equip nager = to swim naıĢtre = to be born perdre mourir finir manger paraıĢtre; but past historic ā naquis/naquis/naquit/ naquıĢmes/naquıĢtes/naquirent manger manger essayer finir essayer conduire finir venir ouvrir mettre espeĢrer manger ouvrir finir mener present ā parais/parais/paraıĢt/paraissons/paraissez/ paraissent; past historic ā parus/parus/parut/ paruĢmes/paruĢtes/parurent; past participle ā paru courir manger partir venir essayer; has either āiā or āyā in future and conditional ā paierai/payerai, etc; paierais/payerais, etc espeĢrer atteindre vendre espeĢrer commencer recevoir perdre finir mettre espeĢrer mener commencer commencer craindre present ā plais/plais/plaıĢt/plaisons/plaisez, plaisent; past historic plus/plus/plut/pluĢmes/pluĢtes/plurent pleuvoir manger essayer neĢgliger = to neglect neiger = to snow nettoyer = to clean noircir = to blacken noyer = to drown nuire = to harm obeĢir = to obey obtenir = to obtain offrir = to offer omettre = to omit opeĢrer = to operate outrager = to outrage ouvrir = to open paĢlir = to turn pale parachever = to complete paraıĢtre = to appear parcourir = to peruse partager = to share partir = to leave parvenir = to reach payer = to pay peĢcher = to sin peindre = to paint pendre = to hang peĢneĢtrer = to penetrate percer = to pierce percevoir = to notice perdre = to lose peĢrir = to perish permettre = to allow perpeĢtrer = to perpetrate peser = to weigh pincer = to pinch placer = to place plaindre = to pity plaire = to please pleuvoir = to rain plonger = to dive ployer = to fold 125 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR verb conjugated like polir = to polish poursuivre = to pursue pourvoir = to provide finir suivre voir; but future and conditional different ā pourvoirai, etc; pourvoirais, etc pouvoir dire but 2nd pers pl present ā preĢdisez espeĢrer prendre eĢcrire vendre venir voir; but future and conditional different ā preĢvoirai, etc; preĢvoirais, etc conduire jeter manger mener mettre commencer eĢcrire espeĢrer + manger finir acheter finir manger finir manger mener manger appeler finir essayer recevoir paraıĢtre ouvrir cueillir manger conduire espeĢrer finir espeĢrer espeĢrer jeter finir conduire but past historic ā reluis/reluis/reluit/reluıĢmes/ reluıĢtes/reluirent commencer finir commencer pouvoir = to be able preĢdire = to predict preĢfeĢrer = to prefer prendre = to take prescrire = to prescribe preĢtendre = to claim preĢvenir = to warn preĢvoir = to foresee produire = to produce projeter = to project prolonger = to prolong promener = to walk promettre = to promise prononcer = to pronounce proscrire = to forbid proteĢger = to protect punir = to punish racheter = to redeem rafraıĢchir = to refresh rager = to rage rajeunir = to rejuvenate rallonger = to extend ramener = to bring back ranger = to put away rappeler = to recall ravir = to delight rayer = to delete recevoir = to receive reconnaıĢtre = to recognise recouvrir = to recover recueillir = to collect reĢdiger = to edit reĢduire = to reduce reĢfeĢrer = to refer reĢfleĢchir = to reflect refleĢter = to reflect reĢiteĢrer = to reiterate rejeter = to reject se reĢjouir = to rejoice reluire = to glisten remplacer = to replace remplir = to fill renoncer = to renounce 126 176 The list verb conjugated like renouveler = to renew renvoyer = to send away reĢpandre = to spread reĢpartir = to distribute se repentir = to repent reĢpeĢter = to repeat reĢpondre = to reply reprendre = to take back reproduire = to reproduce requeĢrir = to require reĢsoudre = to resolve appeler essayer vendre finir (nb not partir) courir ā present ā repens espeĢrer reĢpondre prendre conduire venir + acqueĢrir absoudre; but past historic ā reĢsolus/reĢsolus/resolut/ reĢsoluĢmes/reĢsoluĢtes/ reĢsolurent courir ā present ā ressens venir finir finir espeĢrer venir rire rompre finir cueillir finir finir faire savoir espeĢrer courir conduire mener courir ā present ā sens courir ā present ā sers manger courir ā present ā sors ouvrir manger mener mettre mener rire eĢcrire venir venir finir venir espeĢrer lire espeĢrer present ā suis/suis/suit otherwise vendre ressentir = to feel retenir = to retain reĢunir = to assemble reĢussir = to succeed reĢveĢler = to reveal revenir = to come back rire = to laugh rompre = to break rougir = to blush saillir = to jut out saisir = to seize salir = to soil satisfaire = to satisfy savoir = to know seĢcher = to dry secourir = to help seĢduire = to seduce semer = to sow sentir = to feel servir = to serve songer = to daydream sortir = to go out souffrir = to suffer soulager = to relieve soulever = to lift soumettre = to submit soupeser = to weigh up sourire = to smile souscrire = to subscribe soutenir = to sustain se souvenir = to remember subir = to undergo subvenir = to meet succeĢder = to succeed suffire = to suffice suggeĢrer = to suggest suivre = to follow 127 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR verb conjugated like surgir = to appear suddenly surprendre = to surprise suspendre = to suspend taire = to be quiet finir prendre vendre present ā tais/tais/tait/taisons/taisez/taisent; past historic ā tus/tus/tut/tuĢmes/tuĢtes/turent vendre venir perdre commencer conduire finir eĢcrire espeĢrer cueillir essayer finir present ā vaincs/vaincs/vainc/vainquons/vainquez/ vainquent; past historic ā vainquis/vainquis/vainquit/ vainquıĢmes/vainquıĢtes/vainquirent; past participle ā vaincu valoir vendre manger venir partir; past participle ā veĢtu finir vivre voir finir vouloir essayer manger tendre = to hold out tenir = to hold tordre = to twist tracer = to draw traduire = to translate trahir = to betray transcrire = to transcribe transfeĢrer = to transfer tressaillir = to tremble tutoyer = to use ātuā unir = to unite vaincre = to vanquish valoir = to be worth vendre = to sell venger = to avenge venir = to come veĢtir = to clothe vieillir = to grow old vivre = to live voir = to see vomir = to vomit vouloir = to want to vouvoyer = to use āvousā voyager = to travel 128 Chapter 5 Nouns and adjectives Nouns 177 Nouns As has been seen, the verb is the pivotal element of the sentence (see 2) ā indeed a sentence may consist entirely of a verb (viens! = come on!, eĢcoute! = listen! ) or a verb and subject pronoun (je viens = Iām coming, jāeĢcoute = Iām listening); see 453. But very often the verb is accompanied by one or more nouns, or a noun and an adjective or two, and this adds more information and detail to the sentence. Nouns in French have very much the same characteristics as nouns in English and may be used in very much the same ways. What follows is a brief reĢsumeĢ of their major general characteristics and uses. Nouns are words which are preceded by a determiner ā such as the definite or indefinite article, demonstrative or possessive adjective ā and/or an adjective, and may be followed by an adjective and/or an adjectival phrase or clause (see 178, 247ā272) ā definite article ā le succeĢs = success, le secret de la coloration = the secret of colouring indefinite article ā une fois = once, un geste simple = a simple gesture demonstrative adjective ā ce cocktail que je viens de preĢparer = this cocktail that Iāve just prepared possessive adjective ā votre proprieĢtaire = your landlord, ses reĢactions = her reactions The noun may refer to concrete and abstract items ā to people, objects, places, ideas. As far as its function is concerned, it may be ā subject of the verb ā Des dents blanches sont un atout estheĢtique majeur = white teeth are a major aesthetic asset complement of the subject or object ā Il est devenu un footballeur ceĢleĢbre = he became a famous football star Jacques Chirac lāa nommeĢ preĢsident dāune commission de reĢflexion = Jacques Chirac appointed him chairman of a think tank direct or indirect object ā Avant de prendre le volant = before taking hold of the steering wheel Ce compleĢment convient aĢ tous les jeunes qui veulent controĢler leur poids = this supplement is suitable for all those young people who want to control their weight in a prepositional expression ā Nāoubliez pas de boire avant, pendant et apreĢs les efforts = donāt forget to drink before, during and after exertion 129 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Le temps des deĢsillusions = disillusionment time LāeĢveĢnement a eĢteĢ annonceĢ dans la revue interne de la compagnie = the event was announced in the companyās in-house journal Gender 178 Gender Gender in English is based upon sexual characteristics ā girl, woman, actress, filly, cow, hen are all female by virtue of their physical attributes, and man, boy, lad, guy, bull, stallion are all male by virtue of their physical attributes. Nouns that do not have sexual attributes, real or supposed (as a result of personification a boat may be called her), have no gender, are neutral. In French the situation is different. French has a dual system for gender assignment. 1 Gender is dependent upon sexual identity in the same way as English ā but this is only for a limited number of animate nouns. 2 For most nouns gender assignment is a grammatical matter, the result of syntactic tradition. Consequently, as a result of the operation of system 1, male persons are indicated by the masculine gender, and female persons by the feminine gender. However, occasionally system 2, the grammatical principle, takes priority over sexual gender, and produces anomalies ā personne and victime are always feminine in gender even if they refer to male persons and docteur and professeur are always masculine whether they refer to women or men. The matter of sexual gender is discussed in 186. Gender pervades a very large proportion of the French grammatical system. The gender of nouns affects the form of the determiners that modify them. The determiners involved are the definite, indefinite and partitive articles, possessive, demonstrative, relative and interrogative adjectives, and negative and indefinite adjectives. These are dealt with in 247ā272. The gender of nouns also affects agreement of adjectives, pronouns, past participles. These are dealt with in 105, 108, 194, 207, 208, 225. 179 Assigning gender Because grammatical gender permeates the French syntactic system, involving every noun and pronoun, together with the knock-on effect of agreement of adjectives and past participles with the nouns and pronouns, knowledge of the correct gender of a noun is of vital importance. Fortunately, there are some patterns that help with assigning the correct gender to a noun, some connected with the meaning of the noun, others with its form. Unfortunately, there are exceptions to most patterns, and many nouns do not fall within these patterns. In such cases, the gender of the noun has to be learnt individually. 130 180 Patterns for masculine gender In the following lists, normally, two examples will be given for each case, plus all the most common exceptions. Although the exceptions may seem numerous, the nouns which āobserve the ruleā are much more numerous ā itās just that space does not allow them all to be mentioned. 180 Patterns for masculine gender 1 Patterns based on meaning names of days of the week ā le dimanche = Sunday, le mercredi = Wednesday names of months ā le janvier = January, le mars = March names of seasons ā le printemps = spring, lāeĢteĢ(m) = summer names of languages ā le francĢ§ais = French, le roumain = Romanian names of trees and shrubs ā le cheĢne = oak tree, le poirier = pear tree exceptions ā une aubeĢpine = hawthorn, la ronce = bramble, la vigne = vine names of cheeses and wines ā le brie, le camembert, le champagne, le bordeaux names of metals and minerals ā le cuivre = copper, le mercure = mercury exceptions ā une eĢmeraude = emerald, la perle = pearl, la roche = rock names of colours ā le jaune = yellow, le rose = pink names of weights and measures, cardinal numbers ā le litre = litre, le quart = quarter, le six = (number) six exception ā la moitieĢ = half, and numerals ending in āaine (la soixantaine = about sixty) names of human agents, ending in āeur ā le directeur = the head teacher, le docteur = doctor names of human agents, ending in āien ā le Parisien = Parisian, le pharmacien = pharmacist names of boats ā le āFranceā, le āReine Elizabethā names of aeroplanes ā le Concorde, le Boeing exception ā la Caravelle 2 Patterns based on form nouns formed from infinitives ā le coucher = bedtime, le devoir = duty, le rire = laughter nouns formed from adjectives ā le possible = what is possible, le seĢrieux = seriousness nouns ending in āacle ā un obstacle = obstacle, le spectacle = spectacle nouns with two or more syllables ending in āage ā le clonage = cloning, le maquillage = make-up exception ā une image = image nouns ending in -ai ā le balai = broom, un essai = try (in rugby) nouns ending in āail ā le deĢtail = detail, le travail = work nouns ending in āat ā le certificat = certificate, le reĢsultat = result 131 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR nouns ending in āeĢ ā le cafeĢ = coffee, le peĢcheĢ = sin exceptions ā une acneĢ = acne, la cleĢ (also spelt clef) = key nouns ending in āeau ā le carreau = square, le plateau = tray exceptions ā une eau = water, la peau = skin nouns ending in āeĢde ā un intermeĢde = interlude, le remeĢde = remedy nouns ending in āeĢge ā le colleĢge = college, le maneĢge = roundabout nouns ending in āeil ā le soleil = sun, le sommeil = sleep nouns ending in āeĢme ā le probleĢme = problem, le systeĢme = system exception ā la creĢme = cream nouns ending in āer when āer is sounded [e] ā le clocher = belfry, le petit deĢjeuner = breakfast ā and when āer is pronounced [Īµ r] ā le cancer = cancer, le starter = choke (of car) exceptions ā la cuiller = spoon, la mer = sea nouns ending in āeĢs ā le progreĢs = progress, le succeĢs = success nouns ending in āet ā le projet = project, le secret = secret nouns ending in āeuil ā le deuil = mourning, le seuil = threshold nouns ending in āi when sounded [i] ā un abri = shelter, le parti (political) party exception ā la fourmi = ant nouns ending in āier ā le calendrier = calendar, le papier = paper nouns ending in āing ā le camping = campsite, le parking = car park nouns ending in āisme ā un organisme = organism, le scepticisme = scepticism nouns ending in āment ā le divertissement = entertainment, le paiement = payment exception ā la jument = mare nouns ending in āo ā le numeĢro = number, le zeĢro = zero exception ā la dynamo = dynamo nouns ending in āoi ā un emploi = job, le tournoi = tournament exceptions ā la foi = faith, la loi = law nouns ending in āoir ā le miroir = mirror, le peignoir = dressing gown nouns ending in āou ā le chou = cabbage, le genou = knee nouns ending in āour ā le carrefour = crossroads, le retour = return exceptions ā la cour = yard, la tour = tower (not = trick, turn which is le tour) nouns ending in āueil ā un accueil = welcome, un orgueil = pride plus a few small sets of nouns, ending for example in āgramme (le kilogramme = kilogramme), āmeĢtre (le centimeĢtre = centimetre), āscope (le magneĢtoscope = tape recorder) plus nouns ending in the following consonants ā āc ā le lac = lake, le sac = bag ād ā le bord = edge, le pied = foot and āg, āl, ār, āt as illustrated above. 132 181 Patterns for feminine gender 181 Patterns for feminine gender 1 Patterns based on meaning names of fruit and vegetables ending in āe ā la carotte = carrot, la fraise = strawberry exceptions ā le concombre = cucumber, le pamplemousse = grapefruit names of academic subjects ā la linguistique = linguistics, la physique = physics exception ā le droit = law names of cars ā une Renault, une deux-chevaux, une BMW names designating females ending in āesse ā une hoĢtesse = hostess, la princesse = princess names of human agents ending in āeuse ā la chanteuse = singer, la masseuse = masseuse names of human agents ending in āienne ā la pharmacienne = female pharmacist, la veĢgeĢtarienne = vegetarian names of human agents ending in āieĢre ā la meurtrieĢre = female murderer, une hoĢtellieĢre = hotelier names of human agents ending in ātrice ā une actrice = actress, la directrice = head teacher 2 Patterns based on form nouns ending in āace ā la race = (ethnic) race, la surface = surface exception ā un espace = space nouns ending in āade ā une orangeade = orangeade, la promenade = walk exceptions ā le grade = rank, le stade = stadium nouns ending in āaie ā la monnaie = currency, la plaie = wound nouns ending in āaille ā la bataille = battle, les fiancĢ§ailles = engagement nouns ending in āaine ā la haine = hatred, la quinzaine = fortnight nouns ending in āaison ā la combinaison = combination, la raison = reason nouns ending in āance ā une alliance = wedding ring, alliance, la distance = distance nouns ending in āeĢe ā une entreĢe = entry, la soireĢe = evening exceptions ā le lyceĢe = secondary school, le museĢe = museum, le tropheĢe = trophy nouns ending in āeine ā la baleine = whale, la peine = punishment nouns ending in āence ā la diffeĢrence = difference, une influence = influence exception ā le silence = silence nouns ending in āeuse ā la perceuse = drill, la tondeuse = lawnmower nouns ending in āie ā la partie = part, la vie = life exceptions ā le geĢnie = genius, engineering, un incendie = fire, le parapluie = umbrella nouns ending in āieĢre ā la bieĢre = beer, la lumieĢre = light exceptions ā le cimetieĢre = cemetery, le derrieĢre = behind, bottom 133 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR nouns ending in āine ā la colline = hill, la piscine = swimming pool exception ā le magazine = magazine nouns ending in āise ā la chemise = shirt, la marchandise = goods exception ā le pare-brise = windscreen (see 187, 3) nouns ending in āsion or ātion ā la teĢleĢvision = television, la traduction = translation nouns ending in āteĢ ā la bonteĢ = goodness, la difficulteĢ = difficulty exceptions ā un arreĢteĢ = decree, le comiteĢ = committee, lāeĢteĢ = summer nouns ending in ātude ā une attitude = attitude, la solitude = loneliness nouns ending in āure ā la ceinture = belt, la figure = face nouns ending in a double consonant + āe ā une eĢtoffe = material, la dentelle = lace, la poubelle = wastebin, la bouteille = bottle, la taille = waist, size, une antenne = aerial, la grippe = flu, la caisse = cashtill, la cuisse = thigh, la chaussette = sock, la serviette = towel, briefcase exceptions ā un intervalle = interval, le squelette = skeleton, le gorille = gorilla, le portefeuille = wallet plus a few small sets of nouns ending in āeĢche (la breĢche = breach), āeĢque (la discotheĢque = discotheque), āeĢse (une hypotheĢse = hypothesis), āeĢve (la greĢve = strike) 182 Awkward cases of gender identity Although in many, many cases it is possible to deduce the gender of a noun from its ending, we have seen that occasionally there are exceptions to the patterns outlined above. In addition to those examples that muddy the gender-assignment waters, there are other cases where it is difficult to guess the gender of a noun from its form, and there is no other recourse but to commit specific forms and genders to memory. What follows is a list of reasonably common nouns whose gender may not be immediately obvious. 1 These nouns are of masculine gender ā lāaĢge = age, lāantidote = antidote, lāatome = atom, lāautoradio = car radio, le cadavre = corpse, le calme = calmness, le caracteĢre = character, le charme = charm, le choix = choice, le crime = crime, le culte = worship, le dialecte = dialect, le dilemme = dilemma, lāeĢchange = exchange, lāeĢdifice = building, lāeĢlastique = rubber band, lāembleĢme = emblem, lāeĢpisode = episode, lāespace = space, lāexemple = example, le fleuve = river, le formulaire = form (to fill in), le geĢneĢrique = credits, lāheĢmispheĢre = hemisphere, lāincendie = fire, lāinsecte = insect, lāintermeĢde = interlude, lāintervalle = interval, le leĢgume = vegetable, le liquide = liquid, le luxe = luxury, le manque = lack, le mascara = mascara, le masque = mask, les meĢdias = media, le meĢrite = merit, le micro-ondes = microwave (oven), le mime = mime, le minuit = midnight, le moleĢcule = molecule, le monopole = monopoly, le moustique = mosquito, le mythe = myth, lāongle = nail, lāorchestre = orchestra, lāorgane = organ, le panorama = panorama, le parachute = parachute, le parapluie = umbrella, le peĢtale = petal, quelque chose = something, le quota = quota, le reproche = reproach, le reste = remainder, le reĢve = dream, le rire = laughter, le saxophone = saxophone, le service = service, le silence = silence, le sourire = smile, le squelette = skeleton, le suicide = suicide, le symptoĢme 134 183 Names of countries, towns, rivers = symptom, le tonnerre = thunder, le trombone = trombone, paper clip, le tropheĢe = trophy, lāuniforme = uniform, lāustensile = utensil, le vice = vice quelque chose ā CeĢleĢbrer le nouvel an en famille, cāest creĢer un petit quelque chose dāinoubliable = celebrating the New Year as a family is to create a little unforgettable something 2 These nouns are of feminine gender ā lāancre = anchor, lāannexe = annex, lāarteĢre = artery, lāatmospheĢre = atmosphere, la caracteĢristique = characteristic, la cendre = ash, la cible = target, la cime = summit, la circulaire = circular, la croix = cross, la dent = tooth, la dynamo = dynamo, lāeĢnigme = enigma, lāespeĢce = species, sort, lāextase = ecstasy, la foreĢt = forest, la fourmi = ant, lāhorreur = horror, lāidole = idol, la liqueur = liqueur, la noix = nut, lāoasis = oasis, lāombre = shade, lāorbite = orbit, la pantomime = pantomime, la peĢdale = pedal, la peĢnicilline = penicillin, la recrue = recruit, la sentinelle = sentry, la spheĢre = sphere, la surface = surface, la toux = cough, la victime = victim, la videĢo = video, la vis = screw 183 Names of countries, towns and rivers The principle is that if the name of the country, town or river ends in āe, it is feminine; otherwise it is masculine. There are a few exceptions. 1 Countries Feminine names la Bolivie, la Chine, la France, la Grande-Bretagne, la JamaıĢque, la Libye, la Russie, la Somalie, la Tanzanie exceptions ā le Cambodge, le Mexique, le Mozambique, le Zimbabwe Masculine names le BreĢsil, le Canada, le Danemark, les Etats-Unis, le Kenya, le Niger, le Pakistan, le PeĢrou, le Portugal, le Vietnam Usage of prepositions with names of countries is discussed in 466. 2 Towns LāeĢteĢ Paris sāest deĢbarrasseĢ dāune bonne partie de sa population = in summer Paris divested itself of a large proportion of its population BesancĢ§on est entoureĢ de montagnes = BesancĢ§on is surrounded by mountains Marseille est situeĢe aĢ lāest de la bouche du RhoĢne = Marseilles is situated to the east of the mouth of the RhoĢne Valenciennes a eĢteĢ partiellement deĢtruite pendant la deuxieĢme guerre mondiale = Valenciennes was partly destroyed during the Second World War 3 Rivers Feminine names la Loire, la Marne, la Seine exception ā le RhoĢne 135 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Masculine names le Lot, le Rhin, le Tarn 4 French regions le Languedoc, le Limousin, le Roussillon lāAuvergne, la Bretagne, la Normandie 5 French departments le Cantal, le Doubs, le Morbihan la CorreĢze, la Haute-Savoie, la Vaucluse exception ā le FinisteĢre 6 American states Sometimes there are distinctive French names for certain American States; these tend to be feminine. la Californie, la Caroline du Nord, la Caroline du Sud, la Floride, la GeĢorgie, la Louisiane, la Pennsylvanie, la Virginie exception ā le Nouveau-Mexique ā see 183 Those names which do not have a distinctive French form are masculine ā le Dakota du Nord, le Montana, le Texas 7 British counties These are nearly always masculine. le Nottinghamshire, le Suffolk, le Wiltshire exception ā les Cornouailles (fpl) = Cornwall 184 Homonyms Nouns that are pronounced the same and/or are identical in form but have different meanings are known as homonyms. The first list consists of orthographic homonyms ā identical in spelling and pronunciation. In many cases, one of the meanings is more common than the other. 136 un aide = assistant lāaide (F) = help, female assistant le champagne = champagne la Champagne = Champagne region le chose = thingummybob la chose = thing le creĢpe = crepe (material) une creĢpe = pancake le critique = critic la critique = criticism le finale = finale (in music) la finale = final (in sport) le garde = guard, warden la garde = protection, nurse le greffe = record office la greffe = graft, transplant 184 Homonyms le livre = book la livre = pound (weight, money) le manche = handle la manche = sleeve, leg (in sport); la Manche = the English Channel le manoeuvre = labourer la manoeuvre = manoeuvre le meĢmoire = dissertation la meĢmoire = memory le merci = thank-you la merci = mercy le mode = method la mode = fashion le mort = dead person la mort = death le page = page-boy la page = page le pendule = pendulum la pendule = clock le physique = physique la physique = physics le poeĢle = stove la poeĢle = frying pan le politique = politician la politique = politics le poste = job, station, set (radio, TV) la poste = postal services le solde = balance, sale, bargain la solde = pay le somme = snooze la somme = sum, amount le tour = tour, trick la tour = tower le vague = vagueness la vague = wave le vapeur = steamer la vapeur = steam le vase = vase la vase = mud, slime le voile = veil la voile = sail The second list is a small selection of homonyms that are pronounced the same but spelt differently and with different genders. Such homonyms are extremely common in French and underline the importance of correct spelling in written French. lāair (M) = air lāeĢre (F) = era le bal = ball (dance) la balle = bullet, ball (spherical) le bar = bar (in restaurant) la barre = bar (of wood, metal) le capital = capital, assets la capitale = capital city, letter le cheĢne = oak tree la chaıĢne = chain le col = collar, pass (in mountains) la colle = glue, detention le cours = course, waterway le court = court (in tennis) la cour = courtyard le fait = fact la feĢte = festival le foie = liver la foi = faith la fois = time, occasion le maire = mayor la mer = sea la meĢre = mother le peĢre = father la paire = pair, couple le parti = (political) party la partie = part 137 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR le poids = weight le pois = pea la poix = pitch le pot = pot la peau = skin le sel = salt la selle = saddle le taon = horsefly le ton = tone 185 Nouns requiring special attention A very small number of nouns display unusual behaviour in terms of their gender assignment. Here are two of them. les gens = people ā adjectives preceding the noun are feminine in form but retain their masculine form when they follow it, either immediately or after a verb ā Certaines gens le disent = certain people say that Les bonnes gens de Paris sont treĢs gentils = the good people of Paris are very kind Jāai horreur des gens bavards = I canāt bear people who talk too much Il y a des gens malheureux partout = there are unhappy people everywhere un/une oeuvre = work (of literature, art) is feminine when it refers to an individual piece of work or a number of individual pieces of work, but masculine when the works are considered as a single entity ā Simenon acheva son dernier roman en 1972, encore une oeuvre fascinante = Simenon completed his last novel in 1972, yet another fascinating work Lāoeuvre complet de Chopin = Chopinās complete works 186 Nouns designating people and animals As mentioned above, usually grammatical gender and sexual gender coincide, so that a female person or animal is designated by feminine gender and a male person or animal by masculine gender ā un homme = man, le fils = son, le garcĢ§on = boy, le neveu = nephew, un oncle = uncle, le peĢre = father, le beĢlier = ram, le coq = cockerel, un eĢtalon = stallion, le taureau = bull la femme = woman, la fille = girl, daughter, la meĢre = mother, la nieĢce = niece, la tante = aunt, la brebis = ewe, la poule = hen, la jument = mare, la vache = cow In the case of animals, a generic term covering both sexes sometimes exists and is normally masculine ā le cheval = horse, le mouton = sheep. Sometimes the names for the two sexes of animals are closely connected, often the feminine being derived from the masculine ā le chat, la chatte, le chien, la chienne, le lion, la lionne ā and in such cases as these, it is the masculine form that serves as the generic. In the case of le canard, la cane, it is the masculine form that is derived from the feminine, but the masculine form remains the generic. One form, two genders Nouns such as the following may be masculine or feminine according to the sex of the person designated ā adulte = adult, camarade = friend, colleĢgue = colleague, 138 187 Gender of compound nouns eĢleĢve = pupil, enfant = child, esclave = slave, gosse = kid, ministre = minister, photographe = photographer, rebelle = rebel, and nouns ending in āaire and āiste: adversaire = enemy, bibliotheĢcaire = librarian, fonctionnaire = civil servant, secreĢtaire = secretary, dentiste = dentist, journaliste = journalist, touriste = tourist. Related forms, two genders Very often, an āe is added to the masculine form of a noun designating a person, to indicate the corresponding female ā un avocat, une avocate = lawyer, un candidat, une candidate = candidate, un deĢputeĢ, une deĢputeĢe = deputy, member of parliament, un employeĢ, une employeĢe = employee, un magistrat, une magistrate = magistrate. On other occasions, a masculine suffix is replaced by the corresponding feminine suffix to supply the feminine counterpart ā le berger, la bergeĢre = shepherd, shepherdess, un hoĢte, une hoĢtesse = host, hostess, le prince, la princesse = prince, princess, un ambassadeur, une ambassadrice = ambassador, le directeur, la directrice = headteacher, le chanteur, la chanteuse = singer, le voleur, la voleuse = thief, le caissier, la caissieĢre = checkout operator, le fermier, la fermieĢre = farmer. Use of femme + masculine noun On yet other occasions, in order to indicate a woman exercising a certain profession, the word femme is used with the masculine noun ā une femme auteur = female writer, une femme ingeĢnieur = female engineer, une femme meĢdecin = female doctor. The consequence of this is that sometimes, when it is not appropriate or necessary to include the word femme, the masculine noun is used to refer to the female author, engineer, etc ā Sophie est devenue ingeĢnieur = Sophie became an engineer Use of feminine noun to designate male The reverse situation also occurs, whereby a feminine noun is used to designate a male person ā as stated above, personne = person and victime = victim are always feminine, whether they refer to a female or male, and the same applies to the following nouns ā la recrue = recruit, la sentinelle = sentry, la star = star, celebrity, la vedette = star, celebrity. 187 Gender of compound nouns Nouns that are formed by linking two or more words together by a hyphen or hyphens are known as compound nouns. On other occasions, no hyphen is used (use of the hyphen seems to depend upon historical acceptance and validation of the term), and the close relationship of the combined words justifies their also being considered compounds ā eg une bande dessineĢe = comic strip ā bande and dessineĢe cannot be separated by another adjective; une bande dessineĢe amusante = a funny comic strip (not une bande amusante dessineĢe). A number of different types of compound nouns exist. The gender of the compound noun depends upon the structure of the compound. 139 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 1 Noun + noun The gender of this type of compound noun is assigned according to the gender of the head-word, usually the first noun ā un bateau-usine = factory ship un chou-fleur = cauliflower un roman-BD = strip-cartoon novel un spectateur-auditeur = viewer une citeĢ-satellite = satellite town une ideĢe-choc = startling idea une porte-feneĢtre = French window une ville-fantoĢme = ghost town 2 Adjective + noun or noun + adjective The gender is assigned according to the gender of the noun. le bas-ventre = lower stomach un coffre-fort = safe un grand-peĢre = grandfather les Pays-Bas = Netherlands un rond-point = roundabout une bande dessineĢe = comic strip une chauve-souris = bat une chaise roulante = wheelchair une grand-meĢre = grandmother la haute-fideĢliteĢ = hi-fi exception ā le rouge-gorge = robin 3 Verb + noun or verb + verb All such compounds are masculine in gender. un chauffe-eau = water-heater le laisser-aller = sloppiness le pare-brise = windscreen un porte-avions = aircraft carrier le savoir-faire = know-how un seĢche-cheveux = hair-drier 4 Adverb or preposition + noun The gender is assigned according to the gender of the noun, except when a plural is concerned, when masculine gender operates. un demi-centre = half-back un entre-deux-vols = stopover les hors-travail (mpl) = unemployed un sans-papier = illegal immigrant une arrieĢre-penseĢe = ulterior motive lāavant-garde (f) = avant-garde une contre-reĢvolution = counter-revolution 140 188 Count and mass nouns la demi-finale = semi-final une mini-jupe = mini-skirt un deux-roues = two-wheeler un mille-pattes = centipede un quatre-heures = afternoon snack 5 Noun + prepositional phrase The gender of the first noun determines the gender of the compound. un arc-en-ciel = rainbow un nid de poule = pothole un pot-de-vin = bribe une eĢpingle aĢ nourrice = safety pin une lune de miel = honeymoon la mise sous cloche = putting on the back-burner 6 Phrase Such compounds are always masculine. un je ne sais quoi = certain something un pas-de-chance = no-hoper le plus-que-parfait = pluperfect tense le preĢt-aĢ-porter = ready-to-wear clothes le va-et-vient = coming and going le va-tāen-guerre = warmonger Number 188 Count and mass nouns Concrete nouns may be divided into two types according to whether they have a plural form or not. Count nouns, as their name implies, are countable, that is to say they denote single items which can be counted; they therefore have both a singular and a plural form ā une boisson ā des boissons = drink ā drinks, un guide ā des guides = guide ā guides, un pantalon ā des pantalons = a pair of trousers ā pairs of trousers, une voiture ā des voitures = car ā cars Mass nouns, on the other hand, are not countable; they denote nouns which refer to items not as individual entities but as a single unit, and they do not have a plural form ā le bleĢ = corn, la farine = flour, le lait = milk, le sable = sand, le sucre = sugar Some nouns cross the border between the two types and can be both count and mass nouns (see 192) ā le fromage = cheese (in general), un fromage = type of cheese, les fromages de France = the cheeses of France, le pain = bread (in general), un pain = loaf of bread, un 141 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR eĢtalage de pains = a display of loaves of bread, le vin = wine (in general), un vin = type of wine, les vins de France = French wines Abstract nouns tend not to be used in the plural ā lāamour = love, la beauteĢ = beauty, la haine = hatred, lāorgueil = pride 189 Markers for forming the plural of nouns 1 By far the most common way of indicating a plural is to add an ās to the singular form of the noun. This is perfectly clear in written French. However, in the majority of cases in spoken French, it is not possible to distinguish the plural form of a noun from the singular form in this way, since the ās is not sounded. Other markers are called upon to confirm whether a singular or plural form is intended, by the use, for example, of determiners, forms of the verb and so on ā un livre ā des livres = book ā books, le modeĢle ā des modeĢles = model ā models, le visage ā les visages = face ā faces Les deĢputeĢs lāont voteĢ = the MPs have voted for it Of course, if the singular form of the noun already ends in ās, the plural form is exactly the same ā une fois ā des fois = once ā times, un FrancĢ§ais ā des FrancĢ§ais = a Frenchman ā Frenchmen, le mois ā les mois = month ā months, la souris ā les souris = mouse ā mice Similarly nouns ending in āx, āz do not have a separate form for the plural ā le choix ā les choix = choice ā choices, un prix ā des prix = prize ā prizes, la toux ā les toux = cough ā coughs le gaz ā des gaz = gas ā gases, le nez ā les nez = nose ā noses 2 For words ending in āal, āau, āeu, āeau, āoeu, āx is added to form the plural ā āal le carnaval ā les carnavaux = carnival ā carnivals, le cheval ā les chevaux = horse ā horses, le festival ā les festivaux = festival ā festivals, le journal ā les journaux = newspaper ā newspapers, le signal ā les signaux = signal ā signals Les journaux sont dāaccord que le ministre a fait un faux pas = the papers are in agreement that the minister has put his foot in it exceptions ā le bal ā les bals = ball ā balls lāideĢal = ideal has two plurals, les ideĢals, les ideĢaux āau le noyau ā les noyaux = stone (of fruit) ā stones, le tuyau ā les tuyaux = tube ā tubes Le chirurgien a deĢcideĢ quāil faut deĢbrancher tous les tuyaux = the surgeon has decided that all the tubes should be switched off 142 189 Markers for forming plural of nouns āeu le cheveu ā les cheveux = hair, le jeu ā les jeux = game ā games, le neveu ā les neveux = nephew ā nephews Nāoubliez pas de bien rincer les cheveux = donāt forget to rinse your hair thoroughly exceptions ā le bleu ā les bleus = bruise ā bruises, le pneu ā les pneus = tyre ā tyres āeau le chapeau ā les chapeaux = hat ā hats, lāeau ā les eaux = water ā waters, le manteau ā les manteaux = coat ā coats, le trousseau ā les trousseaux = bunchābunches Stupidement, jāavais laisseĢ tous les trousseaux de clefs dans le bureau = stupidly, I had left all the bunches of keys in the office āoeu le voeu ā les voeux = wish ā wishes Meilleurs voeux pour ton anniversaire = best wishes for your birthday 3 For nouns ending in āail, āou, ās is added to form the plural except in the following cases, when āx is used ā āail le bail ā les baux = lease ā leases, le corail ā les coraux = coral ā corals, le travail ā les travaux = work ā works Les travaux vont commencer ce weekend = work is due to begin this weekend āou le bijou ā les bijoux = jewel ā jewels, le caillou ā les cailloux = pebble ā pebbles, le chou ā les choux = cabbage ā cabbages, le genou ā les genoux = knee ā knees, le hibou ā les hiboux = owl ā owls, le joujou ā les joujoux = toy ā toys, le pou ā les poux = louse ā lice, le ripou ā les ripoux = conman ā conmen Le museĢe a une bonne collection de bijoux datant de lāeĢre eĢgyptienne = the museumās got a good collection of jewels from Egyptian times 4 Nouns with irregular plurals ā le ciel ā les cieux = sky ā skies, lāoeil ā les yeux = eye ā eyes Some words, which were originally compound words, form their plurals in unorthodox ways ā monsieur ā messieurs = mister ā gentlemen, madame ā mesdames = Mrs ā ladies, mademoiselle ā mesdemoiselles ā Miss ā Misses In one or two cases, although the plural is formed normally, pronunciation of the plural form is affected ā le boeuf ā les boeufs = bullock ā bullocks, lāoeuf ā les oeufs = egg ā eggs, āfā not pronounced in plural; lāos ā les os = bone ā bones, ās sounded in singular but not in plural. 143 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 5 Plural of foreign words. This is a variable matter, usage depending upon the speakerās/writerās knowledge of the foreign language involved. Treatment of English words ā sometimes the plural is formed as if the word were an ordinary French word, sometimes it is given its authentic English form ā les sandwichs ā les sandwiches, les matches ā les matchs However, words ending in āman, known as false anglicisms, because, although they resemble English words, they are in fact French creations, usually form their plural in āmen les rugbymen = rugby players, les tennismen = tennis players On the other hand, the genuine English word barman has as its plural in French the form barmans. Treatment of other foreign words ā some words remain invariable, especially those of Latin origin ā les amen = amens, les forum = forums, les veto = vetos Others tend to become aligned with French usage, especially those of Italian origin, although forms without ās are also found ā les confettis, les macaronis, les pizzas, les spaghettis 190 Plural of compound words 1 Noun + noun If the nouns are both countable, they both take a plural form ā un bateau-citerne ā des bateaux-citernes = tanker(s), un chou-fleur ā des choux-fleurs = cauliflower(s), un oiseau-mouche ā des oiseaux-mouches = hummingbird(s) exception ā une auto-eĢcole ā des auto-eĢcoles = driving schools If only one noun is countable, then that noun only assumes a plural form ā une pause-cafeĢ ā des pauses-cafeĢ = coffee break(s), un timbre-poste ā des timbres-poste = stamp(s) 2 Adjective + noun or noun + adjective Plurals are formed in the normal way ā un beau-peĢre ā des beaux-peĢres = father(s)-in-law, un rond-point ā des ronds-points = roundabout(s), un rouge-gorge ā des rouges-gorges = robin(s) un cerf-volant ā des cerfs-volants = kite(s), un coffre-fort ā des coffres-forts = strong boxe(s) exceptions ā those feminine nouns with a masculine adjective preceding the noun: une grand-meĢre ā des grand-meĢres, une grand-route ā des grand-routes = main road(s), une grand-tante ā des grand-tantes = great-aunt(s); but with the names of family members, a form with grands also occurs: grands-meĢres, grandstantes. 144 191 Different usages of number 3 Verb + noun If the noun is countable, it takes a plural form; the verb, of course, remains invariable ā une garde-robe ā des garde-robes = wardrobe(s), un ouvre-boıĢte ā des ouvre-boıĢtes = tin-opener(s), un tire-bouchon ā des tire-bouchons = corkscrew(s) In some cases the singular form of the countable noun already involves the plural form ā un porte-avions ā des porte-avions = aircraft carrier(s), un peĢse-papiers ā des peĢse-papiers = paperweight(s), un seĢche-cheveux ā des seĢche-cheveux = hair-drier(s) exception ā un soutien-gorge ā des soutiens-gorge = bra(s) If the noun is uncountable, it remains invariable in the plural ā un gratte-ciel ā des gratte-ciel = skyscraper(s), un pare-brise ā des pare-brise = windscreen(s), un porte-monnaie ā des porte-monnaie = purse(s) 4 Adverb or preposition + noun The form of the noun changes normally ā une arrieĢre-penseĢe ā des arrieĢre-penseĢes = ulterior motive(s), un haut-parleur ā des haut-parleurs = loudspeaker(s), une mini-jupe ā des mini-jupes = mini-skirt(s), un sous-marin ā des sous-marins = submarine(s) In some cases the singular form of the countable noun already involves the plural form ā des deux-roues = two-wheeler(s), des mille-pattes = centipede(s), des quatre-heures = afternoon snack(s) 5 Noun + prepositional phrase In most cases the noun changes as appropriate ā un arc-en-ciel ā des arcs-en-ciel = rainbow(s), un coup dāoeil ā des coups dāoeil = glance(s), une gueule de bois ā des gueules de bois = hangover(s), une pomme de terre ā des pommes de terre = potato(es) Occasionally, the noun remains invariable ā un pied-aĢ-terre ā des pied-aĢ-terre = pied-aĢ-terre(s), une teĢte-aĢ-teĢte ā des teĢte-aĢ-teĢte = private chat(s) 6 Verb phrases These remain invariable ā un laissez-passer ā des laissez-passer = passe(s), un va-et-vient ā des va-et-vient = coming(s) and going(s) 191 Different usages of number in French and English Sometimes a singular in French is conveyed by a plural in English ā un collant = tights, un escalier = stairs, un geĢneĢrique = (film) credits, un jean = jeans, un pantalon = trousers, un pyjama = pyjamas, un short = shorts, un slip = underpants 145 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR The converse also occurs ā plural French for English singular ā les applaudissements = applause, les bagages = luggage, les funeĢrailles = funeral, faire des progreĢs = to make progress, faire des recherches = to do research, avoir des remords = to have remorse, les teĢneĢbres = darkness Couvert is a special case ā un couvert = place setting; les couverts = cutlery. There are also a number of cases where a French singular is conveyed by an āapparentā plural in English (ie they are usually followed by a singular verb) ā le diabeĢte = diabetes, lāeĢconomie = economics, la linguistique = linguistics, la physique = physics, la politique = politics However, it is the plural form les matheĢmatiques = mathematics that is the norm; les maths is the more informal form. 192 Contrast between singular and plural usages in French Certain French words have a singularāplural duality which the corresponding English words do not possess (see 191) ā un fruit = (a piece of) fruit, des fruits = fruit un pain = a loaf of bread, des pains = loaves, du pain = bread un raisin = (a type of) grape, des raisins =(different types of) grapes, du raisin = grapes, un grain de raisin = (single) grape la recherche = (the practice of) research, les recherches = detailed research une statistique = (single set of) statistics, la statistique = statistics, des statistiques = (series of) statistics In the case of devoir, in the singular it usually = duty, whereas in the plural it usually = homework. Adjectives 193 Adjectives Adjectives constitute a class of words that are used to qualify a noun ā they may precede the noun (une belle jupe), or follow it (un pantalon gris), or occur at some distance from it (cette voiture semble la meilleure). The adjective agrees in gender and number with the noun that it qualifies. 194 Adjectives and gender 1 The masculine and feminine forms are identical This applies to adjectives which in the masculine form already end in āe ā difficile = difficult, impossible = impossible, jaune = yellow, sage = wise, unique = unique 146 194 Adjectives and gender See 6 below as well. 2 Feminine formed by adding āe to masculine Normally, the feminine form of an adjective is created by adding an āe to the masculine form. Sometimes this affects the pronunciation of the adjective ā exquis ā exquise = exquisite, fascinant ā fascinante = fascinating, francĢ§ais ā francĢ§aise = French, grand ā grande = big, petit ā petite = small But sometimes it does not ā aĢgeĢ ā aĢgeĢe = aged, bleu ā bleue = blue, fermeĢ ā fermeĢe = closed, trapu ā trapue = stocky In the following cases, a dieresis is also added in writing, but the pronunciation is not affected ā aigu ā aigueĢ = high-pitched, ambigu ā ambigueĢ = ambiguous 3 Feminine formed as a result of more radical adjustment āc to āche blanc ā blanche = white, franc ā franche = frank, sec ā seĢche = dry āc to ā(c)que grec ā grecque = Greek, public ā publique = public, turc ā turque = Turkish āeau to āelle beau ā belle = beautiful, nouveau ā nouvelle = new āeil to āeille pareil ā pareille = similar, vermeil ā vermeille = bright red āel to āelle cruel ā cruelle = cruel, eĢventuel ā eĢventuelle = possible, personnel ā personnelle = personal āer to āeĢre cher ā cheĢre = dear, eĢtranger ā eĢtrangeĢre = foreign, fier ā fieĢre = proud āf to āve bref ā breĢve = brief, naıĢf ā naıĢve = naıĢve, neuf ā neuve = new, vif ā vive = lively āg to āgue long ā longue = long āou to āolle fou ā folle = foolish, mou ā molle = soft vowel + ān to vowel + ānne paysan ā paysanne = rural, ancien ā ancienne = old, europeĢen ā europeĢenne = European, bon ā bonne = good, breton ā bretonne = Breton 147 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 4 Cases where there is variation in the formation of the feminine adjective āet becomes either āeĢte or āette ā complet ā compleĢte = complete, inquiet ā inquieĢte = worried, secret ā secreĢte = secret muet ā muette = dumb, net ā nette = clean āeur becomes either āeure or āeuse; forms in āteur become ātrice ā majeur ā majeure = major, meilleur ā meilleure = best, supeĢrieur ā supeĢrieure = superior flatteur ā flatteuse = flattering, trompeur ā trompeuse = deceitful accusateur ā accusatrice = incriminating, destructeur ā destructrice = destructive ās becomes either āse or āsse ā anglais ā anglaise = English, courtois ā courtoise = polite, gris ā grise = grey bas ā basse = low, eĢpais ā eĢpaisse = thick, gros ā grosse = fat There are a number of possibilities for adjectives ending in āx ā doux ā douce = soft heureux ā heureuse = happy, jaloux ā jalouse = jealous faux ā fausse = false vieux ā vieille = old 5 One-off cases favori ā favorite = favourite, frais ā fraıĢche = fresh, gentil ā gentille = gentle, nul ā nulle = useless 6 Adjectives without specific feminine form These adjectives are also usually invariable in the plural. Certain names of colours (originally nouns that have been converted to adjectival use) ā une chemise lilas = a lilac-coloured shirt, une chaussure marron = a brown shoe, une jupe saumon = a salmon-coloured skirt Names of colours when the colour is qualified ā des robes vert sombre = dark green dresses, des briques gris clair = light grey bricks, des leĢvres rouge fonceĢ = dark red lips Certain adjectives of foreign origin ā une langue standard = a standard language, de la musique pop = pop music, une jupe sexy = a sexy skirt, une femme snob = a snobbish woman, une livre sterling = one pound sterling chic ā une fille chic = a smart-looking girl ā varies in the plural only. 148 196 Adjectives and number 7 Usage with demi, nu and mi When demi = half occurs before a noun, it remains invariable and is linked to the noun by a hyphen ā une demi-heure = half an hour, une demi-bouteille de rouge = half a bottle of red wine If it follows the noun it agrees in gender ā un kilo et demi = a kilo and a half, onze heures et demie = half past eleven, midi et demi = half past twelve When nu = bare precedes the noun, it is invariable ā nu-jambes = with bare legs, nu-teĢte = bare-headed Il ne faut pas sortir nu-teĢte quand le soleil brille = you shouldnāt go out bare-headed when the sun shines However, if nu follows the noun, it agrees with it ā il ne faut pas sortir teĢte nue quand le soleil brille = you shouldnāt go out bare-headed when the sun shines As for mi, it always precedes the noun and is consequently invariable. Expressions created in this way are usually adverbial in function, but if they are nominal the expression becomes feminine whatever the gender of the noun ā aĢ mi-chemin = half-way la premieĢre mi-temps = the first half (of a match) La boue nous arrivait aĢ mi-corps = the mud came half-way up our bodies Les informations de la mi-journeĢe = the lunchtime news 195 Adjectives with a variable masculine form A small set of adjectives have a distinctive masculine form when the adjective occurs before a noun beginning with a vowel or a āsilentā h ā beau ā un bel homme = a good-looking man fou ā un fol enfant = a wild child mou ā un mol effort = a feeble effort nouveau ā un nouvel eĢtudiant = a new student vieux ā un vieil ami = an old friend 196 Adjectives and number The rules for forming the plural of adjectives are the same as those for forming the plural of nouns. 1 Normally an ās is added to the singular form, whether masculine or feminine, to indicate the plural of the adjective ā un personnage inteĢressant ā des personnages inteĢressants = interesting people une actrice ceĢleĢbre ā des actrices ceĢleĢbres = famous actresses 149 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 2 āx is added to adjectives in āeau ā beau ā beaux = beautiful, nouveau ā nouveaux = new 3 Adjectives in āal sometimes form their plural by adding ās, or āal becomes āaux ā banal ā banals = ordinary, fatal ā fatals = fatal, glacial ā glacials = icy-cold, natal ā natals = native, naval ā navals = naval geĢneĢral ā geĢneĢraux = general, marginal ā marginaux = marginal, normal ā normaux = normal, principal ā principaux = principal ideĢal = ideal has as its plural both ideĢals and ideĢaux 4 Compound adjectives form their plurals in the usual way ā un sourd-muet ā des sourds-muets = deaf and dumb people un parti social-deĢmocrate ā des partis sociaux-deĢmocrates = social democrat parties 197 Adjectives and agreement 1 The overarching rule is that adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun that they qualify ā des difficulteĢs matrimoniales = marriage problems une belle histoire ancienne = a fine old tale 2 When an adjective is qualifying a number of nouns in the singular, the adjective takes the plural form ā un mascara et un blush assortis = matching mascara and blusher 3 If one of the nouns in a group is masculine and the other(s) feminine, the adjective takes the masculine plural form ā une ombre aĢ paupieĢres et un mascara assortis = matching mascara and eye shadow In such cases, it is better (in order to avoid what would otherwise look like an incorrect agreement) to place the masculine noun closest to the plural adjective. 4 If a plural noun is a collection of different individual items, the adjectives occur in the singular too ā les cultures francĢ§aise et britannique = French and British cultures 5 With a collective noun, the adjective agrees with the noun or the dependent nouns, depending upon the sense ā un tas de veĢtements sales = a pile of dirty clothes un tas de veĢtements treĢs haut = a very high pile of clothes In the latter case, it is better (stylistically and logically) to place the adjective after the complete expression rather than after the noun it actually qualifies (tas). 6 In certain circumstances French can be more precise than English (at least in the written form), when it is a matter of knowing whether all the nouns in a group 150 198 Agreement: prepositional / adverbial expressions of nouns are being qualified by an adjective or simply one (or more, as the case may be) une jupe et un pull bleu = a skirt and a blue jumper, une jupe et un pull bleus = a blue skirt and jumper (both blue), une jupe bleue et un pull = a blue skirt and jumper (only skirt blue). 7 When a group of nouns are linked by ou, the adjective usually takes the plural form Je ne sais pas si je vais mettre ma jupe ou mon pantalon bleus = I donāt know whether to wear my blue skirt or trousers 8 Usage with on ā as will be seen in 224, although on is usually treated as masculine singular (= one), it may also be considered as an equivalent of any personal pronoun. Consequently, adjectives qualifying on adopt the gender and number which are thought to be appropriate ā On est content de la voir = itās great to see her (singular reference) On est contents que ces deux-laĢ se sont trouveĢs = weāre pleased that those two have met (masculine plural reference) On est heureuses dāeĢtre ensemble encore une fois = weāre happy to be together again (feminine plural reference) La question quāon se pose toutes, cāest ā est-ce que cĢ§a cache quelque chose? = the question we all ask ourselves is ā is it hiding something? (feminine plural reference) On est tristes que ce soit ainsi = weāre sad itās come to that (masculine or feminine plural reference) 198 Agreement of certain prepositional and adverbial expressions involving past participles A small number of prepositional and adverbial expressions containing a past participle in their formation may occur either before or after the noun they qualify. When the expression precedes the noun it qualifies, the past participle remains invariable, but, when it follows, it agrees with it. Expressions involved are ā excepteĢ = except (see 366), y compris = including (see 331), ci-joint = herewith ļ£¼ On peut lāutiliser pour traiter toutes les conditions de ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ you can use it to treat peau y compris la dermatite = all skin conditions On peut lāutiliser pour traiter toutes les conditions de ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£¾ including dermatitis peau, la dermatite y comprise = Veuillez trouver ci-joint les documents suivants = please find the following Veuillez trouver les documents suivants ci-joints = documents enclosed However, usage with eĢtant donneĢ is slightly more flexible ā it remains invariable when it precedes the noun, but may or may not agree when it follows it ā Etant donneĢ la situation actuelle = given the present situation La situation actuelle eĢtant donneĢ / donneĢe 151 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 199 Comparison of adjectives ā comparative and superlative forms ā 1: Comparative and superlative of inequality; 2: Comparative of equality 1 Comparative and superlative of inequality The French equivalents of the English ācomparative and superlative of inequalityāā bigger, biggest, more / less, most / least ā involve the use of plus / moins, le plus / le moins, la plus / la moins, les plus / les moins. The comparative and superlative adjectives are placed before or after the noun according to the position of the adjective when it occurs by itself, although, if an expression that would normally precede the noun is felt to be too awkward there, it may be placed after it. The article of the superlative form agrees with the gender of the noun qualified. Une jupe plus courte serait trop oseĢe = a shorter skirt would be too daring Cāest la jupe la plus courte que jāaie jamais vue = itās the shortest skirt Iāve ever seen Cette jupe est plus courte que celle-laĢ = this skirt is shorter than that one Le plus beau garcĢ§on de la fac = the best-looking guy in the uni. La plus jeune enfant donnera le bouquet au maire = the youngest child will present the bouquet to the mayor Le devoir le moins difficile cāest le francĢ§ais = the least difficult homework is French Ce devoir est moins difficile que celui que nous devions faire hier soir = this homework is less difficult than the one we had to do last night Le devoir que je trouve le moins difficile cāest le francĢ§ais = the homework I find the least difficult is French There are special comparative and superlative forms for bon and mauvaisā meilleur / meilleure, le meilleur / la meilleure, les meilleurs / meilleures pire, le / la pire, les pires and a special superlative form for petit ā le moindre, la moindre, les moindres La meilleure nourriture pour la santeĢ, ce sont les leĢgumes et les fruits frais = the best food for your health is fresh fruit and vegetables Cāest le meilleur / le pire prof que je connaisse = heās the best / worst teacher I know Je nāen avais pas la moindre ideĢe = I hadnāt got the least idea Cāest le moindre de mes soucis = itās the least of my worries However, plus mauvais for pire and plus petit for moindre are also used. Plus mauvais and, especially, plus petit tend to be used with concrete nouns and in more mundane situations ā Voici le plus petit portable sur le marcheĢ = hereās the smallest mobile on the market Cette plage est plus mauvaise que les autres = this beach is worse than the others 152 202 The position of adjectives For comparison of adverbs, see 409. 2 Comparative of equality āComparison of equalityā is expressed by aussi and, usually after a negative, si ā Ce devoir est aussi difficile que celui que nous devions faire hier soir = this homework is as hard as the one we had to do last night Le film est aussi bon que le livre = the film is as good as the book Ce devoir nāest pas si difficile que cĢ§a = this homework is not as difficult as that Le film nāest pas aussi / si bon que le livre = the film isnāt as good as the book 200 Use of ne / le in clauses following a comparative In written French, ne and/or le may be placed before the verb in clauses following a comparative. Consequently, sometimes neither ne nor le will occur, at others one or the other, or both, will be used! Il est plus facile de trouver une solution quāon le pense = it is easier to find a solution than you might think Est-ce que tu as jamais eĢteĢ plus surprise que tu lāes maintenant? = have you ever been more surprised than you are now? Elle a trouveĢ quāil est plus difficile de prouver son innocence quāelle ne le croyait = she found that it was more difficult to prove her innocence than she had thought Ils en savent plus quāils nāavouent = they know more about it than theyāre prepared to admit 201 The more the merrier Whereas English uses a definite article in expressions of the above type, French does not. Plus on est de fous, plus on rit = the more the merrier Plus on fume, plus on risque dāendommager sa santeĢ = the more you smoke, the more you risk endangering your health Plus je passe de temps en France, moins je regrette lāAngleterre = the more time I spend in France, the less I miss England Plus on pense aĢ lāautre, plus on neĢglige ses propres sensations, moins on a de plaisir, moins lāautre a du plaisir = the more you think about your partner, the more you neglect your own feelings, the less pleasure you have, the less your partner has too 202 The position of adjectives As far as the position of adjectives in relation to nouns is concerned, adjectives fall into three main groups ā those, few in number, that always precede the noun those, most, that always follow the noun those that may either precede or follow. 153 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR But it should be noted that the first two principles are not absolutely hard-and-fast, and adjectives occasionally occur in uncharacteristic positions. Generally speaking, however, it is wise to respect the traditional situation. 1 Adjectives that precede the noun ā These tend to be short, very common adjectives ā autre = other, beau = beautiful, handsome, bon = good, grand = big, great, gros = big, fat, haut = high, jeune = young, joli = pretty, mauvais = bad, meilleur = better, best, moindre = less, least, nouveau = new, petit = small, sot = foolish, vaste = enormous, vieux = old, vilain = ugly, nasty or ordinal numbers and possessive, demonstrative, interrogative adjectives (see 265ā271, 439, 478) ā Cāest son premier roman = itās her first novel Cette belle robe = that beautiful dress When modified by a short adverb, such adjectives are still placed before the noun, but if the adverb or adverbial expression is relatively long, the adjective is placed after the noun ā Un treĢs gros mec = a very fat guy Un mec deĢmesureĢment gros = a disproportionately fat guy See the next section for other adjectives that precede the noun. 2 Adjectives that follow the noun ā An impossibly long list ā the vast majority of adjectives ā Lāeau gazeuse = sparkling mineral water Lāail raĢpeĢ = grated garlic Une influence artistique = an artistic influence Une eĢquipe neĢerlandaise a reconnu reĢcemment un autre geĢne = a Dutch team has recently identified another gene La source marine de votre nouvelle jeunesse = the marine source of your new youthfulness 3 Adjectives whose position may vary ā This may be for a number of reasons. Certain adjectives, like court = short, long = long, precede the noun in normal circumstances, but follow it when there is a contrast or an implied contrast with their opposite ā une longue soireĢe = a long evening, une longue rangeĢe de cheĢnes = a long row of oak trees je preĢfeĢre les cheveux courts = I prefer short hair, une robe longue = a long skirt 154 203 Adjectives which change their meaning Dernier and prochain normally precede the noun ā Je descends au prochain arreĢt = Iām getting off at the next stop Cāest mon dernier chewing-gum = thatās my last piece of chewing gum However, when they are used with expressions of time, their position may vary ā when they precede the noun, they are the equivalent of English the last, the next, and when they follow, they are the equivalent of last, next ā Cāest la dernieĢre fois que tu feras cĢ§a = thatās the last time youāll do that CĢ§a sera pour une prochaine fois = thatāll be for the next time AĢ samedi prochain = till next Saturday Vendredi dernier je ne pouvais pas venir = last Friday I couldnāt make it 4 Adjectives whose meaning changes according to their position ā See next section. 5 Stylistic variation of position For stylistic reasons an adjective that normally follows the noun may be used in front of it. This is particularly common in the media ā in newspapers and magazines. Changing the position of an adjective from its traditional position after a noun to before it focuses attention on it and foregrounds the adjective. This is a subtle matter which space does not permit detailed discussion of here. 203 Adjectives which change their meaning according to their position What follows is a list of common adjectives that change their meaning according to their position vis-aĢ-vis the noun they qualify. adjective meaning before noun meaning after noun ancien former une ancienne eĢpouse = a former wife good, nice une bonne amie = a good friend old une eĢpouse ancienne = an old wife thoughtful, kind une amie bonne = a thoughtful friend courageous des gens braves = brave people certain, unquestionable un fait certain = an indubitable fact expensive un tailleur cher = an expensive suit different des robes diffeĢrentes = different sorts of dresses bon obliging, honest de braves gens = decent people certain certain, indefinite un certain fait = some fact or other cher dear, beloved mon cher ami = my dear friend diffeĢrent various diffeĢrentes robes = a variety of dresses brave 155 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR diverse, distinct des opinions diverses = distinctly different opinions grand tall un preĢcheur grand = a tall preacher haut high, open (of sea) high (of tide) la haute mer = the open sea la mer haute = high tide jeune young youthful un jeune honme = a young man un homme jeune = a young-looking man leĢger slight (figurative usage) light (of weight) une leĢgeĢre reprise eĢconomique une couche leĢgeĢre = a light = a slight economic upturn covering meĢchant disagreeable naughty, spiteful eĢtre de meĢchante humeur = to be des propos meĢchants = spiteful in a foul mood talk meĢme same very, even le meĢme shampooing = the same jāarriverai ce soir meĢme = Iāll shampoo arrive this very evening pauvre poor, pitiful impecunious un pauvre effort = a pathetic attempt le quartier pauvre de la ville = the poor district of the town preĢsent the one in question present la preĢsente eĢmission = the les eĢtudiants preĢsents nāont programme on at the moment pas compris = the students present did not understand propre own, very clean mon propre travail = my own work des draps propres = clean sheets pur total, sheer unadulterated cāest une pure perte de temps = lāair pur = pure air itās an utter waste of time sale nasty dirty un sale tour = a dirty trick ton pantalon est treĢs sale = your trousers are very dirty seul only, single, sole lonely, alone une seule objection = a single un enfant seul = a lonely child objection simple ordinary, only simple, straightforward pour la simple raison = for the des gouĢts treĢs simples = very simple reason simple tastes triste dull, inauspicious sad cāest mon triste devoir = itās my elle a les yeux tristes = sheās got unfortunate duty sad eyes vrai real, genuine true ce ne sont pas ses vraies dents cāest une histoire vraie = itās a = theyāre not his own teeth true story divers 156 various diverses opinions = a variety of opinions great un grand preĢcheur = a great preacher 205 Multiple adjectives Another small group of adjectives also vary their position ā an adjective that normally follows the noun may be placed before it, this time to achieve a figurative effect ā un ciel noir = a black sky ā de noirs desseins = dark intentions un lit mou = a soft bed ā une molle reĢsistance = feeble resistance 204 Adjectives that may occur before or after the noun without change of meaning A small number of adjectives seem to be in free variation as far as position is concerned ā in other words, their meaning remains constant whether they precede or follow the noun. bas = low, bref = brief, charmant = charming, court = short, double = double, eĢnorme = enormous, excellent = excellent, fort = strong, futur = future, innombrable = innumerable, long = long, magnifique = magnificent, modeste = modest, principal = main, rapide = fast, terrible = terrible Un magnifique terrain de foot = a magnificent football ground Un terrain de foot magnifique = Je prends mon principal repas aĢ 19 heures = I have my main meal at 7 pm Je prends mon repas principal aĢ 19 heures = 205 Multiple adjectives 1 Preceding the noun Except when a cardinal number is involved, the order of groups of adjectives before the noun is the same in French as in English ā Une jolie petite fille = a pretty little girl Un bon vieil ami = a good old friend Un autre gros hamburger = another big hamburger With cardinal numbers, the order in French is different from that in English ā the cardinal number precedes the other adjective ā Les trois autres membres du groupe = the other three members of the group Il a gagneĢ les deux premieĢres manches = he won the first two sets 2 Following the noun The order of adjectives in French after the noun tends to be the mirror image of the English order ā in both cases the adjective nearest the noun has the closer/closest relationship with it ā La guerre civile espagnole = the Spanish Civil War Une creĢme anti-rides enrichissante = an enriching anti-wrinkle cream Son conseiller fiscal personnel = her personal tax consultant 157 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Exercises 1 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en remplissant les blancs avec lāarticle qui convient. a Nous offrons . . . opportuniteĢ unique de contribuer aĢ . . . croissance de . . . socieĢteĢ de renommeĢe internationale active dans . . . monde artistique. . . . ambiance de travail jeune et informelle dans . . . petite eĢquipe soudeĢe. b . . . aveĢnement . . . programmes dāeĢchange interuniversitaires de type Erasmus ou . . . extension . . . stages professionnels aĢ . . . eĢtranger ont eĢgalement motiveĢ . . . secteur jusquāici assez traditionnel et relativement couĢteux, . . . eĢchanges internationaux . . . jeunes. c . . . billet dāavion de dernieĢre minute aĢ . . . prix deĢfiant toute concurrence? VoilaĢ qui est tentant, mais peut-eĢtre dangereux si . . . preĢcipitation nous fait oublier . . . preĢcautions aĢ prendre. Chaque anneĢe . . . milliers de gens sāenvolent pour . . . pays ouĢ seĢvit . . . paludisme, mais plus de . . . tiers entre eux ne sont pas correctement proteĢgeĢs contre cette maladie. d Compositeur phare de . . . musique vocale italienne baroque, Alessandro Scarlatti sāest illustreĢ aussi bien dans . . . opeĢra que dans . . . genre religieux de . . . oratorio. . . . musique y explose aĢ tout moment de . . . joie lumineuse, toujours originale, meĢlant magnifiquement . . . voix aĢ . . . eĢcriture instrumentale scintillante. e . . . vigne rouge et . . . algue marine ameĢliorent . . . fermeteĢ et . . . eĢlasticiteĢ de . . . peau, tandis que . . . huile essentielle de lavande acceĢleĢre . . . peĢneĢtration . . . composants et active . . . micro-circulation. On a gardeĢ . . . meilleur pour . . . fin: . . . texture est . . . reĢgal. Parfaitement invisible, elle est moelleuse, fondante et onctueuse. Elle disparaıĢt en . . . clin dāoeil dans . . . eĢpiderme sans laisser de trace et file . . . coeur de . . . cellules. f Si quelquāun, vous, moi ou nāimporte qui, veut tester . . . suĢreteĢ de . . . aeĢroports, il le fera sans angoisse sāil sait quāaĢ tout moment il peut dire: « Stop, ceci est . . . jeu! » En revanche, . . . attitude de vrais terroristes reĢellement deĢsireux de commettre . . . attentat les trahira et permettra aĢ . . . personnels de suĢreteĢ de les identifier. g Pour faire parler . . . cadavre dāabeille dont . . . mort brutale, en compagnie de 22 millions de ses congeĢneĢres, vient de plonger . . . campagnes francĢ§aises dans . . . poleĢmique violente sur . . . utilisation de deux pesticides, il suffit de pratiquer . . . autopsie. h . . . bac en poche ou . . . examens de fac reĢussis, . . . nouvelle eĢpreuve attend . . . eĢtudiants: . . . chasse aĢ . . . logement. Cāest . . . marcheĢ qui fixe . . . reĢgles et surtout . . . prix. Or, . . . petites surfaces, cibles naturelles de . . . eĢtudiants, sont celles dont . . . rencheĢrissement est . . . plus important. i Tout . . . monde peut avoir . . . maison, quatre murs, . . . toit. Mais . . . proprieĢteĢ, . . . demeure. ā Bien entendu, . . . proprieĢteĢ, aĢ . . . base, nāest rien dāautre que . . . maison. Mais cāest, dans . . . 158 Exercises imaginaire immobilier, bien autre chose: . . . ancien, . . . grand, . . . noble, . . . beau, . . . prestige. « Je vous invite aĢ ma proprieĢteĢ » cĢ§a a tout de meĢme . . . toute autre allure que « on se fait . . . barbecue aĢ . . . maison ». j Je trouve que . . . maquillage me reĢveĢle plus quāil ne me cache. Cāest donc . . . facĢ§on de māexhiber. Je me suis beaucoup inspireĢ de . . . maıĢtre de ceĢreĢmonies de . . . film Cabaret. Cāest aĢ . . . fois . . . transformiste et . . . vampire, . . . monsieur Loyal, mais quelquā . . . de festif. Jāaime bien ce balancement entre . . . bien, cāest-aĢ-dire . . . feĢte, et . . . mal. Jāaime bien . . . ambiguıĢteĢ, y compris sexuelle. k Votre point faible: . . . manque de perseĢveĢrance. Vous ne prenez pas de deĢcision, ou alors pas de facĢ§on durable: vous eĢtes incapable dāeffort, pas plus motiveĢe par . . . succeĢs que par . . . eĢchec. Il nāy a que . . . nouveauteĢ, lāideĢe de . . . plaisir pour vous stimuler. l . . . beau jour, devant . . . miroir, on se prend aĢ relever . . . coin de ses yeux, aĢ tirer sur ses pommettes, et lāon se dit quāon aurait . . . air moins fatigueĢe, plus gaie comme cĢ§a. On oublie, et puis on apprend que . . . telle a eu . . . lifting mais que « cĢ§a se voit », alors que pour telle autre « on ne voit rien ». On lit . . . magazines, on examine . . . « avant / apreĢs », on note . . . noms. On ne sait jamais. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en donnant les formes des adjectifs et participes passeĢs qui conviennent. a Il a beau jouer le super ministre, ANIMEĢ par de GEĢNIAL et NOUVEAU ideĢes, ce sont les VIEUX recettes LIBEĢRAL quāil nous asseĢne. b Ce printemps aussi INCERTAIN que VENTEUX nāaura pas faciliteĢ la taĢche des jardiniers. Mais il faut maintenant sortir CERTAIN plantes de laĢ ouĢ elles ont eĢteĢ REMISEĢ pendant la MAUVAIS saison. Si ces plantes ont eĢteĢ LAISSEĢ INTACT, juste DEĢBARRASSEĢ de leurs feuilles GAĢCHEĢ, elles poussent deĢjaĢ, elles aussi VILAIN comme TOUT, BLANC comme des endives ou VERT PAĢLE, plus PROCHE du tilleul que de lāeĢpinard. c Une DERNIER condition, aĢ PREMIER vue SURPRENANT, est NEĢCESSAIRE aĢ la reĢussite dāune e-formation: lāaccompagnement dāun formateur bien REĢEL. Avec des taux dāabandon assez EĢLEVEĢ cette preĢsence peut sāaveĢrer ESSENTIEL. MeĢme aĢ lāheure de la formation aĢ distance, rien ne remplacera une preĢsence HUMAIN. d On trouve dans la collection des sweaters REHAUSSEĢ dāune lettre ou dāun chiffre, des pantalons MILITAIRE AMPLE ou des joggings COMBINEĢ aĢ des tops ATHLEĢTIQUE et des maillots de corps ou des vestes ZIPPEĢ, MARIEĢ aĢ une minijupe. e Les designers BELGE commencent aĢ se tailler une SOLIDE reĢputation sur la sceĢne INTERNATIONAL. ORIGINAL, bien PENSEĢ, voire carreĢment VISIONNAIRE, leurs creĢations seĢduisent un public de plus en plus LARGE. f Ils sont trois sur leur ıĢle PARISIEN. La meĢre qui se bat contre un cancer. Cette lutte est la raison de vivre de sa fille. Puis il y a un JEUNE homme AFFABLE, qui a su se rendre INDISPENSABLE en rendant LEĢGER les moments INSUPPORTABLE de la maladie. 159 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR g Les cassis UTILISEĢ pour cette creĢme de cassis sont les noirs de Bourgogne, CUEILLI dans la CoĢte-dāOr. Cette creĢme est dāune RARE authenticiteĢ. Ses parfums FRAIS, son fruiteĢ ONCTUEUX, sa bouche AMPLE et GEĢNEĢREUX et ses aroĢmes PLEIN en font une liqueur dāexception. h Vous souffrez des symptoĢmes dāun eĢtat PROCHE de lāeffondrement: la HORRIBLE sensation dāeĢtre LOURD et FLASQUE, ENGOURDI et TENDU aĢ la fois, CONTRACTEĢ au niveau des verteĢbres, de la nuque jusquāaux reins. Il est temps de remettre un peu dāhuile dans les rouages! (description dāune femme) i AĢ lāoccasion du NOUVEAU an, un de mes potes avait organiseĢ une GROS fiesta chez lui. Il y avait de lāalcool aĢ gogo, du foie GRAS aĢ en veux-tu en voilaĢ, et des filles SPLENDIDE aux quatre coins de la maison. Bref, tout eĢtait PARFAIT. Le SEUL probleĢme: cāeĢtait moi! A minuit moins cinq, jāai eu une crise dāangoisse et je suis alleĢ māenfermer dans les chiottes. Je ne voulais pas me plier aĢ ce rituel RIDICULE dāembrassades. j « Je suis DEĢCĢ§U, dit Sandrine Casar, car je me sentais bien en jambes, mais jāeĢtais trop ISOLEĢ face aux Brioches, qui avaient un comportement BIZARRE. Je nāai pas compris leur facĢ§on de courir, leurs choix TACTIQUE, et je ne suis pas la SEUL. Elles-meĢmes donnaient parfois lāimpression de ne pas comprendre ce quāelles faisaient. Dans de TEL circonstances, elles ont duĢ eĢtre treĢs SATISFAIT du reĢsultat. » k On trouvera une GRAND baie, treĢs BEAU, BORDEĢ par une reĢserve NATUREL, BAPTISEĢ le parc NATIONAL de Los Halises, que lāon visite en bateau, deĢcouvrant oiseaux MULTICOLORE, perroquets et tortues dans une veĢgeĢtation de mangroves TROPICAL. 160 Chapter 6 Pronouns 206 Pronouns The role of a pronoun is to help avoid repeating a noun phrase in its entirety and to act as a stand-in for it or abbreviation of it. The pronoun thus enhances the cohesion of what is said or written by providing a short-hand form for a longer expression and binding the text of what is said or written more tightly together. There are a number of series of pronouns ā Personal pronouns ā Les profs reconnaissent quāILS ne peuvent rien sans les parents = the teachers admit that they canāt do anything without parentsā support avoiding repetition of les profs. Impersonal and neutral pronouns ā Comment peut-ON deĢfendre le systeĢme des retraites en torpillant les reĢformes? = how can you defend the pensions system by torpedoing reforms? avoiding specifying who is being criticised. Pour profiter pleinement de cet excellent petit instrument, IL est conseilleĢ dāagir vite = in order to benefit fully from this marvellous little instrument, itās advisable to act quickly avoiding explaining who is doing the advising. Demonstrative pronouns ā Faire greĢve et manifester sont des droits. Mais il ne faut pas que CEUX-CI empeĢchent la circulation sur la voie publique = going on strike and demonstrating are rights. But these must not prevent traffic from circulating on the public highway avoiding saying ces droits. Possessive pronouns ā Elle admire lāart de ses contemporains, mais LE SIEN est plus puissant, plus expressif = she admires her contemporariesā art, but hers is more powerful and more expressive avoiding saying son art. For relative pronouns, see 464. Personal pronouns 207 Personal pronouns These may be organised according to the role they play in a sentence ā whether they are the subject, direct object or indirect object of the verb, whether they are 161 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR used emphatically, whether they follow a preposition, whether they are singular or plural. The neuter pronoun il = it only occurs as subject singular, and the reflexive/reciprocal pronoun se = him/her/it/oneself, themselves does not occur as subject. 208 The forms It will be seen from the following table that there is much anomaly among the forms that the personal pronouns adopt in French. Although five different syntactic roles have been identified (singular and plural), there are never five distinct forms corresponding to them ā a maximum of four and a minimum of one (in English there are never more than two different forms for the personal pronouns). Consequently, some forms have more than one function (eg me, te), some are confined to a particular person (eg nous, vous), others apply to more than one person (eg lui, leur). The following table lists the five syntactic roles for each person and the forms that correspond to them. person syntactic role singular First person subject direct object indirect object after preposition stressed subject direct object indirect object after preposition stressed subject direct object indirect object after preposition stressed subject direct object indirect object after preposition stressed only occurs as subject direct object je me me moi moi tu te te toi toi il le lui lui lui elle la lui elle elle il ce se indirect object se Second person Third person masculine Third person feminine Third person neuter Third person reflexive / reciprocal after preposition soi 162 plural I me to me me I / me you you to you you you he him to him him he / him she her to her her she/her it it him / her / it/ oneself to him / her / it/ oneself him / her / it/ oneself nous nous nous nous nous vous vous vous vous vous ils les leur eux eux elles les leur elles elles we us to us us we/us you you to you you you they them to them them they/them they them to them them they/them se themselves se to themselves eux-meĢmes themselves elles-meĢmes themselves 210 Position of pronouns person Third person indefinite syntactic role singular stressed soi him / her / it/ oneself subject direct object indirect object after preposition on se se soi/nous/ vous soi/nous/ vous oneself oneself to oneself oneself stressed plural eux-meĢmes themselves elles-meĢmes themselves no plural forms oneself 209 Elision of certain pronouns Those pronouns consisting of a single consonant + e (je, me, te, se, ce, le) and la, lose their vowel before a verb beginning with a vowel or mute h or before en and y. Je suis super complexeĢe et cela māempeĢche dāavancer = Iām full of complexes and that stops me making any progress Il preĢfeĢre sāacheter des jouets = he prefers buying himself toys Tu tāeĢgares en pensant cela = youāre mistaken if thatās what you think DeĢcrivez simplement votre mission, la facĢ§on dont vous lāavez meneĢe et les reĢsultats obtenus = all you have to do is describe your aims, how you set about achieving them and the results obtained Son boulot consiste justement aĢ sāen deĢfaire = his job is precisely to get rid of it 210 Position of pronouns ā 1: subject pronouns; 2: object pronouns 1 Subject pronouns Normally the subject pronoun precedes the verb. Il est champion de France = heās the champion of France Ils affronteront la GreĢce en demi-finale jeudi = theyāll play Greece in the semi-final on Thursday On sāattendait aĢ ce quāils sāexpriment sur le cas hier = we were expecting them to pronounce on the case yesterday However, in certain circumstances it may follow it: in questions (see 472) ā Lāenfant, quand faut-il lāemmener aux urgences? = when should you take your child to casualty? 163 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR after certain adverbial expressions (see 403) ā Les Japonais passent pour avoir des pratiques cruelles ā le deĢcoupage dāun poisson vivant. Du moins demandent-ils pardon au pauvre animal = the Japanese have the reputation of having some cruel practices ā cutting up live fish. At least they ask the poor animalās forgiveness Toujours est-il quāelle sāest preĢsenteĢe avec deux heures dāavance = the fact remains that she turned up two hours early 2 Object pronouns Except when an imperative is involved (see 212), the pronouns are placed immediately before the verb. This applies to simple tenses and to infinitives and present participles; in the case of compound tenses the pronoun precedes the auxiliary verb ā DeĢs le xvie sieĢcle, le muguet eĢtait un parfum appreĢcieĢ notamment des hommes. Aujourdāhui on lāutilise dans les parfums feĢminins = from the sixteenth century onwards, lily of the valley was a much appreciated perfume, especially by men. Nowadays itās used in perfumes for women Le mal de dos est remonteĢ aĢ la surface quand jāeĢtais stresseĢe, mais je lāai eĢviteĢ en modifiant mon comportement = my backache returned when I was stressed out, but I avoided it by modifying my behaviour Collez les bandes sur les lanieĢres des tongs en les croisant sur lāenvers = stick the strips on the straps of the flip-flops, crossing them at the back Cinq leĢgumes et fruits par jour ā telles sont les recommandations de la santeĢ publique. Lāimportant est de les suivre seĢrieusement = five portions of fruit and veg per day ā those are the recommendations of the public health authority. The important thing is to follow them seriously On parle contraception, sida, probleĢmes de coeur ā elles ont si peu dāinterlocuteurs, les tabous sont si lourds; jāai vraiment lāimpression de les aider = we speak about contraception, AIDS, relationships ā they have so few people to speak to; taboos weigh heavy; I really feel Iām helping them If the verb is negative, the ne immediately precedes the pronoun ā On ne māa pas interdit de chanter = I wasnāt banned from singing Certaines taĢches meĢnageĢres me sont impossibles ā je ne les supporte pas = I find certain domestic tasks impossible ā I canāt stand them LāheĢpatite C, une maladie qui peut abıĢmer seĢrieusement le foie si on ne la soigne pas = hepatitis C, an illness that can seriously damage your liver if you donāt treat it 211 Order of object pronouns When two or more object pronouns occur before the verb, finite or infinitive, they have to be used in a fixed order. 164 212 Order of pronouns with the imperative me te se nous vous le la les lui leur y en Faut-il le lui dire? = should I tell him? Je me le dis souvent ā il faut essayer dāy voir plus clair = I often tell myself ā youāve got to try and see the situation more clearly On me lāa prescrite pour des probleĢmes dāacneĢ et je nāai plus aucun deĢsir sexuel = itās [the pill] been prescribed to me because of my acne and I donāt feel any sexual desire any more Elle ne me le permet plus = she doesnāt let me do it any more Quāon se le tienne pour dit. Quāon se le tienne bien jalousement dāailleurs = letās keep it between ourselves. Letās guard it very jealously into the bargain Sāil fait vraiment treĢs chaud, on le brosse avec de lāeau fraıĢche avant de sāy allonger = if itās really hot, brush it [a mattress] with fresh water before lying down on it La seule chose aĢ se faire percer par quelquāun dāautre, ce serait eĢventuellement lāoreille ā je me la suis moi-meĢme fait poincĢ§onner par une amie = the only thing you should have pierced by someone else is possibly your ear ā Iāve had it done myself by a friend Oui, nous nous en souvenons = yes, we remember Marcel est amoureux de SteĢphanie, et pour le lui montrer, il est preĢt aĢ toutes les deĢpenses = Marcel is in love with Stephanie, and to prove it to her heās prepared to pay what it costs On savait que Contrex eĢtait lāeau des femmes et de la minceur. Elle nous le prouve une fois encore avec une treĢs jolie surprise ā une collection de bijoux = we knew that Contrex was the water for women and slimness. It proves it to us once again with a very pretty surprise ā a collection of jewellery 212 Order of pronouns with the imperative The situation is different in the imperative mood. 1 With an affirmative imperative, the pronouns follow the verb in the same order as above. However, me, te become moi, toi, except when they are combined with en, y, in which case they remain as me, te. They are linked to the verb and each other by a hyphen, except when me, te are combined with y, en. Prenez soin de votre peau, satinez-la de creĢme parfumeĢe, pailletez-la = take care of your skin; make it really smooth with perfumed cream, put glitter on it 165 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Faites tremper les haricots rouges une nuit. Puis mettez-les dans une casserole = soak the red beans overnight. Then put them in a pan Les calories sont vos pires ennemies du mois et de votre ligne ā reĢduisez-les = calories are your worst enemies of the month and your waistline ā cut them down Fous-toi donc de ce que les autres peuvent en penser = donāt give a damn about what others might think about it Maintenant remontez vos manches et prouvez-leur ce dont vous eĢtes capable = now roll up your sleeves and show them what youāre capable of VeĢnus vous fait les yeux doux. A vous dāaborder ce garcĢ§on et dites-le-lui = Venus is smiling on you. Itās up to you to approach that boy and tell him Jāadore les pierres polies ā achetez-māen pour mon anniversaire sāil vous plaıĢt = I adore polished stones ā get me some for my birthday please Contente-toi donc de ta joliesse = be content with your own good looks Un affreux bouton aĢ camoufler? ā retenez-vous de presser le coupable = a horrid pimple to cover up? ā be careful not to squeeze the offending object 2 With a negative imperative, the pronouns precede the verb and occur in the order outlined in 211 ā Pour les petites retouches en cours de journeĢe, tamponnez leĢgeĢrement votre visage avec un kleenex ā mais ne le faites pas trop souvent = for those minor touch-ups during the day, dab your face with a tissue ā but donāt do it too often Ne me posez pas de questions de ce type = donāt ask me that sort of question Si tu penses que cĢ§a peut eĢtre embeĢtant pour lāamitieĢ, ne le fais pas = if you think that might put a strain on your friendship, then donāt do it Ne te laisse pas abattre = donāt allow yourself to be depressed 213 Position of pronouns with an infinitive and the presentatives voici and voilaĢ Position of pronouns with an infinitive When an infinitive is governed by a modal verb or verb with a similar function, the pronoun precedes the infinitive and not the modal verb ā LāeĢteĢ sāannonce chaud ā si vous voulez le terminer bronzeĢe et pas bruĢleĢe, prenez de bonnes reĢsolutions = itās going to be a hot summer ā if you want to finish it tanned and not burnt, make some wise resolutions Mieux vaut ne pas y aller avec un homme = better not to go with a man Personne ne semble pouvoir nous eĢclairer sur le rapport entre la coupe de cheveux et le nom dāun poisson (la morue) = nobody seems able to enlighten us on the connection between the hairstyle and the name of a fish (mullet) 166 215 First person personal pronouns Position of pronouns with voici, voilaĢ The unstressed pronoun forms are used before voici and voilaĢ ā Me voici, preĢte aĢ sortir = here I am, ready to go out La voilaĢ, dans le bar ā there she is, in the bar Nouns are placed after the presentatives ā Voici ma nouvelle veste en velours = hereās my new velvet jacket VoilaĢ le type dont je te parlais hier = thereās the guy I was talking to you about yesterday 214 Agreement of past participles with a preceding direct object The agreement of past participles with the pronouns of pronominal verbs is discussed in 105ā108. Another scenario involves a preceding direct object and the agreement of a past participle. The gender and number of the preceding direct object are reflected in the form of the past participle. If the preceding direct object is a noun, it will be repeated before the verb by an object pronoun ā Cette chemise, je lāai acheteĢe aĢ Clermont = I bought this shirt in Clermont Les filles, il les a dragueĢes depuis lāaĢge de 15 ans = heās chatted up girls since he was 15 Les concombres, je ne les ai jamais aimeĢs = Iāve never liked cucumbers The preceding direct object may also be a relative pronoun, referring back to a noun in a previous clause ā Jāaime bien cette chemise que jāai acheteĢe aĢ Clermont = I like this shirt that I bought in Clermont very much Cette histoire quāil nāa jamais partageĢe avec qui que ce soit est digne dāeĢtre mieux connue = this story which heās never shared with anyone is worthy of being better known Les sports quāil a pratiqueĢs sont tous traumatisants pour le corps = the sports heās indulged in all take it out of the body big time 215 First person personal pronouns If the person using the first person pronoun is female, then any adjectives or past participles relating to it must be in the feminine form ā First person singular Jāai toujours eĢteĢ preĢte aĢ toutes les aventures = Iāve always been up for any adventure Pauvre idiote que jāeĢtais! = What a fool I was! 167 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Le mec a voulu māembrasser et je lāai repousseĢ, choqueĢe quāil ait eu cette penseĢe! = the guy tried to kiss me and I pushed him away, shocked that he could think like that Jāai perdu la trace de mes parents. Ou peut-eĢtre devrais-je dire que ce sont eux qui māont perdue = I lost track of my parents. Or perhaps I should say they lost track of me First person plural Nous eĢtions vraiment dāune inconscience atroce et je ne sais pas comment nous nous en sommes sorties vivantes! = We were unbelievably unaware of what we were doing and I donāt know how we managed to get out of it in one piece! Nous sommes alleĢs au meilleur restaurant de la ville = we went to the best restaurant in town 216 Second person personal pronouns Whereas English uses you to address any interlocutor, whether known or unknown to the speaker, whether one or more than one person is involved and whatever the circumstances, French has a choice between tu and vous in the singular. Consequently, vous resembles you in that it is used as both a singular and plural pronoun, but is different in that it is not used in certain circumstances in the singular. The general principle is that tu is used among friends and work colleagues of the same or similar status, within the family and when an older person talks to a younger one, ie a child ā in other words in informal, relaxed, domestic situations. Otherwise vous is used. Because deciding when to switch from vous to tu as one gets to know someone better is a difficult decision for a non-native French speaker, it is advisable to be led by the person you are talking to ā donāt switch until they do. To use tu too soon may be interpreted as being presumptuous and possibly offensive; to use it too late may make you seem priggish and distant! The following examples are taken from a girlsā magazine. Comments are made at the end of the section. 1 GarcĢ§on de 13 ans qui se reĢvolte contre la meĢre poule ā « Tu māempeĢches dāexister, jāsuis pas une gonzesse » = 13-year-old boy rebelling against his over-protective mother ā āYouāre suffocating me, Iām not a girlā 2 Vous eĢtes convaincue? Reste aĢ trouver le rouge qui convient aĢ vos babines = youāre convinced? The next thing is to find a lipstick that suits your mouth 3 Ont-ils le droit de vous mettre aĢ la porte? ā Si vous eĢtes marieĢe, lāodieux ne peut deĢcemment pas vous mettre aĢ la porte = have they the right to ban you from the house? ā If youāre married the blighter canāt decently do that 4 Chez des copains, vous vous sentez moins seule; pour les remercier de leur hospitaliteĢ vous vous sentez obligeĢe de coucher avec le ceĢlibataire du lot = staying with mates, you feel less lonely; to thank them for their hospitality, you feel obliged to sleep with the one in the group who hasnāt got a partner 5 Deux ou trois choses que je sais dāelle et qui māeĢnervent ā Sophie sāest encore trouveĢ un beau mec, cāest louche, tu trouves pas? = two or three things 168 217 Third person personal pronouns that I know about her which drive me mad ā Sophieās found another good-looking guy, itās the pits, donāt you think? 6 Pas la meĢme notion du temps, ni celle de lāargent ā quand on la voit revenir des magasins, les bras chargeĢs de douze paires de pompes tellement pas cheĢres, regarde celles-ci, tu devineras jamais le prix = you havenāt got the same notion of time or money ā when you see her coming back from the shops with her arms laden with a dozen pairs of shoes, so cheap, look at these, youāll never guess the price 7 Je tāappelle car jāai un probleĢme et il est stipuleĢ que tu reĢpondes quand on tāappelle = Iām calling you because Iāve got a problem and itās stipulated that you reply when youāre called 8 Je suis formelle, tu nāas aucune raison de culpabiliser ou de trouver cĢ§a honteux de ta part = I am absolutely definite ā you havenāt got any reason to feel guilty or to find that shameful on your part 9 Que tu aies des gouĢts bizarres, je ne vois pas tellement le probleĢme = that youāve got some weird tastes, I canāt see the difficulty In example 1 a young boy is talking (crossly) to his mother and uses tu. In examples 2, 3 and 4, the reader is addressed as vous feminine singular ā the writer does not know her audience personally but writes for a female reader. The alternation between vous and tu in these examples and examples 5 and 6 illustrates well the difference in tone and value of the two pronouns ā vous is used by the writer to address the young female readership, whom she doesnāt know and who are probably younger than her, whereas tu is used in those circumstances where two girls are imagined talking to or reacting to each other. In example 7, the reader is using tu to address the āagony auntā, which is presumably done to achieve a sense of complicity, but seems impertinent. In examples 8 and 9, the āagony auntā uses the tu form to create a feeling of trust and intimacy between her and her correspondents. The contrast between examples 2, 3, 4 and examples 8 and 9 highlights well the delicacy and subtlety of the decision. 217 Third person personal pronouns Not only do il = he and elle = she, both the pronouns also = it when they refer to or take the place of a masculine or feminine noun respectively. The same point applies to the plural forms too; ils, elles = they (the plural of it). Le troisieĢme type de vieillissement cāest le vieillissement hormonal ā il deĢmarre vers 35 ans par une baisse de taux dāoestrogeĢne = the third type of ageing is hormonal ageing ā itās triggered at about 35 by a reduction in oestrogen levels ApreĢs une semaine, la transformation est radicale; visiblement fortifieĢe, la peau recouvre fraıĢcheur et luminositeĢ; elle revit = after a week, the transformation is radical; your skin, which is visibly strengthened, recovers its freshness and luminosity; it comes back to life. Les propositions de lāopposition feraient davantage avancer le pays. Mais elles ne diffeĢrent pas fondamentalement des projets gouvernementaux = the oppositionās proposals would benefit the country more. But they donāt differ fundamentally from the governmentās projects 169 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Les projets europeĢens les plus strateĢgiques, les entreprises francĢ§aises et europeĢennes les plus sensibles ont un point commun ā ils font appel aux craĢnes dāoeuf dāAltran = the most strategic European projects and the most sensitive French and European businesses have a point in common ā they appeal to Altranās eggheads In the last example, it should be noted that when a masculine noun (projets) and a feminine noun (entreprises) form a compound subject, the pronoun used to refer back to them is always masculine. 218 Different usages in French and English Collective nouns referring to groups of people in British English ā team, government, political party, committee ā tend to be treated as plurals. The government have decided to support a federalist stance In French, the rule of grammar, rather than (perhaps) logic, prevails, and such nouns are treated as third person singulars and are followed by a singular verb ā En demi-finales, lāeĢquipe a eĢlimineĢ le Celtic Glasgow, finaliste la saison passeĢe = in the semi-final the team eliminated Glasgow Celtic, who were finalists last season Lāopposition a vivement contesteĢ le rapport de la mission dāeĢvaluation sur les 35 heures = the opposition have sharply contested the report of the committee which scrutinised the 35-hour week Mais si nous en sommes laĢ, cāest parce que le gouvernement Jospin a fait voter en 2001 une loi preĢvoyant le transfert des impoĢts = but if thatās the predicament weāre in, itās because the Jospin government put through a vote in 2001 on the transfer of taxes 219 Ce and il with reference to persons Although in the table of pronouns above, ce is classified as a neuter subject pronoun, there is one set of circumstances where it is used as the equivalent of the personal pronouns subject il / elle / ils / elles to mean he / she / they. This is with names of professions, nationality and social status. The rule is 1 il / elle / ils / elles are used when the name is used without a determiner (un / une / des, le / la / les) ā Elle est francĢ§aise = sheās French Il est professeur = heās a teacher Elle est actrice = sheās an actress Il est devenu preĢsident en 2004 = he became president in 2004 Elles sont couturieĢres = theyāre dress designers 2 ce is used when a determiner is involved and when the noun is modified in some way ā Cāest la fille dāune architecte = sheās the daughter of an architect 170 221 Ce or il? Que pensez-vous des mannequins dans les magazines! ā Ce sont des sacs dāos = what do you think of the models in magazines? Theyāre bags of bones Les stars se remettent aĢ manger. Leur point commun: ce sont des femmes dāaffaires bourreĢes dāambition et de talent = the stars are beginning to eat again. They have one point in common ā theyāre business women full of ambition and talent Vous refusez obstineĢment de freĢquenter nos bandes de potes, alors que ce sont des mecs sensibles, je te jure = you stubbornly refuse to have anything to do with our mates, whereas, I assure you, theyāre a sensitive bunch Dominique? ā cāest un garcĢ§on = Dominique? ā heās a boy 220 Neuter subject pronouns Apart from the situation described in the previous section, there are others where ce and il function as neuter subject pronouns in French. In practically all the situations where the two pronouns ācompeteā, it is the verb eĢtre that is involved. In terms of agreement, ce is treated in exactly the same way as il; it is neuter ā therefore, any adjective or past participle referring to it always occurs in the masculine, never the feminine. Unlike il, it is followed by a plural verb (for example sont) when it refers to a plural noun (in standard French ā in informal French, the singular also appears) ā Ce sont mes CDs preĢfeĢreĢs = theyāre my favourite CDs Ce sont les journalistes francĢ§ais qui ont eĢteĢ les premiers aĢ deĢvoiler le scandale = it was French journalists who were the first to uncover the scandal 221 Ce or il? 1 ā 1: when followed by an adjective; 2: followed by adjective + infinitive; 3: followed by adjective + clause It is a perennial problem knowing when to use which pronoun. In general, ce has a wider application than il. However, since in English there is only one pronoun to fit all cases, it is important to know in French when to use one pronoun rather than the other. The situation in French is even more complicated because il = he and personal it (with reference to masculine items), as well as neuter it. Generally speaking, ce has a very vague, general value, referring to a context, an effect, an impression, rather than to a specific referent. What follows is a series of categories that require one pronoun rather than the other or, in some cases, that admit both. 1 When it is / was is followed by an adjective alone It is always ce that is used to = it, when the expression with the adjective forms a complete statement. If il is used, it = he. In translating ce different strategies may be used, as the examples below illustrate. Ce sera dur, mais nous avons remporteĢ des matches aussi durs = itāll be tough, but weāve already won equally tough matches (= playing the game) Si vous nāavez jamais gouĢteĢ le chocolat aĢ la tomate, tentez le coup ā cāest deĢlicieux = if youāve never tasted tomato-flavoured chocolate, give it a try ā itās delicious Cela a donneĢ des reĢsultats. Cāest clair = thatās produced results ā thatās for sure 171 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Des meĢlanges dāimprimeĢs ā cāest treĢs british = mixtures of print patterns ā very British (= these patterns evoke an impression associated with the UK) La neige, le soleil, lāaventure, la culture ā cāest incroyable = snow, sun, adventure and culture ā unbelievable Misez sur une minijupe. Avec vos jambes de gazelle, ce sera parfait = go for a miniskirt. With gazelle-like legs like yours, itāll be perfect Sophie sāest encore trouveĢ un beau mec, cāest louche, tu trouves pas? = Sophieās found another good-looking guy, itās the pits, donāt you think? Il est dur / deĢlicieux / clair / incroyable / parfait / louche would = he is tough / delicious / clear / unbelievable / perfect / seedy 2 When it is / was is followed by an adjective + infinitive In this case, il is the required pronoun in standard French if the infinitive is followed by a complement, direct object or any further information. Il est important de passer du temps ensemble = itās important to spend time together Si vos vergetures sont rosaceĢes, il est encore temps de demander aĢ un dermatologue de vous prescrire une creĢme = If your stretch marks are rosy-coloured, thereās still time to ask a dermatologist to prescribe you a cream Il est difficile dāaller aĢ la bataille eĢlectorale avec un tel reĢsultat dans les sondages = itās difficult to go into the elections with such a result in the polls Il eĢtait logique de faire appel aux proprieĢteĢs de ce bijou des mers chaudes = it was logical to appeal to the properties of this jewel from the warm seas Est-il utile de le reĢpeĢter? = is it useful to do it again? However, in less formal French, ce may also be used ā Ce serait dur dāaller vivre ailleurs = itād be hard to go and live somewhere else The following example shows how even this distinction of formality/informality is not always respected and the two constructions may occur even in the same sentence ā Maintenant il est impossible de doubler aux Jeux, mais cāest agreĢable dāavoir une alternative avec le marathon et le 10 000 m = now itās not possible to enter for two events in the Games, but itās nice to have an alternative with the marathon and the 10 000 metres If the infinitive is not followed by a complement, direct object or any other information, ce is used, and the preposition before the infinitive is aĢ rather than de ā En matieĢre de drague, il sāagit avant tout de se faire remarquer. Ce nāest pas toujours facile aĢ faire = when youāre on the pull, itās essential to get yourself noticed. Itās not always easy to do On devrait faire confiance aĢ ses amis. Malheureusement, cāest difficile aĢ faire = you should trust your friends. Unfortunately itās difficult to do 172 222 Distinguishing il and ce: 2 3 When it is / was is followed by an adjective + clause Again, it is il that is used in standard French, ce in less formal French ā Il est universellement reconnu quāen cent ans le thermomeĢtre mondial a deĢjaĢ gagneĢ 0,6 degreĢ C = itās widely accepted that in a hundred years the earthās thermometer has already risen by 0.6 degrees C Toujours est-il que je ne peux effectivement māendormir sans passer par la salle de bains = the fact remains that in effect I canāt go to sleep without paying a visit to the bathroom Il est conseilleĢ que si vous voulez vous exposez au soleil, vous le faites toujours avec modeĢration = itās advisable that, if you want to sunbathe, you always do it with moderation Ce nāest pas juste que tu aies eu la meĢme note que moi ā jāai travailleĢ beaucoup plus dur que toi = itās not fair that you got the same mark as me ā I worked a lot harder than you The following example shows a change of construction ā Cāest vrai que vous, il ne suffit pas dāappuyer sur un bouton pour vous faire reĢagir = itās true that you, it isnāt enough to press a button to make you react It should be noted that in a number of situations in informal French ce is encroaching upon the ground previously occupied by il. This is presumably due to the numerical supremacy of ce preceding eĢtre in these constructions and probably also due to the influence of cĢ§a ā see 239. 222 Distinguishing il and ce: 2 When it is / was is followed by another part of speech Here it is always ce that is used, and again the value of ce is difficult to define ā it usually refers to a following scenario ā Ma meĢre me tape de plus en plus sur le systeĢme. ReĢsultat ā cāest disputes sur disputes = my mother is getting on my nerves more and more. The result, argument after argument Sa strateĢgie, cāeĢtait de prendre aĢ chaque coup une deĢcision claire = his strategy was to make a clear decision at each stroke (in golf) Vous eĢtes pourvue des qualiteĢs indispensables aĢ qui veut se lancer aĢ lāassaut des planches? Foncez, cāest pour vous! = youāve got the indispensable qualities for someone who is keen to tread the boards? Go for it ā itās there for you Cāest une attitude plutoĢt saine de vouloir sāisoler de temps en temps = itās a fairly healthy attitude to want to spend time alone once in a while Cāest bien simple: Julot sans sa troupe de copains, cāest comme un banana split sans la banane = itās very simple ā Fred without his troop of mates is like a banana split minus the banana 173 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 223 The use of cāest to highlight a section of an utterance The normal word order in French is Subject ā Verb ā Complement (adjective, object, etc). However, quite regularly in writing and even more so in speech, the speaker / writer wishes to emphasise a particular section of what he or she is sayng or writing. This can be done by taking the section in question and preceding it by cāest. Il est is never used in this way. The following examples illustrate the ways in which various sections can be highlighted. Note that cāest is almost invariable ā and is used with reference to events in the past as well as in the present. Cāest aĢ leur hotel que lāeĢquipe a feĢteĢ sa qualification pour les demi-finales = it was in their hotel that the team celebrated qualifying for the semi-final Normal order ā lāeĢquipe a feĢteĢ sa qualification pour les demi-finales aĢ leur hoĢtel Mais aĢ la maison, cāest de lāordre que vous exigez = but in the house, itās tidiness that you demand Normal order ā vous exigez de lāordre aĢ la maison Ce nāest quāapreĢs avoir siroteĢ une bonne douzaine de verres quāil se deĢcide enfin aĢ vous suivre = itās only after downing a good dozen glasses that he at last makes up his mind to follow you Normal order ā il se deĢcide enfin aĢ vous suivre apreĢs avoir siroteĢ une bonne douzaine de verres CāeĢtait qui au bout du fil? = who was it on the phone? Normal order ā qui eĢtait au bout du fil? Sur les tapis rouges de Hollywood, cāest aĢ celle qui peĢsera le moins lourd = on the red carpets of Hollywood itās the one whoāll weigh the least who wins Cāest aĢ lāacteur de relever ce deĢfi = itās up to the actor to meet the challenge Cāest pas une petite nana comme vous qui allez lui faire perdre la face devant ses durs aĢ cuire de potes = itās not going to be a little tart like you whoāll make him lose face in front of his hard mates See 463 for more discussion of highlighting. 224 Use of on On is a widely used third person pronoun and covers a range of usages that would be served by a number of pronouns in English. Translating on into English, therefore, presents problems and choosing the most appropriate corresponding pronoun requires careful thought. A number of points will emerge from an examination of the following examples ā 1 that on can be equivalent of almost any other pronoun, 2 that, just because it is used on a number of occasions in a single passage, that does not necessarily mean that it retains the same value throughout the passage; it is quite likely to change values from one occurrence to the next. 174 222 Distinguishing il and ce: 2 Aurions-nous oublieĢ ces serpents sifflant sur la teĢte de Pompidou dans lāaffaire Marcovic? Doit-on rappeler les fantasmagories sexuelles et deĢlirantes dont les tricoteuses de la ReĢvolution assaisonnaient MarieAntoinette. On aura vu, convoqueĢs sans vergogne et sur eĢcran, des teĢmoins douteux ā mais reĢtribueĢs ā afin quāils deĢbitent des insaniteĢs sans preuves = could we possibly have forgotten those serpents hissing on Pompidouās head in the Marcovic affair? Must we remind ourselves of the sexual and outrageous fantasies with which the tricoteuses of the Revolution [a group of staunchly revolutionary women] spiced up Marie-Antoinetteās reputation. We have undoubtedly seen dubious witnesses shamelessly assembled on television ā but rewarded ā to dish up loads of nonsense without any proof In this example, the alternation between nous and on shows how they can be used interchangeably in a context where the referent of the pronouns is not defined. On me sollicite parfois pour que je donne un coup de main aĢ lāoccasion dāune affectation = Iām sometimes asked to give a hand when an appointment is being made Here the best way to translate the on is by a passive construction ā it is not at all clear who is asking for help. On dit « cāest du Murat » comme on dit « cāest du Miossec / du Dominique A ». Des auteurs-compositeurs avec une vraie estampille, on nāen a pas tant que cĢ§a. On tombe sous le charme de ses yeux bleus dāamoureux. Ensuite, on remarque le mec, pas mal du tout = they say āthatās pure Muratā just as they say āthatās pure Miossec or Dominique Aā. We havenāt got that many singerāsongwriters with a genuine trademark. We fall under the charm of his blue love-smitten eyes. Then we notice the guy, not bad at all In this example, on seems to have a number of values ā very vague in the first two instances; the third could refer to the French nation as a whole; the fourth and fifth, those attending his concerts. Ce type eĢtait compleĢtement dingue et sāest mis aĢ me poser des questions dāun ton treĢs pervers: « Alors on va aĢ lāeĢcole? »; «Et on a des bonnes notes aĢ lāeĢcole, on est une bonne fifille aĢ sa maman? » Et dans ce genre de situation, lāemploi de la troisieĢme personne du singulier augure quelque chose de terrifiant = this guy was completely off his rocker and began to ask me questions in a very perverted way: āSo she goes to school?ā; āDoes she get good marks at school, is she a good little girl for mummy?ā In this type of situation, using the third person singular pronoun suggested something terrifying Here, as the girl indicates, on is being used in a disturbing way ā an indefinite pronoun used in a highly personal situation, depersonalising the girl. On veut que les gens nous aiment je suppose. Mais cĢ§a ne peut eĢtre la raison pour laquelle on eĢcrit. On eĢcrit un livre car on ressent lāabsolue neĢcessiteĢ de le faire. Et non pas parce quāon veut du fric, ou trouver une petite amie = we/I want people to like us/me I suppose. But that canāt be the reason for writing. We/I write a book because we/I feel absolutely constrained to do it ā and not because we/I want some money, or to find a girlfriend In this example, as the translation implies, on becomes very close to being a substitute for je ā it teeters between a personal reference and a more general one. 175 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 225 Agreement of adjectives and past participles with on Because on bears so many values, this is brought out in the matter of agreement with adjectives and past participles (however, the verb never takes anything but the third person singular form) ā see 197. Of course, this is more obvious in written French than in spoken French, where agreements are often not noticeable. CĢ§a devait eĢtre un plan dāune nuit, mais on est resteĢs ensemble six mois = it was meant to be a one-night stand, but we stayed together for six months Tu nous imagines comme cĢ§a ā coucheĢs, debout, assis? On est aussi vulgaires? = can you see us like that ā in bed, standing up, sitting down? Are we as common as that? Dans toutes les CaraıĢbes, les Cubains ont toujours eĢteĢ les plus bosseurs. Ma meĢre eĢtait institutrice, on nāeĢtait pas des privileĢgieĢs = in all the Caribbean, the Cubans have always been the hardest working. My mother was an infant-school teacher; we didnāt have any privileges Cāest la femme qui a envie dāun enfant la premieĢre, surtout quand elle approche la quarantaine. LaĢ, on devient meĢme insistante = itās the woman whoās the first to want a baby, especially when sheās getting close to forty. Then she even insists. Certains se lavent le nez sous la douche. Quand on est enrhumeĢe, cāest diffeĢrent = some people wash their nose under the shower. When youāve got a cold, thatās different Quand on se croit seul(e) ou aĢ lāabri des repreĢsailles, il arrive quāon se laĢche un peu ou carreĢment ā when you think youāre alone or out of danger of reprisals, it happens that you let yourself go ā a little bit or a lot In the first two examples, because on refers to a couple, the past participle and adjective have a masculine plural ending ā but the verb remains in the third person singular. In the next example, on covers the whole family and not just the mother. In the fourth example, the person referred to is a woman, consequently insistante. In the secondlast example, the use of the feminine past participle seems odd after the masculine pronoun certains, but is probably to be explained by reference to the fact that the example is taken from a womenās magazine. In the last example, the author covers the possibility that the pronoun may refer to a girl or a guy by presenting the adjective in both genders. 226 on and its other forms When it is necessary to refer to the subject pronoun on as a direct or indirect object or after a preposition, the reflexive forms are used ā Si on nāaime pas le cadeau, on peut le revendre et sāoffrir un autre = if you donāt like the present, you can sell it and buy yourself another one Tu crois que cāest dangereux de se percer le nombril soi-meĢme? = do you think itās dangerous to pierce your navel yourself? On prend trois comprimeĢs qui vont arreĢter la grossesse en court-circuitant les seĢcreĢtions de progesteĢrone. Cāest indolore et on repart tranquillement chez soi = you take three pills which will stop the pregnancy by short-circuiting the secretion of progesterone. It doesnāt hurt and you can go home without a problem 176 227 Personal pronouns ā object 227 Personal pronouns ā object The following examples illustrate the use of the personal pronouns as direct and indirect objects ā First person singular Je nāai personne aĢ qui me confier, jāespeĢre que tu sauras māeĢcouter et peut-eĢtre māaider = I havenāt got anyone to confide in. I hope youāll be able to listen to me and perhaps help me Je ne sais plus comment me coiffer ā mes cheveux māabandonnent peu aĢ peu. Je ne peux plus rien faire des quelques cheveux me restant. Je devrai porter une perruque, ce qui ne māenchante gueĢre = I donāt know how to do my hair any more ā my hair is gradually dropping out. I canāt do anything with my few remaining hairs. Iāll have to wear a wig, and that doesnāt appeal to me at all Second person singular Je tāai reconnue, autant te dire quāau milieu de mes lettres pas super-super tordantes du mois, la tienne māa fait grand bien = I picked you out ā thatās to say that in the middle of my not-so-very funny letters this month, yours has done me a lot of good Si tu veux te faire percer, va dans un lieu speĢcialiseĢ = if you want to have a piercing, go to a place that specialises in it Jāai heĢsiteĢ longtemps avant de tāeĢcrire = I kept hesitating before writing to you Je tāappelle car jāai un probleĢme = Iām calling you because Iāve got a problem Third person singular Je pense que cāest bien de le prendre dans les mains au deĢbut = I think itās fine to take hold of it in your hands at the beginning Il me reproche de ne pas lui parler = he accuses me of not talking to him Comment savoir si cĢ§a lui fait plaisir? = how can I know if it gives her pleasure? Jāai un probleĢme qui me tient eĢnormeĢment au coeur et je nāarrive pas aĢ le reĢsoudre = Iāve got a problem that is very close to my heart and I canāt sort it out Il nāarrive pas aĢ le comprendre = he canāt manage to understand it / him Third person reflexive/reciprocal Il faut se faire pousser les poils = youāll need to grow hair Cāest la deuxieĢme fois quāon se seĢpare = itās the second time weāve split up Entre eĢtres humains sentimentalement lieĢs, il faut beaucoup se parler, se dire des choses = Between human beings with a sentimental attachment, you have to talk a lot, tell each other things First person plural Y a-t-il des risques que nous nous fassions arreĢter par la police? = is there a risk that weāll get ourselves arrested by the police? 177 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Faire fondre quelques rondeurs superflues sans nous priver = How to get rid of a few excess bulges without depriving ourselves Second person plural Oui, il y a des risques que vous vous fassiez arreĢter par la police, mais ce nāest pas le pire qui puisse vous arriver = yes, there is the risk that youāll get yourselves arrested by the police, but thatās not the worst that might happen to you Pour tranformer vos petits kilos mous en muscles, nul besoin de vous imposer des kilomeĢtres de footing ou des heures dans les salles de gym. Il vous suffit simplement dāopter pour la marche = in order to transform your wee soft kilos into muscle, no need to impose kilometres of jogging on yourself or hours in the gym. All you need is simply to opt for walking Third person plural CĢ§a va bien les deĢboussoler, les autres, cĢ§a va bien les faire ruminer, meĢdire, mais cĢ§a va leur faire clouer le bec = thatāll confuse them very nicely, itāll give them food for thought, make them curse, but itāll make them shut their gobs Je suis une fille bizarre, il ne māarrive que des choses nulles, je les collectionne = Iām a weird girl, only boring things happen to me, I collect them Le mieux serait de leur dire que pour moi cāest juste histoire de voir ce quāils valent au disco = the best thing to do would be to tell them that for me itās just a matter of finding out how good they are at discoing A lāheure ouĢ tu liras ces lignes ā grosso modo trois ou quatre semaines apreĢs que je les ai eĢcrites = when you read these lines ā about three or four weeks after Iāve written them 228 The various values of the reflexive pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous 1 to refer back to the subject Belle et mince meĢme sans se ruiner = beautiful and slim even without ruining yourself Pas la peine de vous punir avec une dieĢte compleĢte de trois jours apreĢs une crise de chocolat = not worth punishing yourself by not eating anything for three full days after a chocolate crisis 2 to mark a reciprocal relationship Nous nous aimons mais nos parents sont compleĢtement contre = we love each other but our parents are completely against it Soyez treĢs clair avec votre petite amie ā il faut surveiller vos paroles, vos actes pour vous proteĢger contre lāincompreĢhension = be very honest with your girlfriend ā you need to watch what you say and do to protect yourself from misunderstanding 3 idiomatic usage with no corresponding value in English 178 230 Anticipatory it of English Vous avez pris quelques kilos sans vous en rendre compte? = youāve put on a few kilos without realising it Sans me vanter je suis lāhomme qui supporte le moins au monde « La Guerre des eĢtoiles » = without boasting Iām the bloke who likes āStar Warsā the least of anybody 229 le referring to a previously expressed concept Quite often le is used to refer not to a previously expressed or understood noun but to a concept expressed in a preceding (or subsequent) statement or question. English tends not to pick up the concept in this way. Jāai deĢcideĢ de vous proposer quelques sujets de reĢdac que je corrigerai dans ces pages, si le temps le permet = Iāve decided to suggest a few essay questions which Iāll mark in these pages, if time allows Personne ne vous reprochera dāavoir tenteĢ meĢdecine avant de vous orienter sur la gestion. Le tout est de le justifier sans fausse honte = no one will criticise you for having attempted medicine before having a go at business. What counts is to justify it without false modesty Il eĢvoque lāaffaire comme « lāaccident qui a mis fin » aĢ sa carrieĢre au journal « de la meĢme manieĢre impreĢvisible que lāaurait fait une attaque cardiaque ou un accident dāavion » = he describes the affair as āthe accident which put an endā to his career in the paper āin the same unforeseeable way as a heart attack or plane accident would have doneā Le message est clair: comme le montre lāhistoire europeĢenne, lāantiseĢmitisme ne touche pas que les juifs, mais concerne les liberteĢs de tous = the message is clear: as the history of Europe demonstrates, anti-Semitism doesnāt affect just the Jews, but concerns everyoneās liberties In the first three examples, the le refers back to a previous concept ā in the first example = to mark the essays; in the second = the change of career ambitions; in the third = the end to his career. In the last example, it anticipates the idea that follows. Note that only in example 2 does the English translation use an it. 230 Dealing with the anticipatory it of English Whereas English uses an anticipatory it to introduce a following idea, French does not: therefore, it should not be rendered into French. Les meĢdecins consideĢrent essentiel de suivre un programme dāexercices = doctors consider it essential to follow a programme of exercises Je trouve difficile de ne pas eĢtre paresseux = I find it difficult not to be lazy Elle estime important que les parents ne voient pas dans la garde alterneĢe des enfants une facĢ§on de reĢgler leur comptes entre eux = she thinks it important for parents not to see in alternating looking after their children a way of settling scores between them Je trouve choquant quāil sāest servi de propos tellement obsceĢnes = I find it shocking that he used such obscene language 179 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 231 Stressed personal pronouns: 1 The stressed forms may occur alone or combined with meĢme. They are used for emphasis, when the pronoun is separated from the verb or follows a preposition, and in sentences without a verb. First person singular Moi qui suis une fille et qui aimerais eĢtre un garcĢ§on = me a girl whoād love to be a boy Je suis un traitement, mais il reste inefficace sur moi = Iāve been following a course of treatment but it hasnāt had any effect on me Je comprends bien eĢvidemment ton deĢsarroi, ayant eĢteĢ fascineĢ moi-meĢme par la joliesse de SineĢad OāConnor = I can certainly understand your confusion, because I myself have been fascinated by SineĢad OāConnorās good looks Qui cāest? ā Moi = who is it? ā Me Il ne sait pas comment le faire ā Ni moi non plus = he doesnāt know how to do it ā Nor do I Second person singular Quoi que tu puisses reĢpondre, je pense aĢ toi = whatever you may say in reply, I keep thinking of you Dans la seĢrie « toi aussi joue avec Kylie », voici la poupeĢe Kylie Minogue = in the series āyou too can play with Kylieā, hereās the KM doll De qui est-ce quāil parlait? ā Toi = who was he talking about? ā You Third person singular Il ne cesse de faire parler de lui = heās always making himself talked about Jāavais un perroquet, mais mon premier mari māa dit: « Cāest lui ou moi » = I had a parrot, but my first husband said to me: āItās either him or meā Cet animal māeĢvoque mon peĢre. Je ne sais pas trop pourquoi, mais cāest tout aĢ fait lui = this animal makes me think of my dad. I donāt know why, but itās him to a tee. Merci aĢ Dido, qui, elle, nous a offert un vrai spectacle = thanks to Dido who gave us a real show Elle explique quāelle nāavait jamais dit du mal dāelle = she explains that she had never spoken ill of her Cette peĢriode houleuse sāarrange geĢneĢralement dāelle-meĢme vers 18ā20 ans = this stormy period normally sorts itself out when youāre between 18 and 20 years old Third person reflexive Soi is used with reference to an indefinite or unexpressed antecedent and in the expression estime de soi = self-esteem. Il faut se sentir treĢs aĢ lāaise avec soi-meĢme et son partenaire = you have to feel completely relaxed with yourself and your partner 180 232 Stressed personal pronouns: 2 Jāaide les femmes aĢ se sentir belles, aĢ entretenir leur estime de soi = I help women to feel beautiful, to maintain their self-esteem First person plural Il y a un risque quāentre nous ce ne soit plus pareil = thereās the danger that between ourselves it may not work out like that Aujourdāhui, nous, on a la guerre dāIrak, la mondialisation et lāalimentation bio = today weāve got the war in Iraq, globalisation and bio foods Second person plural Apprenez aĢ vous imposer. Ne comptez que sur vous = learn to impose yourself. Donāt rely on anyone except yourself Il y en aura pour tous les gouĢts et toutes les formes preĢs de chez vous = thereāll be one for all tastes and shapes near you Third person plural Tous mes amis me disent de garder le moral, mais cāest facile pour eux = all my mates tell me to keep a stiff upper lip, but thatās easy for them Je sais que pour eux cāest juste histoire de se deĢfouler = I know that for them itās just a matter of letting off steam Jāai peur dāeĢprouver quelque chose pour lāun dāeux = Iām afraid of having a feeling for one of them Au fil des mois, ces fines rayures vont blanchir et donc sāestomper dāelles-meĢmes = as the months go by, these fine lines will turn pale and therefore blend in by themselves Un marathon du baiser a eu lieu aĢ Manille aux Philippines. Il eĢtait reĢserveĢ aux amoureux marieĢs ou fianceĢs, mais selon les participants, beaucoup dāentre eux ne lāeĢtaient pas = a kissing marathon was held in Manila in the Philippines. It was restricted to lovers who were married or engaged, but according to the participants not everyone was 232 Stressed personal pronouns: 2 The third person pronoun, singular and plural, can be used as the direct subject of the verb, whereas for the other persons the unstressed pronouns need to be used as well ā Il voudrait faire lāamour deux ou trois fois par jour. Si je le repousse, il est abattu. Lui preĢtend que je ne suis pas normale, donc cāest lāimpasse = heād like to make love two or three times a day. If I reject him, he gets depressed. He claims Iām not normal, so weāve reached an impasse Mon copain critique mon anatomie et cela me blesse. Lui dit que mes seins sont trop petits, mais moi, jāen suis contente = my boyfriend keeps criticising my body. He says that my breasts are too small, but Iām happy with them Un homme aĢgeĢ, lui, trouve au contraire valorisant de conqueĢrir une partenaire moins aĢgeĢe que lui = a older man on the other hand finds it enhances his prestige if he conquers a partner younger than himself 181 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Il arrive aĢ mon peĢre de māaccompagner jusquāaux cabinets dāessayage. Est-ce choquant? Moi, jāy suis habitueĢe et cĢ§a ne me geĢne pas = it happens that my dad goes with me to the fitting rooms. Is that shocking? Iām used to it and it doesnāt worry me La question est de savoir si toi tu as les qualiteĢs pour reĢveiller ce groupe = the question is to know if youāve got the qualities needed to shake this group up Devenue reĢdactrice en chef, le Guide, cāeĢtait elle, les billets pleins dāhumour et de rosserie parfois, elle encore = having become editor in chief, she was the guide, notes full of humour, sometimes of nastiness too, that was her again La mauvaise humeur du matin, le match du foot, vous, vous y eĢchappez = the bad mood in the morning, the football match, you can escape all that It is also possible for the third person pronoun to be repeated as with the other persons Il faut dire quāelle, elle ne pose pas de questions = it has to be said that she doesnāt ask questions 233 Stressed personal pronouns: 3 With certain verbs stressed pronouns are used to express to me, you, him, her, etc, rather than the regular pronouns (me, lui, en, etc): With faire attention aĢ = to pay attention to, sāhabituer aĢ = to get used to, penser aĢ = to think of, avoir recours aĢ = to have recourse to, reĢver aĢ = to dream of, songer aĢ = to think of, tenir aĢ = to be fond of Je suis folle amoureuse dāun mec, je reĢve aĢ lui tout le temps = Iām madly in love with a guy; I dream about him all the time MeĢnager sa colonne verteĢbrale contribue aĢ preĢvenir les maux ā pense aĢ elle avant de faire des mouvements trop brusques = managing your spinal column will help avoid problems ā think about it before making too sudden movements With verbs of movement Elle a couru aĢ moi les larmes aux yeux = she ran to me with tears in her eyes Mon petit ami māa quitteĢe ā je ne sais pas comment māy prendre pour quāil revienne aĢ moi = my boyfriend has left me ā I donāt what to do to make him come back However, if the āmovementā is intellectual, the unstressed pronouns are used ā Il me vient aĢ lāesprit que lāimportant nāest pas le commentaire mais lāacte = it occurs to me that the important thing is not so much talk as action 234 en and y En and y are like the personal pronouns dealt with earlier in that ā 1 they are placed between the subject and the verb when there is a subject, and 2 they are used in exactly the same way with the imperative. 235 en En is a pronoun which 182 235 en 1 is the equivalent of de + a noun or the idea contained in a phrase and = of, about, from + it / they; very often it is a matter of a verb with a prepositional object, eg se servir de, se moquer de, se deĢbarrasser de 2 is used in partitive constructions = some / any of it / them; 3 is the equivalent of the possessive determiner in English in certain circumstances; 4 is part of certain verbal expressions. 1 the equivalent of de + noun Jāadore ce t-shirt avec ces longues manches fendues aux coudes. Quāest-ce que tu en penses? = I adore this t-shirt with its long sleeves, split at the elbows. What do you think of it? Les lentilles les plus connues sont vertes ou rouges, mais il en existe dāautres varieĢteĢs = the best known lentils are green or red, but other varieties exist Son eĢpouse reprochait aĢ lāentourage du preĢsident dāavoir accapareĢ les voitures de son mari et au preĢsident dāen avoir eu connaissance = his wife accused the presidentās entourage of having seized her husbandās cars and the president of being aware of it Si la rose est la reine des fleurs, le jasmin en est le roi = if the rose is the queen of the flowers, jasmine is the king Jāavais lāair dāun nain travesti entoureĢ de gazelles. Tout le monde sāen marrait = I looked like a dressed-up gnome surrounded by gazelles. Everybody took the mickey Le diagnostic dāun meĢdecin reste indispensable. NāheĢsitez pas aĢ vous en servir = a doctorās diagnosis is indispensable. Donāt hesitate to use it Ces photos, personne nāen conteste lāauthenticiteĢ = no one disputes the authenticity of these photos Quand il y a des informations sur la torture des prisonniers, des sanctions doivent eĢtre prises treĢs vite; cela responsabilise les personnes qui en ont la charge = when thereās information about the torture of prisoners, sanctions must be taken very quickly; that makes the people who are in charge of them responsible 2 = some / any of it / them Vous eĢtes exigeantes avec vous-meĢme ā voilaĢ pourquoi vous conseillez aĢ celles qui nāont pas de tenue ASICS dāen avoir une = youāre demanding with yourself, thatās why you advise those who havenāt got an ASICS outfit to get one Je lis des textes sur lāeĢconomie dāAfrique. Jāen ai un tas = I read texts on the economy of Africa. Iāve got stacks of them Pour ne garder que lāessentiel du cafeĢ, la compagnie retire le marc au moment de lāeĢlaboration. Mais si vous y tenez, on peut vous en envoyer = in order to preserve nothing but the essentials of the coffee, the company removes the grounds when it is being produced. But if you want, they can send you some Coupez les oranges en lamelles; sucrez-en la moitieĢ = slice the oranges thinly; sprinkle sugar on half of them 183 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Le succeĢs des leĢgumes secs sāexplique en partie par leur richesse en proteĢines. Crus, ils en contiennent jusquāaĢ 25%, et environ 10% apreĢs cuisson = the success of dried vegetables may in part be explained by their richness in proteins. Uncooked they contain up to 25%, and about 10% after cooking 3 = English possessive determiner Seul un interrogatoire deĢtailleĢ de lāenfant et de ses parents permettra dāen deĢpister la cause [de sa maladie] = only a detailed interrogation of the child and its parents will allow its cause to be traced « Les photos sont choquantes mais nos rapports sont pires » dit Mme Notari mais qui refuse dāen preĢciser le contenu = āthe photos are shocking but our reports are worseā, said Mme Notari, who, however, refused to give details of their contents 4 There are also a number of verbal expressions involving en, where the en seems to have little particular value ā Il en va de meĢme avec les soutiens-gorges en matieĢre eĢlastique = itās the same with elasticated bras Je lui en veux de māavoir leĢgueĢ son nez en patate = I hold it against him for having bequeathed me his nose like a potato Jāai vu Fabien, plieĢ en deux, se tenant le ventre, mort de rire ā il nāen pouvait plus = I saw Fabien, doubled up, holding his stomach, laughing as if he was about to give up the ghost ā he couldnāt help it Le clown revient. Mais il nāen peut plus, le clown = the clown has come back. But he canāt help it, the clown Je suis seule. Je fais rire tout le monde, et je suis seule. Jāen ai marre = Iām all alone. I make everybody laugh, and Iām all alone. Iām fed up with it Jāen ai assez quāon me telephone pour māinviter aĢ les faire rigoler = it gets on my nerves when they ring me up to invite me to make them laugh Personne nāen veut de mes soucis = no one wants to hear about my problems 236 y Y is a pronoun which 1 is the equivalent of aĢ + a noun or the idea contained in a phrase and = at, about + it / they; very often it is a matter of a verb with a prepositional object eg faire attention aĢ, penser aĢ, renoncer aĢ 2 = there 1 Equivalent of aĢ + noun Que lāon ait arreĢteĢ de fumer au deĢbut dāanneĢe ou depuis quelques anneĢes, le spectre de la rechute rode. On nāose pas ne pas y faire attention = whether you stopped smoking at the beginning of the year or some years ago, the spectre of starting again is ever present. You dare not not pay attention to it 184 237 Demonstrative pronouns Jāy ai renonceĢ il y a trois mois = I gave up three months ago Si vous nāy tenez pas, vous pouvez les supprimer = if you donāt like them, you can get rid of them Une fois que vous y aurez pris gouĢt = once youāve got a taste for them 2 = there Jāy ai rencontreĢ celui qui allait devenir mon mari = I met the man there who was to become my husband Sous un chapiteau bleu magique on rit de bon coeur ā clowns, contortionnistes, trapeĢzistes, acrobates ā tout y est = in a magic blue big top everyone has a good laugh ā clowns, contortionists, trapeze artists, acrobats ā everything is there Nous nāavons pas besoin de photos pour savoir ce qui sāy est passeĢ et cāest inacceptable = we donāt need photos to know what happened there ā itās unacceptable Demonstrative pronouns 237 Demonstrative pronouns These are equivalent to English the one, this one, that one, those. The forms masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural celui ceux celle celles the one the ones the one the ones The pronouns are very often combined with a relative pronoun. On many other occasions the pronouns are combined with āci, ālaĢ to indicate proximity or remoteness. masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural celui-ci celui-laĢ ceux-ci ceux-laĢ celle-ci celle-laĢ celles-ci celles-laĢ this one, the latter that one, the former these ones, the latter those ones, the former this one, the latter that one, the former these ones, the latter those ones, the former The former, the latter sound rather pompous and formal in English ā note the way forms with -ci /-laĢ are translated in the following examples. For demonstrative adjectives, see 265ā266. 185 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 238 Examples of demonstrative pronouns + relative pronoun Voici celui qui a gagneĢ le jackpot = hereās the one whoās won the jackpot Ceux qui la connaissaient savaient quāelle eĢtait aussi pleine de larmes = those who knew her knew that she was also full of tears Quand on commence aĢ conduire on nāest jamais treĢs aĢ lāaise et la vitesse aĢ laquelle roulent certains peut effrayer. Celles qui ont deĢjaĢ conduit comprennent ce que je veux dire = when you begin to drive, you are never completely comfortable and the speed at which some drivers drive can be frightening. Those (women) who already know how to drive understand what I mean Vous ne voulez causer probleĢme aĢ ceux qui vous ont inviteĢe = you donāt want to be a nuisance to those who have invited you Surtout tous ceux qui murmurent que « la vie, cāest bien compliqueĢ », il les deĢteste = he especially detests those who murmur that ālifeās jolly complicatedā Comment eĢtre celle que lāon raccompagne . . . et pas celle qui raccompagne = how to be the one taken home . . . and not the one who takes home Il y a celles et ceux qui en parlent beaucoup mais qui ne font pas grand-chose, et ceux qui restent plus discrets sur le sujet = there are those of both sexes who talk a lot about it but donāt do anything, and those who remain more discreet on the subject In the following case the relative clause is reduced to a past participle ā Des distributeurs automatiques de pommes verront bientoĢt le jour. Ce systeĢme est deĢjaĢ en place en Belgique ā mais le sien diffeĢre de celui preĢvu pour la France = automatic apple dispensers will soon be on the market. This system is already in operation in Belgium, but it differs from the one envisaged for France + de + infinitive / noun LāincapaciteĢ aĢ dire non renvoie aĢ une peur infantile. Celle de ne pas eĢtre aimeĢ si lāon dit non aĢ ses parents = the inability to say no evokes a childhood fear ā that of not being loved if you say no to your parents Cāest le meĢme message ā celui de vous diriger vers le but de lāharmonie du couple = itās the same message ā that of aiming towards achieving harmony for your twosome + -ci / -laĢ Le roĢle parental, cāest de proteĢger les enfants contre les trop grandes souffrances et les trop grands exceĢs. Celui-ci sāexerce naturellement = a parentās role is to protect their children against too much suffering and too much excess. It [the latter] comes into play naturally Kylie aurait preĢsenteĢ son fianceĢ Olivier Martinez aĢ ses parents lors des vacances de NoeĢl. Ceux-ci seraient tombeĢs sous le charme du beau frenchy 186 239 ceci, cela, cĢ§a = itās reported that Kylie introduced her fianceĢ O M to her parents during the Christmas vacation. The latter are said to have fallen under the charm of the good-looking Frenchman Ce spectacle de confusion ne va pas preĢcipiter lāadheĢsion de Londres aĢ lāeuro. Celle-ci est remise aĢ des calendes grecques = this confused spectacle isnāt going to precipitate London joining the euro. This has been postponed indefinitely Mais la grosse actualiteĢ du moment, cāest la margarine anticholesteĢrol, commercialiseĢe par Johnson & Johnson. Celle-ci fait un veritable tabac en Finlande = but the hot news of the moment is anticholesterol margarine, put on the market by J&J. This [the latter] is making a big hit in Finland Les regards qui se deĢtournent, Toulouse qui ne parle « que de cĢ§a », les couloirs ouĢ lāon chuchote. Ceux-laĢ, tous ceux-laĢ le mettent en rage = the looks that donāt meet your eye, Toulouse which speaks about nothing but āthatā, the corridors where everyone is whispering. These people, all such people, infuriate him Il y a des parents qui nāont pas su nous proteĢger. Ceux-ci nāont pas su nous aimer non plus = there are some parents who didnāt know how to protect us. They [the latter] didnāt know how to love us either Il faut apprendre aĢ lāenfant aĢ se meĢfier du « trop », des gens trop meĢchants tout comme des gens trop gentils. Il faut savoir comment mettre ceux-ci comme ceux-laĢ aĢ lāeĢcart = you must teach your child to be on their guard against ātoo muchā, people who are too nasty as well as people who are too nice. They need to know how to avoid both types [the former as well as the latter] 239 The neuter demonstrative pronouns ceci, cela, cĢ§a The function of these pronouns is to refer to the general content of a statement ā ceci to what has yet to be stated, and cela to what has already been stated ā or to some unspecified object. Ceci normally = this, cela normally = that. CĢ§a takes the place of both ceci and cela in informal French and is very common indeed. Prenez / eĢcoutez ceci = take / listen to this [something about to be explained] Ces reĢgles automatiques preĢvoient ceci ā que si lāon anticipe sa succession, cela permet dāaider de son vivant ses enfants = these automatic rules foresee this ā that if you anticipate your succession, that allows you to help your children during your lifetime Ne fais pas cela = donāt do that [something already mentioned] Lāassociation europhile souligne que le reĢfeĢrendum sur la monnaie unique est une belle victoire. Cela ne trompe personne = the europhile association keeps stressing that the referendum on the single currency is a splendid victory. That deceives no one Quand cĢ§a empoisonne la vie aĢ chaque cycle, il ne faut pas heĢsiter aĢ en parler aĢ un gyneĢcologue = when that messes up your life every month, you mustnāt hesitate to speak about it to a gynaecologist En amour, cĢ§a ne bouge pas assez, et vous aimeriez secouez votre coeur = in love things are not moving enough and youād like to give your heart a good shake Comme cĢ§a, au moins, cāest eĢquitable = at least, like that itās fair 187 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Possessive pronouns 240 Possessive pronouns These are the equivalent of English mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. The forms first person second person third person masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural le mien les miens la mienne les miennes le tien les tiens la tienne les tiennes le sien les siens la sienne les siennes mine mine mine mine yours yours yours yours his, hers, its his, hers, its his, hers, its his, hers, its le noĢtre les noĢtres la noĢtre les noĢtres le voĢtre les voĢtres la voĢtre les voĢtres le leur les leurs la leur les leurs ours ours ours ours yours yours yours yours theirs theirs theirs theirs A reminder that, as with the personal pronouns, the gender of the possessive pronoun depends upon the gender of the noun it refers to, not the gender/sex of the person who āpossessesā it. See 267ā271 for possessive adjectives. 241 Examples of possessive pronouns Sa famille habite en Italie, la mienne en Roumanie = his family lives in Italy, mine in Romania Je tāai reconnue, autant te dire quāau milieu de mes lettres pas super-super tordantes du mois, la tienne māa fait grand bien = I picked you out ā thatās to say that in the middle of my not-so-very funny letters this month, yours has done me a lot of good Ma meĢre est institutrice ā la sienne lāeĢtait aussi = my mumās a primary school teacher, hers was too Des distributeurs automatiques de pommes verront bientoĢt le jour. Ce systeĢme est deĢjaĢ en place en Belgique ā mais le sien diffeĢre de celui preĢvu pour la France = automatic apple dispensers will soon be on the market. This system is already in operation in Belgium, but it differs from the one envisaged for France Changez vos habitudes et les siennes par la meĢme occasion car les concessions reĢciproques seront le ciment de votre couple = change your habits and his on the same occasion because concessions you make to each other will cement your twosome Il est possible quāil ne comprenne pas votre malaise ā le sien est beaucoup moins aigu = itās possible that he wonāt understand your misgivings ā his are a lot less serious Un groupe dāeĢtudiants ameĢricains est envoyeĢ au Moyen-Age en France et nāa que six heures pour trouver le moyen de revenir aĢ leur eĢpoque (qui est aussi la noĢtre) = a group of American students has been sent back to the Middle Ages in France and has only got six hours to find a way of getting back to their time (which is also ours) 188 243 Examples of quantifying pronouns Les vergetures vont de pair avec la puberteĢ. Si les voĢtres sont rosaceĢes, il est encore temps de demander aĢ un dermatologue de vous prescrire une creĢme = stretch marks go hand in hand with puberty. If yours are rosy-coloured, thereās still time to ask a dermatologist to prescribe you a cream Nous eĢtions treĢs ambitieux et les eĢquipes que jāai vues nāeĢtaient pas forceĢment meilleures que la noĢtre = we were very ambitious and the teams I saw werenāt necessarily better than ours Jāaime les veĢtements creĢeĢs par les Japonais ā les leurs ont un look treĢs exotique = I like clothes designed by the Japanese ā theirs have a very exotic look Je dois avouer que nous avons tous les deux des secrets ā le mien, je nāoserai jamais le lui dire, le sien je le connais, mais il ne le sait pas = I must confess that weāve both got secrets ā Iāll never dare tell him mine; I know his, but he doesnāt know I know Quantifying and indefinite pronouns 242 Quantifying pronouns The main quantifying pronouns are ā beaucoup de = many, certains = a certain number, la plupart de = most, un (grand / petit) nombre de = a (large / small) number of, quantiteĢ de = lots of, la majoriteĢ de = the majority of, la minoriteĢ de = the minority of, plus de = more than, moins de = less / fewer than, peu de = few. In these cases the linking de remains de, unless it is combined with the definite article ā as in the examples below. However, in the case of bien des = many, des links the pronoun to its complement ā see below. Closely connected to quantifying pronouns are the numeral nouns, une douzaine = dozen, une vingtaine = score, une centaine = about a hundred ā see 437. The issue at stake with quantifying pronouns is whether, when the pronoun is subject of a verb, the verb should agree with the pronoun (which is usually singular in form) or the complement (which is usually plural). Practice is to make the verb agree with the complement ā a plural complement attracts a plural verb, a singular complement a singular verb. This sometimes leads to seeming anomalies, when the complement is not specified or is understood, since, in such cases, a singular pronoun will be accompanied by a plural verb. 243 Examples of quantifying pronouns Pronouns with plural complements Beaucoup des photos contenues dans cette collection sont eĢtonnantes = many of the photos in this collection are stunning Plus de la moitieĢ des femmes ont moins de peĢche en automneāhiver = more than 50% of women feel low in autumnāwinter Un grand nombre de jeunes veulent faire des prouesses = a large number of youngsters want to do something outstanding 189 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR La majoriteĢ de nos solutions sont adapteĢes pour proteĢger vos proches en cas dāaccidents = the majority of our solutions are designed to protect those close to you in case of an accident Jāai vu quantiteĢ de gens feuilleter les livres de grammaire dans les librairies = Iāve seen lots of people leafing through grammar books in the bookshops Peu de gens ont voulu croire que le danger est eĢcarteĢ = very few people accepted that the danger was over La teĢte dāune petite fille deĢcapiteĢe dans un accident roule sur la chausseĢe ā certains vomissent, dāautres deĢtournent leur regard = the head of a little girl, decapitated in an accident, rolls onto the road ā some throw up, others look away Moins de femmes sourdes que de femmes entendantes sont marieĢes = fewer deaf women than those with hearing are married Si un proche meurt dāune crise cardiaque en faisant lāamour, on oublie facilement de preĢciser quāil nāeĢtait pas avec sa leĢgitime ā cāest le cas de la moitieĢ de Allemands treĢpasseĢs dans ces conditions = if a relative dies from a heart attack while making love, specifying that he wasnāt with his legitimate partner is easily overlooked ā such is the case with half the Germans who pass away in such circumstances On a pris plus de la moitieĢ de leurs ballons = we picked up more than half their balls Pronouns with singular complements Beaucoup du maquillage quāon acheĢte ici est fabriqueĢ en Espagne = a lot of the make-up you buy here is made in Spain La majeure partie de la population est contre une nouvelle expansion de lāUE = most of the population is against a further expansion of the EU Il voulait remettre un peu dāordre aĢ son appartement = he wanted to tidy up his flat 244 La plupart La plupart is only used with plural nouns ā except in the combination la plupart du temps = most of the time La plupart du temps je preĢfeĢre eĢtre seul = most of the time I prefer to be alone La plupart des journaux ont reproduit cette histoire = most of the papers printed that story La plupart pensent quāils tiennent le destin entre leurs mains = most believe that they hold their destiny in their hands La plupart [des billets] ont eĢteĢ loueĢs quinze jours auparavant = most were sold a fortnight ago La plus grande / majeure partie de replaces la plupart de before a singular complement ā see 243. 245 Indefinite pronouns and related expressions The majority of these involve the phrase nāimporte followed by a relative pronoun or adjective. 190 Exercises chacun / chacune = everyone, nāimporte qui = anyone, nāimporte ouĢ = anywhere, nāimporte comment = anyhow, nāimporte lequel = any one These expressions cannot be followed by a relative clause. For example, if it is necessary to translate English anyone who thinks that into French, nāimporte qui cannot be used; instead qui que ce soit qui pense cĢ§a has to be used ā see 153. Neither can quiconque = whoever, anyone be followed by a relative pronoun or adjective, but it can be used to translate anyone who thinks that ā quiconque pense cĢ§a For chaque, see 272. 246 Examples of indefinite expressions Chacun pour soi = everyone for himself Chacun devrait savoir que la baisse des fumeurs en France est moins importante chez les hommes que chez les femmes = everyone should know that the decrease in smokers in France is less for men than for women Je lui dis de ne pas me lire. Il y a le choix, nāimporte qui ā nāimporte qui sauf son fils = I told her not to read me. Thereās a choice, anyone ā anyone but her son Il y a un moment de la vie quand on se sent vraiment seul ā nāimporte quel premier jour dāanneĢe scolaire = there are times in your life when you feel really lonely ā for example, the first day back in any new school year A partir du moment ouĢ cĢ§a nāa pas marcheĢ, elle a fait un peu nāimporte quoi, comme une junior sans expeĢrience = from the moment that didnāt work, she behaved a bit anyhow, like a junior without experience Tu peux venir me chercher aĢ nāimporte quelle heure du soir = you can come and fetch me at any time this evening Mettez-les nāimporte ouĢ = put them anywhere Tout est calculeĢ en fonction de lāimage quāelles veulent donner aĢ on ne sait qui = everything is calculated in terms of the inage they want to present to goodness knows who Il a demandeĢ aĢ je ne sais qui de lāaider = he asked somebody or other to help him Le vol a eĢteĢ reporteĢ aĢ je ne sais quand = the flightās been postponed till goodness knows when Exercises 1 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en changeant tout ce qui a rapport aux pronoms personnels comme il vous est indiqueĢ ā tu > vous a Ce qui sāest passeĢ pour ton amie aurait pu arriver nāimporte quand. Tu nāas pas contraint ton amie, tu lāas simplement encourageĢe. Tu peux eĢtre fieĢre dāeĢtre aĢ ses coĢteĢs et de la soutenir. b Cette anneĢe, tu organises le reĢveillon du jour de lāan chez toi et tu as envie de profiter de la feĢte sans passer ton temps aĢ faire des 191 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR aller-retours entre la table et la cuisine. Alors, adopte la formule buffet. Tu pourras ainsi preĢparer tes plats aĢ lāavance et la soireĢe sera deĢtendue pour toi. vous > tu c Vous voici aĢ preĢsent dans un climat de grande sensibiliteĢ, et votre vie relationnelle et intime sera la plus toucheĢe. Votre rythme de vie risque dāeĢtre bouleverseĢ apreĢs une rencontre, et certains contacts pourraient jouer un roĢle important dans lāaboutissement de vos projets. Dāheureuses perspectives sāoffrent aĢ vous. d Vous allez vous deĢpenser sans compter, en relevant de nombreux deĢfis. Vos deĢmarches sont meneĢes avec une deĢtermination quāon ne vous connaıĢt pas, et vous prenez des deĢcisions importantes en ce qui concerne vos parents ou vos amis. Vous orientez ainsi votre vie sociale et affective conformeĢment aĢ vos aspirations. je > elle et puis je > il e Jāai lāimpression que mon identiteĢ a eĢteĢ remise en question. Je nāarrive plus aĢ faire de projets, ma vie est comme suspendue. Cāest terrible car je ne suis pas de nature deĢpressive, jāaime la vie, jāai un compagnon formidable, je suis treĢs attacheĢe aĢ mes animaux. Je me sens terriblement seule face aĢ ce probleĢme. vous > elle f Vous avez eu la main un peu lourde sur la pince aĢ eĢpiler. ReĢsultat, vos sourcils sont beaucoup trop fins, votre regard nāest plus aussi envouĢtant et votre visage a perdu en caracteĢre. En attendant que les poils repoussent, vous devez vous mettre aĢ vos pinceaux. Pour redessiner et eĢtoffer tout cĢ§a, utilisez un crayon. Choisissez toujours une teinte proche de la couleur de vos cheveux, pas trop sombre, pour ne pas durcir votre regard. je > il g Je gagne treĢs bien ma vie, alors cāest normal que je paye des impoĢts et que cĢ§a profite aux autres. Et plus tard aĢ mes enfants. Jāaurais pu partir aĢ lāeĢtranger comme beaucoup de sportifs, mais jāai toujours dit que si jāavais deĢcideĢ de payer des impoĢts en France, cāest parce que ma famille et moi avons une qualiteĢ de vie que je ne trouverais pas ailleurs. elles > nous h Il ne voulait pas savoir ce quāelles ont fait, ouĢ elles eĢtaient ni de quoi elles ont parleĢ. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en remplacĢ§ant on par dāautres pronoms ou en utilisant dāautres strateĢgies de remplacement ā a Un teint qui atteint la perfection? On en reĢve toutes. b Pourquoi ne pas faire les corveĢes avec une copine: on se sent moins seule et on sāen amuse. Tout de suite on est moins tendue. 192 Exercises c AĢ peine est-on de retour des vacances que lāon a deĢjaĢ lāimpression dāavoir perdu le beĢneĢfice quāelles avaient apporteĢ ou pire de nāeĢtre jamais parties. d Pour cet examen, on voit apparaıĢtre lāimage du squelette sur lāeĢcran. Sur le tableau de lāeĢcran on repeĢre diffeĢrentes courbes de couleur. Ainsi on peut analyser diffeĢrentes parties du squelette que lāon sait plus fragiles que dāautres. e Se sentir belle et seĢduisante lorsque lāon est ronde, cāest la mission de Taillisime qui vous propose des modeĢles jusquāau 58. Adieu la lingerie tristoune et vieillotte quand on a la chance dāavoir un deĢcolleteĢ geĢneĢreux! 3 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en remplissant les blancs du pronom qui convient ā pronom deĢmonstratif, possessif, personnel ou relatif. Notez que quelquefois il y a plus dāun blanc aĢ remplir ā a Il faut connaıĢtre ses emotions, pour mieux . . . tenir compte. b Le bon cadeau est un autre langage que lāinconscient percĢ§oit comme positif, et . . . peut amener . . . . . . recĢ§oit aĢ tomber amoureuse. c Elle porte un gros carton sur . . . est colleĢe une longue plume rose. d Dans le film, il sāagit de deux jeunes filles, comme le titre . . . indique. e Quelquefois . . . . . . se trompent sur nos gouĢts . . . trouvent un inteĢreĢt. f La fatigue est la manifestation dāun blocage qui empeĢche lāeĢnergie de circuler. Bonne nouvelle, . . . ne demande quāaĢ eĢtre deĢbloqueĢe. g Listez une dizaine de petites joies. Chaque jour piochez dans la liste pour . . . . . . offrir trois. h Mes deĢsirs eĢvoluent avec le temps, je . . . laisse venir. Je . . . crois aĢ fond et jāimagine des plans pour . . . reĢaliser. i Tu connais AmeĢlie ā quand on a des fesses comme . . . . . . , on eĢvite le cuir rouge! j On attendait avec une infinie curiositeĢ le livre . . . il allait raconter une autre de ses passions: lāAfrique. k MeĢme sans les muscles, tu peux . . . arriver. l Rien ne vous empeĢche de prendre une vraie collation quelques heures apreĢs le reĢveil: . . . vous eĢvitera le coup de barre de fin de matineĢe. m Il . . . dit « Inutile de . . . faire un cadeau, . . . avoir aĢ mes coĢteĢs est deĢjaĢ le plus beau des preĢsents imaginables. » Je ne sais jamais quoi . . . offrir. n Les gentils font partie de cette cateĢgorie-laĢ, . . . . . . nāutilisera jamais vos faiblesses pour . . . tirer profit, . . . . . . ne . . . enviera jamais votre magnifique petit copain ou vos succeĢs. o Il faut choisir une tonaliteĢ qui se superpose le plus exactement possible aĢ . . . . . . . p Il est issu dāune famille de petits entrepreneurs de baĢtiments. . . . a exerceĢ toutes sortes de petits boulots. q Jāai commenceĢ aĢ travailler sur des eĢglises et des discotheĢques gonflables, . . . on māa demandeĢs de creĢer. 193 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR r 2,92 milliards dāeuros, cāest la somme deĢpenseĢe en un an par les Britanniques pour lāachat de cocaıĢne, . . . la consommation a augmenteĢ de plus de 200% ces trois dernieĢres anneĢes. s Le preĢsident a eĢteĢ consulteĢ sur la reĢforme du SeĢnat . . . souhaitent bon nombre des seĢnateurs. t La victoire de la jeune Belge nāa rien aĢ voir avec le style des AmeĢricaines. LaĢ ouĢ . . . affichent des parents envahissants et peu sympathiques, Justine eĢvoque la figure eĢmouvante dāune meĢre disparue alors quāelle avait 13 ans. u Cāest un accessoire que les femmes acheĢtent pour le plaisir ā . . . . . . mais aussi . . . de leur partenaire. v Pensez aĢ . . . lancer dans un programme dāactiviteĢs physiques. PreĢfeĢrez . . . de plein air. w On va . . . offrir des cadeaux. CĢ§a, je . . . avais deĢjaĢ penseĢ, mais cāest bon de . . . . . . reĢpeĢter. x Ce sont des personnes avec . . . jāavais sympathiseĢes dans mon ancien travail . . . . . . ont signaleĢ un poste aĢ prendre. y Toute perte est irreĢparable. Et le monde dans . . . lāenfant aurait duĢ vivre nāest plus le meĢme monde. z Jāai vu BeĢatrice au « Bon MarcheĢ »: une vendeuse . . . a dit quāelle . . . a vendu un string. aa Son peĢre se heurte aĢ . . . . . . aurait pu eĢtre, aĢ . . . . . . aurait duĢ eĢtre, aĢ . . . . . . nāest pas et ne sera jamais. bb Cette situation peut teĢmoigner dāun probleĢme au niveau des relations personnelles. . . . peuvent eĢtre difficiles ou inexistantes. cc Elle a duĢ deĢmonter la douche en bois construite sur son toit, . . . la preĢsence geĢnait le voisinage. dd Quant aux cadeaux, . . . . . . ā je . . . . . . donnerai plus tard, quand on sera en teĢte aĢ teĢte. ee 25 raisons dāaimer NoeĢl . . . vous nāauriez pas penseĢ. 194 Chapter 7 Determiners 247 Determiners Determiners are those syntactic items which precede and qualify a noun. They comprise the definite (le, la, les), indefinite (un, une, des) and partitive (du, de la, des) articles, the demonstrative adjectives (ce, cet, cette, ces), the possessive adjectives (mon, ma, mes, ton, son, notre, votre, leur, etc). The articles 248 The three articles The definite article corresponds, mostly, to English the and basically refers to something or somebody that has already been or is implicitly identified and specified. Elle donne aĢ LA tourneĢe eĢlectorale un air de psychotheĢrapie = she brings an atmosphere of psychotherapy to the electoral trail Tunisie ā LE reĢve meĢditerraneĢen = Tunisia ā the Mediterranean dream Longtemps proposeĢs comme une panaceĢe AUX troubles de LA meĢnopause, LES traitements hormonaux sont mis sous surveillance = for a long time seen as a panacea for the problems of the menopause, hormonal treatment is being investigated Cent ans en bleu ā tous LES matches, tous LES joueurs, LES stars, LES eĢpopeĢes, LES capitaines, LES seĢlectionneurs DU foot francĢ§ais = a hundred years in blue ā all the matches, all the players, the stars, the legends, the captains, the selectors of French football The indefinite article corresponds, mostly, to English a, an, some, and basically refers to something or someone that has not yet been identified or specified; it introduces a new, countable noun into a conversation or piece of writing ā UN corps sans vie a eĢteĢ trouveĢ = a lifeless body has been discovered UNE vaste enqueĢte a eĢteĢ entameĢe sur le dopage = a wide-ranging investigation has been undertaken into drug taking Ce fut UNE parodie de justice, UNE mascarade de proceĢs = it was a parody of justice, a masquerade of a trial DeĢfinition dāUN oiseau ā UN animal au corps recouvert de plumes, dont les membres anteĢrieurs sont des ailes, dont la teĢte est munie dāUN bec = the definition of a bird ā an animal with a body covered with feathers, the front limbs of which are wings, the head of which is supplied with a beak UNE omelette est faite dāoeufs battus et cuits aĢ la poeĢle = an omelette is made from beaten eggs cooked on a stove 195 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR In the plural, it refers to an unspecified number of countable items ā DES soldats ameĢricains ont eĢteĢ envoyeĢs au point chaud = American soldiers have been sent to the hot spot Il vend DES fromages de toutes les reĢgions de France = he sells cheeses from all over France La teĢleĢ accomplit parfois DES miracles . . . cineĢmatographiques = from time to time the telly performs miracles . . . cinematographic miracles The partitive article also corresponds to English some and is used with mass nouns; basically it refers to objects or people envisaged as part of a whole; quite often no article is used in English in such cases. Votre journeĢe type est ā on boit DES verres, on fait DU shopping ā a typical day for you ā having a few drinks, shopping Pour eĢviter les soucis de la constipation, il suffit, la veille au soir, de mettre DES pruneaux dans DE Lāeau et de la boire le lendemain = to avoid constipation problems, all you have to do is to put some prunes into some water overnight and drink it the next day Nāoubliez pas de manger DU fruit chaque jour = donāt forget to eat some fruit every day Comment peut-on faire un dessert aussi deĢlicieux et aussi pratique avec juste DU lait, DES oeufs frais, DU sucre, DU caramel et un peu DE vanille! = how can you make such a delicious and practical dessert with just milk, fresh eggs, sugar, caramel and a little vanilla! Later we discuss instances where no article is used ā in such cases the term zero article seems appropriate; see 258. The similarities and differences between the French and English systems will be dealt with in 251ā257. 249 Forms of the three articles The articles vary in form for gender and number (singular and plural). The gender distinction applies only in the singular; in the plural, the forms may be masculine or feminine. The plural of the indefinite article and the partitive article are the same ā des. definite article indefinite article partitive article msg fsg plural le un du la une de la les des des When the forms le, la would occur before a word beginning with a vowel or mute h, the vowel in the article is deleted. If du would occur in a similar situation, it becomes de lā ā le garcĢ§on but lāadolescent, lāhomme la fille but lāadolescente, lāheĢroıĢne 196 250 Position of the articles du lait but de lāalcool, de lāhumour de la bieĢre but de lāeau, de lāhuile When an aspirate h is involved, the forms do not change ā le hibou, la haie, du houx When the preposition aĢ precedes the definite article, it merges with it to form au in the masculine singular and aux in the plural ā le lit ā au lit les lits ā aux lits les chaises ā aux chaises The same applies when the preposition de precedes the definite article ā the same forms are produced as for the partitive article ā le lit ā du lit les lits ā des lits les chaises ā des chaises 250 Position of the articles The article is usually the first element in the expression of which it is part ā Pelez LE poireau et LA carotte = peel the leek and the carrot UN produit qui donne UNE sensation de leĢgeĢreteĢ = a product that gives a feeling of lightness Vous pouvez aussi constituer DES petites haies ravissantes = you can also plant charming little hedges Je ferai DU potage pour le deĢjeuner = Iāll make some soup for lunch En laĢchant DU lest sur le deuxieĢme point = by making concessions on the second point LA chair aĢ saucisse, coupeĢe AU couteau, avec de Lāhuile dāolive de Sicile = sausage meat, cut with a knife, with olive oil from Sicily However, if in an expression involving the definite or, less commonly, the indefinite article, the adjective tout / tous / toute / toutes = all, every is also included, this precedes the article ā Peut-on se laver les cheveux tous LES jours = is it all right to wash your hair every day? Tout LE monde est dāaccord = everyone is in agreement Tous LES murs sont couverts de peintures = all the walls are covered in paintings Cāest toute UNE histoire = itās quite a story But if the tout qualifies an adjective, it follows the article and precedes the adjective ā Cāest UNE toute autre histoire = itās quite another story For tout, see 272. 197 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 251 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā article in French where none is used in English: 1 As stated above, in the majority of cases, English and French use the articles in the same circumstances. However, there are a few differences that need to be noted ā however (again!), it is all too clear that usage fluctuates, as will be illustrated in the following sections. Consequently āNo articleā means normally no article, and āArticleā means normally an article! Article in French where none is used in English 1 ā with nouns denoting classes of items ā LE tabac est mauvais pour la santeĢ = tobacco/smoking is bad for your health LE vin peut ameĢliorer votre bien-eĢtre = wine can improve your sense of well-being LES leĢgumes sont bons pour vous = vegetables are good for you LES passagers sont prieĢs de se preĢsenter aĢ la porte numeĢro 4 = passengers are requested to proceed to gate number 4 La Chypre, laĢ ouĢ LES mirages ont une autre consistence = Cyprus, where mirages assume a very different texture Pour LES porcs, il y a treĢs peu de subventions = for pigs, there are very few grants with abstract nouns ā Elle cherche LA beauteĢ, LE bonheur, LE succeĢs = sheās searching for beauty, happiness, success Il aime LA linguistique, LA musique, LE jardinage = he likes linguistics, music, gardening Elle cherche LE bonheur quāapporte LE succeĢs = sheās searching for the happiness that success brings However, an indefinite article is used when reference is made to a particular, but undefined, instance of the concept denoted by the abstract noun ā UN silence lourd est tombeĢ sur la foule = a heavy silence fell on the crowd Je preĢfeĢre UNE beauteĢ formeĢe par la maturiteĢ = I prefer beauty formed by maturity and a definite article when the reference is to a specific, defined instance ā Pour supprimer les rides, il faut provoquer LA deĢcontraction de la peau = in order to eliminate wrinkles, it is necessary to make your skin decontract [cause the decontraction of your skin] Jadis dispensateurs du seĢsame reĢpublicain de Lāascension sociale = in days gone by dispensers of the French Republicās āopen sesameā to social advancement and the partitive article when abstract qualities are attributed to people or things ā Il faut montrer DE LA toleĢrance envers ceux de religions diffeĢrentes = you have to demonstrate tolerance towards people with a different religion 198 253 Article in French, none in English: 3 Avoir DU courage quand le danger menace est treĢs difficile = having courage when danger threatens is very difficult 252 Article in French where none is used in English: 2 With names of countries and regions Most names of continents, countries, islands, regions and rivers are accompanied by the definite article ā continents (all feminine) lāAfrique = Africa, lāAmeĢrique du Nord = North America, lāAsie = Asia, lāEurope = Europe countries masculine le BreĢsil = Brazil, le Canada = Canada, le Chili = Chile, le Danemark = Denmark, le Japon = Japan, le Niger = Niger, le Portugal = Portugal, le Zimbabwe = Zimbabwe feminine lāAfrique du Sud = South Africa, lāAngleterre = England, la Chine = China, la France = France, la Grande-Bretagne = Great Britain, la Libye = Libya, la Russie = Russia, la Tunisie = Tunisia A lāextreĢme partie orientale de LA SibeĢrie, cette peĢninsule de la taille de LA France = at the eastern extremity of Siberia, that peninsula the size of France LāIslande a bondi du Moyen Age au 21e sieĢcle = Iceland has leapt from the Middle Ages to the twenty-first century Note ā no article is used with IsraeĢl = Israel ā Il a eĢteĢ accuse par IsraeĢl de neĢgationnisme = he has been accused by Israel of negative thinking islands Usage varies with the names of islands. with article la Barbade = Barbados, la Corse = Corsica, la Guadeloupe = Guadeloupe, le HaıĢti = Haiti, la JamaıĢque = Jamaica, la Sardaigne = Sardinia, la Sicile = Sicily without article Chypre = Cyprus, Corfou = Corfu, Cuba, Ibiza, Java, Madagascar, Majorque = Majorca, Malte = Malta, TaıĢwan For a more detailed discussion of the usage of the definite article and prepositions with regions, rivers, French departments, American states and British counties, see 393. 253 Article in French where none is used in English: 3 With names of languages ā Nous apprenons LE roumain = weāre learning Romanian 199 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR LE francĢ§ais, Lāespagnol, LE portugais et Lāitalien sont tous des langues romanes = French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian are all Romance languages Le Canada a deux langues officielles ā Lāanglais et LE francĢ§ais = Canada has two official languages ā English and French Note ā with parler the article is normally not used ā On parle anglais ici = English is spoken here However, as soon as there is some qualification of the noun, an article is usually used Elle parle bien LE maltais = she speaks Maltese well Il parle UN francĢ§ais impeccable = he speaks an impeccable French With various sets of nouns ā names of seasons ā Je preĢfeĢre LE printemps aĢ Lāautomne = I prefer spring to autumn LāeĢteĢ tout le monde se preĢcipite aĢ la coĢte = in summer everyone rushes to the coast names of substances, products ā LāheĢroıĢne est une drogue treĢs dangereuse = heroin is a very dangerous drug LE jus de pamplemousse prend particulieĢrement soin de votre corps et meĢme de votre esprit = grapefruit juice takes special care of your body and even your mind names of illnesses ā Mon traitement contre LA migraine māa fait grossir ā the treatment Iāve had for migraine has made me put on weight LE psoriasis peut se confondre avec LA dermatite = psoriasis may be confused with dermatitis Special cases to translate last, next in expressions of time ā LāanneĢe dernieĢre = last year (LA dernieĢre anneĢe = the last year) LA semaine prochaine = next week (LA prochaine semaine = the next week) with names of the days of the week to indicate a habitual action; the name of the day is retained in the singular ā Les permanents de nos agences recĢ§oivent une formation LE mercredi = the permanent members of staff from our agencies are given training every Wednesday LE jeudi on visite le restaurant Tivoli avec sa belle terrasse = every Thursday we go to the Tivoli with its beautiful outside seating See also 438 for usage with fractions. 254 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā no article in French where there is one in English No article in French ā zero article ā where there is one in English in appositions where one noun is used to supply more information about a preceding one ā 200 255 Different article in French from English Alain, fils cadet de Jean-Luc = Alain, the younger son of Jean-Luc Alphonse Daudet, auteur dāun nombre de livres remarquables = Alphonse Daudet, the author of a number of remarkable books Leclerc, supermarcheĢ numeĢro un de France = Leclerc, the number one supermarket in France Le dernier miracle en date vient de lāItalie, pays fertile en apparitions = the latest miracle comes from Italy, a country much given to apparitions But, it should be noted that the article may also be used in these situations. Thierry Defforey, actionnaire de Carrefour, FrancĢ§ois Dalle, Lāancien patron de lāOreĢal, Roger Zannier, LE roi du veĢtement pour enfants = Thierry Defforey, a share-holder in Carrefour, FrancĢ§ois Dalle, (the) ex-boss of lāOreĢal, Roger Zannier, the king of kidsā clothes Summary ā usage is mixed, with the article being more commonly used when a more specific reference is being made. To indicate a personās profession or status with such verbs as eĢtre, devenir, rester, nommer ā Elle est resteĢe ceĢlibataire toute sa vie = she remained a spinster all her life Il est devenu journaliste = he became a journalist Note ā if the noun is qualified in any way, the article is used, ie when the noun ceases being general and becomes particular ā Il est devenu UN journaliste ceĢleĢbre = he became a famous journalist Elle est LA meilleure meĢre du monde ā sheās the best mother in the world With the exclamative quel, etc = what a Quelle surprise! = what a surprise! Quel dommage! = what a shame! Quel deĢbut pour la jeune actrice! = what a start for the young actress! With par = per Ils le font deux fois par semaine = they do it twice a week CĢ§a fait dix euros par personne = that comes to ten euros a person / per person 255 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā a different article in French from English Definite article in French vs indefinite in English to indicate quantities, prices, ratios ā Les oranges sont aĢ 6 euros LE kilo = oranges are 6 euros a kilo Combien? ā 7 euros LE tube = how much? ā 7 euros a tube Au prix de 0,34 euros LA minute = at a cost of 0.34 euros a minute 201 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Definite article in French vs possessive adjective in English with parts of the body ā Debout, LES bras le long DU corps, montez LA jambe vers LE buste, en plaquant LE genou sur LA poitrine = standing upright, with your arms by your side, bring your leg up towards your chest, pulling your knee into your torso Ces maillots de bain soutiennent LES seins, gomment LES rondeurs, font LE ventre plat et LA cuisse longue = these swimsuits support your breasts, smooth out your bulges, flatten your stomach and make your legs look longer Allongez-vous sur LE dos, LES bras en croix, LES paumes au sol, LES jambes aĢ 90 degreĢs = lie on your back, with your arms crossed, your palms facing downwards, your legs at a right angle Note ā when an action is performed upon your own or someone elseās body, an indication of whose body it is is provided by using an indirect object pronoun ā Elle sāest fait masser LE dos tout doucement = she had her back massaged very gently Quand faut-il se faire opeĢrer AU genou? = when should you have a knee operation / an operation on your knee? Petits conseils pour bien se laver de LA teĢte AU pied = advice on washing yourself thoroughly from head to toe / your head to your toe However, the possessive adjective may also be used in these situations ā Croisez vos bras = fold your arms Si votre genou est arthrosique = if your knee is arthritic DeĢrouiller ses articulations, tonifier ses muscles ā pour avoir la forme, rien ne vaut une bonne seĢance de gymnastique douce = loosen up your joints, tone up your muscles ā to keep in good shape, thereās nothing like a good session of gentle exercise The possessive adjective is normally used when the body part is subject of the verb ā En trente ans nous avons grandi ā nos jambes se sont allongeĢes = in thirty years weāve got bigger ā our legs have grown longer Mes cheveux ne sont plus aussi bruns quāil y a cinq ans = my hair is no longer as brown as it was five years ago AĢ la fin dāun eĢteĢ passeĢ sous le soleil, vos cheveux ont besoin de se ressourcer = after a summer spent in the sun, your hair needs to be restored When reference to a body part is general rather than specific, the definite article is used ā Les cheveux blancs ne sont pas uniquement lāapanage de lāaĢge = white hair is not just the prerogative of age Summary of usage ā when the reference is to a body part in general, the definite article is normally used; when the reference is more individual, the possessive adjective is more commonly used, especially when the body part is subject of the verb. 202 257 Differences in articles with lists of nouns 256 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā usage with titles Monsieur and Madame plus a title or ājob descriptionā are frequently used in French as a form of address. In such cases the definite article is inserted after Monsieur or Madame. There is no equivalent in English. Monsieur le Maire = Mr Mayor Madame la directrice = the principal / the head Monsieur le directeur des finances = the finance director Madame la ministre de lāinteĢrieur = the Home Office minister With names of kings, queens and popes, French and English usages differ, English using an article whereas French does not ā Elizabeth II (Elizabeth deux) = Elizabeth II (Elizabeth the second) BenoıĢt XVI (BenoıĢt seize) = Benedict XVI (Benedict the sixteenth) Titles followed by a proper name require an article in French ā Le PreĢsident Chirac = President Chirac Le professeur Collard = Professor Collard Le docteur Decaux = Dr Decaux But not for the names of saints or barristers ā Saint Paul, Sainte AgneĢs MaıĢtre VergeĢs 257 Differences between French and English usages of the articles ā lists of nouns In English, in lists of nouns, the definite article is usually used before the first noun, but is not repeated thereafter, unless the noun is qualified or is specific in denotation. In French, the article is regularly repeated before each noun ā although in journalism quite often no articles are used at all. Articles Il suit le surgissement des nouvelles heĢreĢsies: LE Flower Power du mouvement hippie, LA fieĢvre anti-socieĢteĢ de consommation des jeunes FrancĢ§ais, LE printemps de Prague et LA brutale reĢplique sovieĢtique = he traces the emergence of the new heresies ā the Flower Power of the hippy movement, the anti-consumer-society fever of the French youth, the Prague spring and the brutal response of the Soviet government Cela nāaidera pas ces pays pauvres aĢ lutter contre Lāempoisonnement des gros carnivores, LE braconnage et LE paĢturage sauvage = this wonāt help these poor countries to fight against the poisoning of large carnivores, poaching and illegal grazing 203 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR No articles Absence de fiches de paie, contrat de travail bidon et recours aĢ des inteĢrimaires non deĢclareĢs sont les principales infractions enregistreĢes = lack of pay slips, bogus contracts and use of undeclared temporary staff are the main offences recorded Les femmes ont ce meĢrite de « cibler » des pratiques connues qui reĢpugnent aĢ nos moeurs et nos lois: mariages forceĢs, contraintes et deĢvoiements de lā « honneur » machiste des peĢres et des freĢres = the women have the merit of targeting those known practices which offend our traditions and laws ā forced marriages, constraint and corruption of the macho honour of fathers and brothers 258 Zero article In many cases, nouns are not preceded by a determiner. We have already seen this with nouns in apposition, names of profession following eĢtre, etc; see 254. This state of affairs may be described as involving the zero article. Apart from those already mentioned, the most common circumstances are the following ā noun + preposition + noun The prepositions most frequently used in this way are ā aĢ une carte aĢ meĢmoire = memory card une cuilleĢre aĢ cafeĢ = tea spoon une imprimante aĢ jet dāencre = ink-jet printer une planche aĢ voile = wind-surfer une robe aĢ volants = flounced dress de la gestion de patrimoine = personal portfolio management un placement dāattente = short-term investment une robe dāeĢteĢ = summer dress une salle de bains = bathroom une tasse de cafeĢ = cup of coffee en une chemise en coton = a cotton shirt un escalier en colimacĢ§on = spiral staircase un mouchoir en papier = paper handkerchief une occasion en or = golden opportunity un toit en ardoise = slate roof sous la mise sous cloche = putting on the back-burner 204 258 Zero article past participle + noun Une table deĢcoreĢe de fleurs = a table decorated with flowers Une action deĢpourvue de sens = an action without any meaning Un champ entoureĢ de barbeleĢs = a field surrounded with barbed wire HabilleĢ de jeans = wearing jeans Une cave remplie de bons vins = a cellar full of good wine adverbial expressions consisting of preposition + noun aĢ gauche / aĢ droite = on the left / on the right aĢ porteĢe de main = within reach avec difficulteĢ = with difficulty avec plaisir = with pleasure en eĢteĢ = in summer en route = on the way par insouciance = out of carelessness par minute = per minute sans effort = effortlessly sans heĢsitation = without hesitation sans pitieĢ = without pity When the noun is qualified in some way, the indefinite article is used ā par une insouciance incroyable = with unbelievable carelessness avec un plaisir consideĢrable = with considerable pleasure However, with grand, the zero article is often retained ā avec grande difficulteĢ = with great difficulty set phrases avoir besoin = to need avoir faim = to be hungry avoir honte = to be ashamed avoir sommeil = to be tired demander pardon = to ask for forgiveness faire deĢfaut = to be lacking faire plaisir = to give pleasure 205 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR rendre service = to help tenir teĢte = to defy 259 When des becomes de 1 When a plural adjective precedes the noun DE belles opportuniteĢs peuvent faire naıĢtre DE beaux projets = good opportunities can produce good projects Il y a DE simples reĢgles pour eĢviter ces malaises = there are some simple rules to avoid such discomfort DE jolis pulls en coton = pretty cotton jumpers Les Belges fabriquent Dāexcellents chocolats = the Belgians make excellent chocolates Les bacteĢries beĢneĢfiques que contient le yaourt chassent DāeĢventuelles bacteĢries neĢfastes = the beneficial bacteria in yoghurt eliminate possible harmful bacteria However, when the adjective and noun are regularly used together and form a sort of unit in themselves, this rule does not apply ā Il y avait DES jeunes filles qui attendaient que le groupe de rock quitte le baĢtiment = there were some girls waiting for the rock group to leave the building Apporte-moi DES petits pois = get me some peas Il fait DES petits pains aux grains de pavot = he makes bread rolls with poppy seeds But if an evaluative adjective precedes the noun as well, the rule is reapplied ā Il fait DE magnifiques petits pains aux grains de pavot = he makes fantastic bread rolls with poppy seeds In ordinary speech the rule is less and less often observed. 2 Preposition de + indefinite or partitive article des Quite often grammatical logic would require a combination of the preposition de and the indefinite or partitive article des. In such circumstances, the article and the preposition coalesce to form a single de ā DeĢcorez DE framboises, DE feuilles de menthe = decorate with strawberries and mint leaves La combinaison dāun reĢgime alimentaire et DE soins hebdomadaires la seĢduisent = she is delighted by the combination of a diet and weekly care Cette reĢpeĢtition annuelle Dāinondations deĢsastreuses ameĢne aĢ sāinterroger sur leur origine = this annual event of disastrous floods prompts us to think about what causes them Pour avoir autant DE beĢneĢfices que dans un yaourt nature, il faudrait que vous consommiez deux flacons DE lait = to have the same amount of calcium as in a natural yogurt, you would have to consume two cartons of milk 206 259 When des becomes de This only applies to the preposition de; with others, the indefinite article appears in its full form ā Lāutilisation de ce bon pour un autre achat que celui mentionneĢ donnera lieu aĢ DES poursuites = the use of this coupon for a purchase other than that stated will lead to legal proceedings being taken GraĢce aĢ DES proprieĢteĢs remarquables, il agit laĢ ouĢ est le probleĢme = thanks to remarkable properties, it acts where the problem lies Je travaille sur DES nouvelles que jāespeĢre bien publier = Iām working on some stories which Iām very hopeful of being able to publish 3 After quantifiers and similar expressions Expressions of quantity involved are ā assez = enough, autant = as much, as many, beaucoup = many, much, a lot of, combien = how much, how many, moins = less, peu = little, few, un peu = a little, plus = more, tant = as much, so much, as many, so many, trop = too much, too many. Other expressions denote the idea of grouping objects or people together, of describing quantities of anything. Beaucoup DāeĢtudiants aimeraient leur propre voiture = lots of students would like their own car Une trentaine DE potiers, Dāartisans, Dāartistes de renom et de talent = about thirty well-known and talented potters, craftsmen and artists Jāai pris deux mois DE vacances = I took two monthsā holiday Bon nombre DE soldats libyens seront formeĢs par des instructeurs italiens = a large number of Libyan soldiers will be trained by Italian instructors Des tonnes DE deĢchets sāaccumulent tous les jours = tons of rubbish pile up every day Vous pouvez emporter de jolies boıĢtes DE galettes bretonnes = you can take away pretty boxes of Breton galettes Certaines associations Dāaveugles se focalisent sur un seul meĢtier = certain organisations for blind people concentrate on a single profession Exceptions ā bien des = many, encore des = still more It should be pointed out that when any of the quantifiers mentioned above are combined with the definite articles, the de contracts with the article to becomes des ā Beaucoup DES investissements promis nāont pas vu le jour = many of the promised investments did not see the light of day La fourmi eĢlectrique est tellement agressive quāelle menace beaucoup DES eĢcosysteĢmes fragiles du pays = the electric ant is so aggressive that it threatens many of the countryās fragile ecosystems 207 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 260 More de ā use of indefinite and partitive articles with a negative expression In such cases, the article, whether singular or plural, becomes de (see 416, 427) ā Je nāai pas DE carottes, ni DE poireaux = I havenāt got any carrots or leeks Il nāy a pas DE centre eĢquivalent en Belgique = there isnāt an equivalent centre in Belgium Ces minidoses sont calculeĢes de facĢ§on de ne pas laisser DE traces dāEPO syntheĢtique dans les urines des athleĢtes = these minidoses are calculated in such a way that no trace of synthetic EPO is left in the athletesā urine Le calecĢ§on ā il nāa plus rien DE vulgaire et se retrouve sous une mini-jupe = thereās no longer anything vulgar about pants ā wear them under a mini-skirt Je renouvelle cette seĢance deux fois par an, quand le produit nāa plus Dāeffet = I repeat this session twice a year when the product no longer has any effect This does not apply when eĢtre is used in a defining sense; in such cases the full form of the indefinite or partitive article is preserved ā En revanche, ce ne sont pas DES concentreĢs de lait comme les yaourts = on the other hand, theyāre not milk concentrates like yoghurt Ce ne sont pas DES endives mais DES poireaux = theyāre not endives but leeks 261 Repetition of article The articles are repeated before each noun in a series unless it is considered that the nouns form a single unit. Ajoutez LES poireaux, LA menthe, DU sel, DU poivre et UN peu dāeau = add the leeks, the mint, salt, pepper and a little water Pour LES lampes et veilleuses [= the lighting as a whole], eĢvitez les ampoules aĢ forts ampeĢrages qui risquent de provoquer DE graves bruĢlures et DES incendies [= separate dangers] = for lamps and nightlights, avoid those with a high ampage which might cause serious burns and fires Dāautres saveurs ont pris le relais, comme LA lavande, LA rose ou Lāoeillet = other scents have taken over such as lavender, rose or carnation In lists, even of only two items, which do not seem to form a single unit, this principle is not always observed ā Jusquāalors sous la forme de paĢtes, creĢmes ou poudres exclusivement, cāest en 1879 que le premier savon rond apparaıĢt dans lāhistoire = until then only in the form of pastes, creams or powders, it was in 1879 that the first round soap made its appearance in history 262 Which article? Although the definite and indefinite articles in English and French have many similarities in terms of their use, there are still many occasions when knowing which article to use in French is a major difficulty. The best way to overcome this difficulty is to observe 208 264 Key the articles you hear and see in spoken and written French respectively and decide for yourself whether you would have used them in the same way, and attempt to discern and deduce the principles behind their use. In the following example of written French, all cases where an article is used and also those where no article precedes a noun are denoted by a number or asterisk. In the next section the reasons for the use or non-use of the article are explained. 263 La1 nouvelle AtheĢnes Du2, 5 13 au3,5 29 aouĢt, la4 GreĢce accueille les1 28e olympiades dā10 eĢteĢ. Pour lā1 eĢveĢnement, la1 capitale sāest embellie et remodeleĢe «Ce que les1 AtheĢniens ont entrepris dans leur ville est digne des travaux dāHercule », sāexclame Anna Iliokratidou,8 directrice de lā1 Office national du2 tourisme helleĢnique. Depuis sa deĢsignation officielle, le5 5 septembre 1997, comme8 citeĢ hoĢte des2 Jeux de lā2 eĢteĢ 2004a , AtheĢnes vit au3 rythme des2 pelleteuses, dans un6 deĢcor surreĢaliste dā9 eĢchafaudages, de9 trancheĢes, de9 gravats et de9 palissades. Mais le1 reĢsultat est laĢ. Enfin, presque. « Il y a eu du7 cafouillage au3 deĢbut des2 travaux, mais, aĢ quatre mois et demi de la1 ceĢreĢmonie dā10 ouverture, les1 AtheĢniens mettent les11 boucheĢes doubles. Tout ce qui est neĢcessaire au3 bon deĢroulement des2 eĢpreuves sera vraisemblablement opeĢrationnel. Ce qui a eĢteĢ fait est colossal», souligne Xavier de Neuville,8 preĢsident-directeur geĢneĢral dāHeĢliades,8 voyagiste officiel des2 Jeuxb . Ce nāest pas rien. Outre les1 installations sportives (six nouveaux stades ont eĢteĢ construits), AtheĢnes a entrepris une6 restructuration radicale de son espace urbain: 12 creĢation dāun6 peĢripheĢrique de 73 km,12 construction de 8 km de9 lignes de10 meĢtro et de 24 km de10 tramway, entre le1 centre et Glyfada,12 construction dāun6 nouvel aeĢroport international aĢ la1 peĢripheĢrie de la1 ville et mise en11 place dāune6 voie ferreĢe pour le raccorder au3 centre ville, une6 autoroute, des2 routesc , la1 modernisation du2 reĢseau teĢleĢphonique, un6 village olympique . . . Le1 tout, pour un6 budget total avoisinant 4,5 milliards dā9 euros. Ce qui est deĢjaĢ opeĢrationnel (lā1 aeĢroport international Elefterios Venizelos ouvert en 2001, lāund des2 plus performants dā10 Europe, alors que lā1 ancien deĢtenait le record des2 retards, deux nouvelles lignes de10 meĢtro, la1 voie Attique qui, depuis six mois, contourne le1 nord de la1 ville . . .) ameĢliore deĢjaĢ notablement le1 quotidien. Tant celui des2 habitants que celui des2 touristes. Des6 quartiers brancheĢs aĢ la1 manieĢre occidentale surgissent. Gazi, tout proche de lā1 agora, ouĢ la1 municipaliteĢ vient de reconvertir un6 hangar de lā1 ancienne usine aĢ10 gaz en10 centre culturel (Metropolis) ouĢ se succeĢdent expositions dā10 art contemporain,12 confeĢrences,12 spectacles.12 Technopolis, un6 parc culturel deĢdieĢ aĢ la1 musiquee (cāest ici quāaura lieu le1 traditionnel Festival de10 jazz en10 mai) qui avait deĢjaĢ investi cette friche industrielle depuis trois ans, envisage de doubler son espace.12 Restaurants brancheĢs,12 bars aĢ la1 mode,12 discotheĢques,12 terrasses de10 cafeĢ ont aussitoĢt fleuri dans les1 environs, ouvrant et fermant au3 rythme des2 tocades. Dans le1 quartier de Psiri, aĢ coĢteĢ du2 cimetieĢre du2 CeĢramique (la1 plus ancienne neĢcropole de lā1 Attique), des6 galeries dā10 art investissent les1 anciens entrepoĢts de10 grossistes. Des6 restaurants et des6 tavernes dāouĢ sāeĢchappent des6 odeurs de10 brochettes sāinstallent dans des6 maisons aĢ moitieĢ en10 ruine, un6 cineĢma de10 plein air occupe une6 friche. Le Figaro 13 mai 2004 264 Key 1 definite article with specified noun de combined with le, les with specified noun 3 aĢ combined with le, les with specified noun 4 definite article with name of country 2 209 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 5 definite article with date indefinite article with previously unspecified noun 7 partitive article with unspecified amount of mass noun 8 noun in apposition 9 de + quantity 10 preposition + noun with adjectival value 11 idiom 12 noun in list 6 Cases requiring particular comment a Jeux de lāeĢteĢ 2004 ā the definite article is used here, in contrast to les 28e olympiades dāeĢteĢ earlier, because in the current case eĢteĢ is qualified by 2004, whereas in the earlier case it is not; it is used generically. b voyagiste officiel des Jeux ā although voyagiste is qualified by officiel, in which case one might expect an article to be used (le voyagiste officiel), it seems as if the whole expression voyagiste officiel is being considered as the name of a profession. c une autoroute, des routes ā in this long sentence, there is ellipsis of construction dā before these two nouns. d lāun ā the definite article has been inserted before un for reasons of euphony, specifically, to separate the un of 2001 from the following indefinite article and thus avoiding an awkward repetition of the same syllable. e un parc culturel deĢdieĢ aĢ la musique ā normally a noun in apposition is not preceded by an article ā see examples with 8 ; however, because parc is qualified by deĢdieĢ aĢ la musique, an article becomes necessary. Demonstrative determiners 265 Demonstrative determiners ā demonstrative adjectives ā the forms These are equivalent to English this, that, these, those. The forms masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural ce, cet ces cette ces this, that these, those this, that these, those The form cet for masculine singular is used before a word, noun or adjective beginning with a vowel (it is triggered into operation like the adjectives bel, fol, mol, vieil for beau, fou, mou, vieux ā see 195). Occasionally, the adjectives are combined with -ci, -laĢ to indicate and emphasise proximity or remoteness; the -ci, -laĢ is added to the noun modified by the adjective. 210 266 Examples: demonstrative adjectives masculine singular masculine plural feminine singular feminine plural ce, cet . . . -ci ce, cet . . . -laĢ ces . . . -ci ces . . . -laĢ cette . . . -ci cette . . . -laĢ ces . . . -ci ces . . . -laĢ this that these those this that these those This does not occur so often as with the demonstrative pronouns. For demonstrative pronouns, see 237ā239. 266 Examples of demonstrative adjectives ce Pour soulager un peu votre peine, nous vous envoyons 24 cannettes de ce breuvage = in order to relieve your distress, weāre sending you 24 cans of that brew Un site consacreĢ aux sandales porteĢes avec des chaussettes. Ce site dispose dāune collection photographique eĢnorme = a website devoted to sandals worn with socks. This website disposes of an enormous collection of photographs Vous trouverez tous les renseignements dans ce numeĢro ou sur notre site = youāll find all the details in this number or on our website cet Si vous voulez faire un peu dāargent cet eĢteĢ = if you want to make a bit of money this summer Toute boisson au cola contient E338 ā pour les chimistes cet eĢleĢment a plusieurs noms = any cola drink contains E338 ā chemists know this element by several names ces Ces tacticiens hors pair ont des convictions solidement ancreĢes, et la passion chevilleĢe au corps = these master tacticians have solidly anchored convictions and boundless passion Je peux vous dire que ces jeunes gens, surdoueĢs intellectuellement, sont fragiles et compleĢtement deĢsarmeĢs face aĢ des situations difficiles = I can tell you that these youngsters, super-smart intellectually, are fragile and completely at sea when faced with tricky situations ce . . . ci Sāil reĢussit ce nouveau challenge-ci, il y gagnera une grande confiance en lui = if he succeeds in this new challenge, heāll gain a great deal of self-confidence ce . . . laĢ Tout a commenceĢ un vendredi 13 ā ce jour-laĢ la fille de ses reĢves ceĢde aĢ ses avances = everything began one Friday 13th ā that day the girl of his dreams yielded to his advances 211 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR ces . . . -laĢ Ces clients-laĢ supportent si mal certains de leurs membres quāils se font amputer par pur mal-eĢtre = those patients have so little tolerance of certain of their limbs that they have themselves amputated by pure despair cette GraĢce aĢ cette machine vous allez pouvoir faire votre propre barbe aĢ papa = thanks to this machine youāll be able to make your own candy floss Cette anneĢe cĢ§a peut eĢtre vous = this year it could be you Cette tache originelle, le scrutin de 2004 nāaura pas reĢussi aĢ lāeffacer = that original flaw will not have been removed by the 2004 election Cette femme ne veut pas tant attraper que sāarranger (astucieusement) pour se faire attraper = that [such a] woman doesnāt so much want to catch [a man] as organise herself (cunningly) to have herself caught cette . . . ci Cette ligne-ci vous propose des solutions astucieuses = this line proposes some amusing solutions Cette photo-ci rappelle celles que jāavais vues dans lāautre collection = this photo reminds me of those I had seen in the other collection cette . . . laĢ Un monde parfait, avec des gens jeunes et beaux eĢternellement, cette image-laĢ je ne la reconnais pas ā a perfect world full of the eternally young and beautiful, I donāt recognise that picture Je ne peux pas supporter cette eĢmission-laĢ ā cāest trop deĢbile = I canāt stomach that programme ā itās too pathetic ces . . . ci Les chercheurs eĢmettent lāhypotheĢse que ces personnes-ci deĢpourvues de toute oreille attentive reĢagissent au stress de manieĢre plus prononceĢe = researchers propose the hypothesis that these people who do not have someone to listen to them react to stress in a more obvious way ces . . . laĢ Si vous trouvez que ce reĢgime-ci vous convient, nāheĢsitez pas aĢ abandonner toutes ces meĢthodes-laĢ = if you find that this diet suits you, donāt hesitate to abandon all those other methods Possessive determiners 267 Possessive determiners ā possessive adjectives These consist of the set of possessive adjectives. The adjectives are the equivalent of English my, your, his, her, its, our, their. 212 268 The son series first person masculine singular mon my plural second person feminine plural masculine ma mes ton my my your third person feminine plural masculine ta tes son your your his, her, its feminine plural sa ses his, her, its his, her, its notre our nos our votre your vos your leur their leurs their The masculine singular form mon, ton, son is used before a feminine word beginning with a vowel or mute h ā Ma reĢussite extraordinaire = my extraordinary success Mon extraordinaire reĢussite = my extraordinary success Mon amie = my girlfriend Ton odeur puissante = your strong smell Son eĢquipe de dieĢteĢticiens = his / her team of dieticians It is vital to remember that the form of the possessive adjective is determined by the gender of the noun it precedes, not the sex of the person involved ā hence mon, ton, son are used before masculine nouns regardless of whether they refer to a male or female; similarly ma, ta, sa are used before feminine nouns regardless of the sex of the person involved. The distinction between the two sets of forms for the second person singular, ton, ta, tes and votre, vos corresponds to that between tu and vous discussed in 216. The use of a possessive adjective and its ārivalryā with the definite article with parts of the body is discussed in 255. For discussion of the possessive pronouns, see 240ā241. 268 The son series The matter of agreement is particularly acute with the son series of possessive adjectives because each form has a number of potential meanings. For example, son does not necessarily always = his; it may, but it also = her, its; likewise, sa does not necessarily always = her; it may, but it also = his, its. Remember that the form used is determined by the number and gender of the noun qualified not by the gender of the possessor. The third person adjective is also used as the possessive adjective corresponding to the indefinite pronoun on ā see 224 for the values of on ā this complicates the situation still further. The following examples illustrate the different values that the son series may have ā 213 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR = her Je suis consciente quāune jeune femme musulmane nāest pas censeĢe concreĢtiser toutes ses pulsions = Iām aware that a young Muslim girl is not supposed to fulfil all her impulses Quand on lui demande ouĢ elle puise son imagination, elle eĢvoque son enfance et le peu de plaisir que lui procurait le mobilier de sa chambre = when sheās asked where her imagination came from, she mentions her childhood and the small amount of pleasure that she got from her bedroom furniture Son nouvel album nāest peut-eĢtre pas son meilleur = her latest album is perhaps not her best Elle pourra profiter de son talent exceptionnel = sheāll be able to benefit from her exceptional talent Elle meĢne une vie dāenfer aĢ ses parents = she leads her parents a terrible dance = his Un Italien a eĢteĢ assassineĢ dāune balle dans la nuque ā ses ravisseurs menacent de tuer trois de ses compatriots = an Italian has been put to death by a shot in the neck ā his kidnappers are threatening to kill three of his compatriots ApreĢs 48 jours de mer dans sa tentative de record du tour du monde aĢ la voile, Olivier Kersauson et son eĢquipage progressaient aĢ un peu plus de 10 noeuds = after 48 days at sea in his attempt to break the round-the-world record, Olivier Kersauson and his crew made progress at just over ten knots = its On aime aussi la version hyper-puissante ā son secret? = its hyper-powerful version is also popular ā its secret? France Loisirs vous fait deĢcouvrir des plumes originales ā ses auteurs vous transportent dans des univers deĢcaleĢs = France Loisirs helps you discover some original writers ā its authors transport you to unfamiliar worlds = oneās / your / their Deux mois pour sculpter son corps = two months to shape your (oneās) body pour ressusciter sa peau = to give new life to your (oneās) skin Freud appelle « transfert » le mouvement par lequel le patient revit, dans sa relation avec son psychanalyste, un fragment de son passeĢ affectif = Freud uses the term ātransferā to describe the process whereby the patient relives, in his relationship with his psychoanalyst, a fragment of his affective past history 269 Possible ambiguity of meaning of son series Because, as mentioned above, the son series = his, her, its, oneās, it sometimes happens that it is not clear who the possessor referred to by the adjective actually is. In order to disambiguate any problems, it is necessary to add a prepositional phrase to the noun ā aĢ + personal pronoun ā 214 271 Other persons of possessive adjectives Je preĢfeĢre les couleurs de sa chambre aĢ elle que celles de sa chambre aĢ lui = I prefer the colours in her bedroom to those in his Son parfum aĢ elle est deĢlicieusement sophistiqueĢ = her perfume is delightfully sophisticated Elle portait son pull aĢ lui = she was wearing his jumper 270 votre / vos Whereas the series ton, ta, tes always refers to a single person, the series votre, vos can refer to either a single person or a group of people. The context is likely to be more formal when it refers to a single person ā for more details see discussion of vous / tu, 216. singular Je regrette de dire que votre progreĢs nāest pas satisfaisant, jeune homme = Iām sorry to say that your progress is not satisfactory, young man Mademoiselle, voulez-vous laisser votre manteau dans le vestiaire? = do you want to leave your coat in the cloakroom, Miss? Votre nouvel album est plus rock et moins funk = your latest album is more rock and less funk singular or plural EĢcrivez votre nom en majuscules = write your name in capital letters Mettez vos affaires dans la chambre aĢ coucher = put your things in the bedroom Comment reĢagirez-vous quand un mec vient chercher votre fille pour une soireĢe? = how will you react when a guy comes round to take your daughter out for the evening? Vos cheveux sont deĢsormais raides = now your hair is straight Impossible de boutonner votre jean feĢtiche, alors que samedi dernier il vous allait encore comme un gant? Si vous attendez vos reĢgles, cĢ§a nāa rien de surprenant = impossible to do up your lucky jeans, whereas last Saturday they still fitted you like a glove? If your periodās due, itās not at all surprising plural Vous avez eĢteĢ nombreux aĢ eĢcrire ā nāoubliez pas de preĢciser vos coordonneĢes = many of you have written ā donāt forget to supply your details Tout le monde est arriveĢ ā il est temps de faire le point sur vos projets = everyoneās arrived ā itās time to give an up-date on your plans 271 Examples of the other persons of the possessive adjectives mon, ma, mes Jāai fait croire aĢ mes proches que jāeĢtais mort = I made my nearest and dearest believe I was dead 215 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Quand la chambre de ma fille vire aĢ la porcherie, je suis aussi gonflant que lāeĢtaient mes parents = when my daughterās bedroom turns into a pigsty, Iām as annoying as ever my parents were Je voudrais changer mon nez, mes cheveux, mes ongles, mes eĢpaules et mes orteils = Iād like to change my nose, my hair, my nails, my shoulders and my toes ton, ta, tes MeĢme si tu connais ta taille, rien ne vaut un bon essayage en boutique = even if you know your size, thereās nothing better than trying it on in the shop Ta femme y voit probablement une forme de soumission = your wife probably sees it as a form of submission Je me serais faĢcheĢe tout rouge aĢ ta place = in your place I would have become absolutely incandescent notre, nos Un truc pour aider nos lecteurs aĢ seĢduire un top modeĢle = a wheeze to help our readers seduce a top model Au bout dāune semaine nos discussions se sont orienteĢes vers le sexe = after a week our discussions turned to sex On ne doit pas brader ce que nos anceĢtres nous ont laisseĢ = we must not undervalue what our ancestors left us Depuis toujours leurs odeurs ont impreĢgneĢ nos corps = their perfumes have always impregnated our bodies leur, leurs Leurs joueurs ont si souvent eĢchoueĢ lors des grands rendez-vous aĢ cause de leurs querelles intestines interminables = their players have so often collapsed during major events because of their interminable internal feuds De treĢs nombreux supporters anglais sont resteĢs dans le pays en deĢpit de lāeĢlimination de leur eĢquipe en quart de finale = a good many English supporters have stayed on in the country despite the fact that their team was eliminated in the quarter finals Les lecteurs voteront pour leurs candidates preĢfeĢreĢes = readers will vote for their favourite candidates Leur objectif porte sur la deĢfense dāinteĢreĢts corporatistes = their aim focuses on the defence of corporatist interests Les relations aĢ distance, cĢ§a nāa pas que des inconveĢnients ā leur mauvaise humeur, leur match de foot, leurs copains qui sāincrustent, vous, vous y eĢchappez = relationships at a distance donāt only have disadvantages ā their bad moods, their football match, their mates always hanging around, you avoid all that The following instances in French illustrate a difference between French and English usage. In English the equivalent of maillot = trunks, peau = skin would be in the plural ā belonging to the group ā but it is in the singular in French ā belonging to each individual ā 216 272 Indefinite determiners ā chaque, tout Quoiquāil ait essayeĢ de nous faire nous quitter notre maillot, nous avons deĢcideĢ de le garder = although he tried to make us take our trunks off, we decided to keep them on Trois potes mal dans leur peau = three mates uneasy within themselves Indefinite determiners 272 Indefinite determiners ā chaque, tout The most frequently encountered indefinite determiners are chaque, tout. chaque = each, every Chaque fille aime donner lāimpression quāelle est reĢserveĢe et que cāest aĢ vous de lui reĢveĢler sa feĢminiteĢ = every girl likes to give the impression sheās reserved and that itās up to you to bring out her feminine side Votre frustration va monter chaque jour dāun cran = every day your frustration goes up a notch Chaque lecteur permet de stocker de 20 aĢ 100 heures de videĢo = each reader allows you to store between 20 ands 100 hours of videos For chacun see 242ā243. tout Tout acts as a determiner in two ways ā 1 tout in the singular and directly preceding the noun it determines = any; 2 tout in singular or plural and preceding the definite article or another determiner = all, every. The forms of tout are ā masculine singular tout feminine singular toute masculine plural tous feminine plural toutes examples of 1 Toute personne qui prendrait cette hormone risque dāencourir un cancer = any person taking this hormone risks getting cancer OuĢ mettre le parfum? ā toute zone qui nāest pas exposeĢe aĢ lāair = the best place to put perfume? ā any spot not exposed to the air Tout homme devrait faire aussi attention aĢ leur odeur quāaĢ leur look = any man should pay as much attention to their smell as to their appearance examples of 2 Toutes les femmes aiment vous raconter ce quāelles ont veĢcu, comment elles ont percĢ§u les autres = all women love to tell you how theyāve been, how they view others Tous les FrancĢ§ais consomment plus de 20 kilos de fromage par an = all French people consume more than 20 kilos of cheese a year 217 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Maintenant tous les salarieĢs sentent quāils ont eĢteĢ entendus = now all those on the payroll feel that theyāve had a hearing Toute lāeĢquipe a bien joueĢ = the whole team played well On y a cru malgreĢ tous ces petits signes du destin = we believed it in spite of all those little signs of destiny Tous mes amis ont eĢchangeĢ un clin dāoeil = all my friends winked at each other See 250. Exercises 1 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant les articles qui conviennent ā deĢfini, indeĢfini, partitif ou zeĢro ā a Pour savoir si on a . . . jambes de . . . reĢve, repeĢrez dans . . . glace . . . creux entre . . . cuisses, . . . autre au-dessus de . . . genou et . . . dernier aĢ . . . niveau de . . . chevilles. Sāil en manque un ou deux, il faut deĢclencher . . . plan Orsec! (equivalent of AA/RAC) b Chez . . . homme . . . cerveau est responsable de toutes . . . faculteĢs cognitives et de . . . controĢle de . . . eĢmotions et de . . . instincts. Toutes . . . informations provenant de . . . monde exteĢrieur y sont recĢ§ues et traiteĢes, . . . comportements organiseĢs, . . . raisonnements eĢlaboreĢs et . . . actions deĢcideĢes. Sa fonction essentielle est de nous permettre dāapporter . . . reĢponses originales aĢ . . . probleĢmes poseĢs par notre environnement. Cāest avec lui que nous sommes capables de faire . . . choix, bons ou mauvais. c ApreĢs . . . veĢtements jetables, maintenant . . . frasques mangeables. . . . ideĢe arrive de . . . royaume de . . . pommes chips. . . . styliste anglaise a preĢpareĢ . . . premieĢre robe aĢ . . . frites, avec . . . chapeau assorti. Cāest de . . . gouĢt exquis! d . . . mirabelles ā elles doivent eĢtre doreĢes avec . . . taches de rousseur, et exhaler . . . parfum leĢger. Leur peau, souple sous . . . doigt, est recouverte de . . . fine pellicule qui les proteĢge de . . . desseĢchement. e Lorsque . . . crise se produit ou . . . scandale est deĢvoileĢ, . . . premieĢre reĢaction de nombreux personnages publics de nos jours est de jaillir en . . . torrent . . . remords. f . . . nouvelle Peugeot 407 inteĢgre . . . produits innovants qui reĢpondent aĢ . . . exigences de . . . seĢcuriteĢ, . . . confort et . . . environnement. En particulier . . . nouveau systeĢme de . . . essuie-glace qui permet dāoptimiser . . . surface et . . . qualiteĢ de . . . essuyage. g Quatorze patients hospitaliseĢs aĢ . . . CHU ont trouveĢ . . . mort aĢ . . . terme de . . . pratiques de . . . euthanasie directe ou indirecte. Telle est . . . conclusion de . . . expertise meĢdicale citeĢe dans . . . presse reĢgionale. h . . . gouvernement espagnol a deĢcideĢ de rapporter dāau moins un an . . . entreĢe en vigueur, preĢvue pour . . . 25 mai, de . . . loi visant aĢ 218 Exercises ouvrir . . . transport ferroviaire aĢ . . . concurrence. Cette loi avait eĢteĢ condamneĢe par plusieurs reĢgions autonomes de . . . pays et par . . . cheminots de . . . chemins de . . . fer espagnols. i . . . nuit, pendant que . . . bonne partie de . . . population ronfle tranquillement, un demi-million de . . . auditeurs, de tous . . . aĢges et tous . . . milieux sociaux, restent colleĢs aĢ leur poste de . . . radio. j . . . rosiers sont de plus en plus souvent proposeĢs en . . . pot. Tentant, mais est-ce bien raisonnable? Non, sāil sāagit de . . . rosiers malingres mis en . . . pot aĢ . . . dernier moment ou encore de . . . rosiers produits industriellement dans . . . tourbe pure. Mais sāil sāagit de . . . rosiers mis en . . . pot depuis . . . hiver, dans . . . conteneurs profonds remplis de . . . terreau contenant . . . argile, pas . . . heĢsitation. k Votre point faible: . . . manque de . . . perseĢveĢrance. Vous ne prenez pas . . . deĢcision, ou alors pas de . . . facĢ§on durable; vous eĢtes incapable de . . . effort, pas plus motiveĢe par . . . succeĢs que par . . . eĢchec. Il nāy a que . . . nouveauteĢ, . . . ideĢe de . . . plaisir pour vous stimuler. l . . . bonne alimentation ā . . . sucres lents ( . . . paĢtes, . . . pommes de . . . terre) qui apportent . . . eĢnergie tout aĢ . . . long de . . . dure journeĢe, et non . . . sucres rapides ā . . . paĢtisseries, . . . bonbons ā qui donnent . . . coup de . . . fouet immeĢdiat, mais induisent . . . coup de . . . pompe dans . . . heures qui suivent. m Yacco propose . . . nouvelle gamme de 14 lubrifiants moteurs. . . . conduite urbaine, . . . trajet autoroutier, . . . compeĢtition: tous . . . besoins sont pris en compte par ces huiles qui reĢpondent aĢ . . . nouvelles exigences ā . . . reĢduction des eĢmissions polluantes, . . . reĢduction de . . . consommation de . . . carburant, . . . espacement de . . . vidanges, . . . lutte contre . . . usure, etc. n Si lāon se reĢfeĢre aĢ . . . langage de . . . couleurs, . . . jaune stimule . . . meĢmoire et . . . attention, . . . bleu calme . . . esprits, . . . vert apporte . . . eĢquilibre et . . . rouge stimule . . . sens. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant le deĢterminant possessif ou lāarticle qui convient ā a Pompe (= press-up) avec leveĢ de . . . jambe. En position de pompe classique, . . . mains sont dans lāalignement de . . . eĢpaules, mais un peu plus espaceĢes que la largeur de ces dernieĢres. Descendez . . . corps en fleĢchissant . . . bras et en levant . . . jambe aussi haut que possible sans plier . . . genou. Quand . . . torse est preĢs du sol, gardez la pose quelques secondes, puis tendez . . . bras pour revenir aĢ la position de deĢpart. Changez de . . . jambe. b . . . corps est couvert de taches blanches ā jāai des taches blanches sur . . . corps, . . . visage, . . . cheveux, et . . . poils sont eĢgalement affecteĢs. Je suis obseĢdeĢe par . . . corps et surtout . . . visage. c Pour utiliser le flexi-ball, un gros ballon en plastique souple, posez . . . ventre sur le flexi-ball, . . . mains au sol, . . . bras tendus. . . . jambes sont jointes et tendues. En faisant pression avec . . . hanches, levez . . . jambes le plus haut possible. Gardez la position 5 secondes. 219 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 3 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant le deĢterminant deĢmonstratif qui convient ā a . . . mois, on examine la machine aĢ laver le linge. b Il sāagit de faire plaisir aĢ toute la famille. Celui-ci se nourrirait exclusivement de paĢtes et de riz, . . . autre rechigne face aĢ une assiette de courgettes, et . . . dernier ne toleĢre pas les leĢgumes. c Une circulaire ministeĢrielle preĢcisait que le poids dāun cartable dāeĢcolier ne devrait pas exceĢder de 10% celui de lāenfant. . . . norme nāest toujours pas respecteĢe. d Disposez de lāherbe tondue en lāeĢparpillant autour des leĢgumes. En 15 jours, . . . paillis (= mulch) disparaıĢt. e Sans lāaide de . . . creĢme, jāaurais certainement mis plus de temps aĢ me deĢbarrasser de tous . . . kilos. f Seul point commun entre . . . enfants psychiquement atteints: . . . cocktails hormonaux pris par les meĢres! DāouĢ lāideĢe dāun lien possible entre . . . psychoses et lāempreinte hormonale au stade foetal. 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant le deĢterminant possessif qui convient ā a Les huiles diffeĢrent par . . . teneur en vitamine E, . . . reĢsistance aĢ la chaleur et, bien suĢr, . . . gouĢt. b Il est urgent que nous redonnions aĢ . . . enfants le gouĢt de lāeau. c Dire que Golovin joua aĢ . . . meilleur niveau serait exageĢreĢ. d Entre ces deux compeĢtitions, jāaurai le temps de changer . . . patins et de corriger . . . programmes. e Comment qualifieriez-vous . . . sexualiteĢ actuelle? f Lāapparence est fondamentale pour une femme qui veut reĢussir dans . . . socieĢteĢ. Je suis donc treĢs attentive aĢ maintenir . . . image sur . . . lieu de travail. g On tient aĢ te feĢliciter de . . . bon sens et . . . reĢponses toujours percutantes. h Ce qui peut eĢtre inteĢressant pour nous, cāest quāil apporte plus de profondeur aĢ . . . jeu. 220 Chapter 8 Prepositions 273 Prepositions Small but highly significant, prepositions enable sentences to be expanded and more and more complex ideas to be expressed. Prepositions perform two major syntactic functions ā 1 linking verbs to adjectives, nouns and other verbs 2 preceding nouns to form prepositional expressions 274 French prepositions The following is a list of French prepositions. Some consist of a single word, others consist of more than one word. 1 Single-word prepositions aĢ, apreĢs, avant, avec, chez, compris, contre, dans, de, depuis, derrieĢre, deĢs, devant, durant, en, entre, envers, environ, excepteĢ, malgreĢ, par, parmi, pendant, pour, sans, sauf, selon, sous, suivant, sur, vers 2 Multi-word prepositions aĢ cause de, aĢ condition de, aĢ coĢteĢ de, afin de, aĢ force de, aĢ moins de, aĢ partir de, aĢ travers de, au bout de, au cours de, au-delaĢ de, au-dessous de, au-dessus de, au lieu de, aupreĢs de, autour de, au travers de, dāapreĢs, de crainte / peur de, de facĢ§on / manieĢre aĢ, de la part de, du coĢteĢ de, du haut de, en dehors de, en deĢpit de, en face de, face aĢ, graĢce aĢ, hors de, jusquāaĢ, le long de, lors de, par-dessous, par-dessus, par suite de, preĢs de, quant aĢ Prepositions which link 275 Prepositions which link Prepositions are like hooks which link together elements of language, specifically adjectives, nouns and verbs to verbs. The number of linking prepositions is small. The prepositions in question are aĢ, de, par. It should be noted that sometimes the French preposition is an exact equivalent of the one used in English, sometimes it is different, and on yet other occasions no preposition is used in French where one is used in English and vice versa. This last possibility is known as a zero preposition and describes those cases where a preposition might be used but is in fact not. We will deal with the zero preposition first. 221 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 276 Zero preposition The zero preposition is used to link certain verbs with a following infinitive. The most common verbs involved are ā adorer = to adore, aimer = to like, to love, aimer mieux = to prefer, aller = to go, amener = to bring, arriver = to arrive, avoir beau = to do in vain, compter = to count on, confirmer = to confirm, courir = to run, croire = to believe, to think, daigner = to deign, deĢclarer = to declare, descendre = to go down, deĢsirer = to desire, devoir = to have to, dire = to say, eĢcouter = to listen, emmener = to take away, entrer = to go in, espeĢrer = to hope, estimer = to reckon, faillir = to fail, falloir = to be necessary (il faut = it is necessary), (sā)imaginer = to imagine, manquer = to miss, mener = to lead, monter = to go up, nier = to deny, oser = to dare, paraıĢtre = to appear, partir = to leave, penser = to think, pouvoir = to be able, preĢfeĢrer = to prefer, preĢtendre = to claim, se rappeler = to remember, reconnaıĢtre = to recognise, rentrer = to return home, retourner = to return, se reĢveĢler = to turn out, revenir = to come back, savoir = to know, sembler = to seem, sortir = to go out, souhaiter = to wish, valoir mieux = to be better, vouloir = to wish, to want It is perhaps worth pointing out that all the modal verbs act in this way; see 159ā163. 277 Examples of verb + zero preposition Jāadorerais creĢer des parfums en labo = Iād adore creating perfumes in a lab Jāaime entreprendre des choses et je sais ce que je veux = I love doing things and I know what I want Il a su que jāallais eĢtre la femme de sa vie = he knew I was going to be the woman in his life Tout va bien se passer = everythingās going to work out well Vous avez la sensation dāeĢtre mieux raseĢ quand vous nāutilisez pas de produit avant-rasage ā cĢ§a ne devrait pas arriver! = you feel as if youāve had a better shave when you donāt use a pre-shaving product ā that shouldnāt happen! Il faut marcher au moins 3 aĢ 5 km par jour ā cĢ§a augmente de sept ans lāespeĢrance de vie = you should walk 3 to 5 km a day ā that increases your life expectancy by seven years Pourquoi cours-tu? ā A quel autre moment un homme peut-il porter du lycra moulant rose? = why do you go running? ā When else can a man wear pink, tight-fitting lycra? De laĢ aĢ choisir une femme deĢpressive en croyant pouvoir lui redonner le gouĢt de vivre, il y a un pas que meĢme un psychologue ne sait pas franchir = from there to choosing a depressive woman believing that you can give her back a taste for living, thereās a step that not even a psychoanalyst knows how to take En classe, je preĢfeĢre porter des pantalons baggy et des baskets pour ne pas me faire remarquer = at school I prefer wearing baggy trousers and trainers so as not to make myself noticed Le document se reĢveĢle eĢtre dāun inteĢreĢt primordial = the document turns out to be of the greatest interest 222 278 faire, entendre, envoyer, laisser, etc. Ne sachant pas cuisiner, je me demande si une femme appreĢcierait une pizza surgeleĢe pour dıĢner = since I donāt know how to cook, I wonder if a woman would appreciate a frozen pizza for dinner Les itineĢraires des jeunes filles ont eĢteĢ eĢtudieĢs par les enqueĢteurs, ce qui a sembleĢ rassurer leur peĢre = the routes the young girls took have been studied by the investigators, which seemed to reassure their father Bon moment pour sortir sāentraıĢner aĢ marcher, grimper, sauter = itās a good moment to go outside to practise walking, climbing, jumping Pour bien deĢmarrer, mieux vaut preĢvoir un temps dāapprentissage = in order to make a good start, itās better to allow time to learn the ropes Jāaurais voulu ressembler aĢ Marilyn Monroe, mais cāest rateĢ!= Iād have liked to look like Marilyn Monroe, but no luck! 278 faire, entendre, envoyer, laisser, regarder, sentir, voir These verbs are also linked to a following infinitive by a zero preposition ā faire La drogue a fait naıĢtre une narcoculture = drugs have produced a drug culture Faites durer le plaisir = make the pleasure last Le tabac fait chuter le taux de vitamine C = tobacco reduces the level of vitamin C Faites monter la tempeĢrature en lui donnant des frissons = make her temperature rise by giving her the shivers Les risques de se faire attraper vont eĢtre de plus en plus grands = the risks of getting caught are going to get bigger and bigger laisser Opter pour un masque reĢparateur ā laisse poser dix minutes puis rincer ou faire peĢneĢtrer en massant = opt for a rejuvenating face pack ā leave it on for ten minutes, then rinse it off or massage it in to make it penetrate Laisser la peau se reposer en oubliant le maquillage pour un jour = allow your skin to rest by not putting on any make-up for one day voir Rien ne destinait Elisabeth et Claire aĢ voir leurs destins se croiser et encore moins sāunir = nothing destined Elisabeth and Claire to see their destinies cross let alone unite However, if two objects are involved, one of the finite verb and the other of the infinitive, different constructions occur. 1 If the finite verb is faire, the former appears as an indirect object ā Cāest ce qui lui faisait seĢlectionner des symptoĢmes sinon les inventer = thatās what made him select symptoms if not invent them Il a fait dessiner sa nouvelle maison aĢ un architecte = he had his new house designed by an architect 223 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Si ton mec nāest pas trop grand, fais-lui porter une veste de la couleur de son pantalon, afin dāallonger la silhouette = if your guy isnāt very tall, make him wear a jacket the colour of his trousers in order to lengthen his silhouette 2 If the finite verb is one of the others, a choice of constructions is available, if pronouns are involved ā Elle les lui laisse raconter sans interruption she let her rabbit on without = Elle la laisse les raconter sans interruption interrupting her If a noun or nouns is involved, the construction is as follows ā Restez au moins une heure dans lāeau pour laisser aux muscles le temps de se deĢnouer = stay in the water for at least one hour to allow your muscles time to relax Restez au moins une heure dans lāeau pour les laisser le temps de se deĢnouer = stay in the water for at least one hour to allow them time to relax Elle a entendu son amie dire des imbeĢcilliteĢs = she heard her friend talk nonsense Elle lāa entendue dire des imbeĢcilliteĢs = she heard her talk nonsense aĢ 279 aĢ linking an adjective to a following infinitive Amongst the most common adjectives are ā apte = capable, assis = sitting, bon = good, coucheĢ = lying, debout = standing, deĢcideĢ = determined , deĢtermineĢ = determined, disposeĢ = disposed, duĢ = due, enclin = inclined, facile = easy, fermeĢ = closed, fondeĢ = justifiable, habile = skilful, good, lent = slow, long = long, ouvert = open, preĢpareĢ = prepared, preĢt = ready, prompt = prompt, propre = appropriate, reĢsolu = determined, sensible = sensitive, unanime = unanimous, utile = useful Cāest . . . aĢ is dealt with in 221. 280 Examples of aĢ linking an adjective to a following infinitive Vous allez toujours au bout de vos projets, deĢtermineĢ aĢ supporter ou encaisser beaucoup = you always carry through your projects determined to put up with or take on a lot Il faut eĢtre disposeĢ aĢ prendre le temps dāobserver les courants et les habitudes locales = you have to be willing to take time to observe the trends and local habits Le manque de tonus peut sāexpliquer par des erreurs faciles aĢ corriger = lack of energy can be explained by mistakes that are easy to correct Elle nāest pas treĢs ouverte aĢ accepter les opinions des autres = sheās not very open to accepting other peopleās opinions Les compagnies aeĢriennes sont preĢtes aĢ tout faire pour eĢviter dāencombrer les tapis des aeĢroports = airlines are prepared to do anything to avoid clogging up the airport departure lounges Vous eĢtes toujours preĢte aĢ dramatiser les situations reĢelles ou aĢ imaginer 224 283 aĢ linking verb to following infinitive dāhypotheĢques pour ne rien faire = youāre always ready to dramatise real situations or imagine hypothetical ones so as not to do anything Je suis reĢsolu aĢ ouvrir une boıĢte de nuit ā que faut-il faire pour reĢussir? = Iām determined to open a night club ā what must I do to succeed? DilueĢ, cet eĢleĢment est utile aĢ fabriquer les engrais = in its dilute state, itās useful for making fertilisers 281 aĢ linking a noun to a following infinitive Common nouns involved are ā acharnement (m) = tenacity, aisance (f ) = ease, aptitude (f ) = competence, ardeur (f ) = enthusiasm, aviditeĢ (f ) = eagerness, deĢtermination (f ) = determination, difficulteĢ (f ) = difficulty, faciliteĢ (f ) = ease, habileteĢ (f ) = skill, heĢsitation (f ) = hesitation, impuissance (f ) = powerlessness, insistance (f ) = insistence, inteĢreĢt (m) = interest, persistance (f ) = persistence, regret (m) = regret, reĢpugnance (f ) = repugnance, retard (m) = delay, tendance (f ) = tendency 282 Examples of aĢ linking a noun to a following infinitive Elle a montreĢ son acharnement aĢ deĢfendre les reĢfugieĢs = she showed her determination to defend refugees Ton aisance aĢ tāaccommoder de la solitude te rend peu vulneĢrable aux eĢveĢnements exteĢrieurs = the ease with which you adapt yourself to solitude stops you being vulnerable to outside events Il a montreĢ sa deĢtermination aĢ tenir ses promesses = he showed his determination to keep his promises Vous ne faites pas preuve dāheĢsitation aĢ prendre des risques, parce que vous ne savez pas eĢtre prudente = you donāt show any hesitation about taking risks, because you donāt know how to be cautious Son insistance aĢ disputer le match malgreĢ ses blessures lui a valu un eĢloge geĢneĢral = his insistence on playing the match in spite of his injuries won him universal praise Le retard du club aĢ le nommer comme membre permanent de lāeĢquipe lui a couĢteĢ cher ā il est parti pour Toulouse = the clubās delay in appointing him as a permanent team member cost it dear ā heās left for Toulouse Vous avez tendance aĢ faire un blocage quand vous devez improviser = you tend to have a block when you should improvise 283 aĢ linking a verb to a following infinitive The following are the main verbs involved ā sāabaisser = to stoop, sāabeĢtir = to act stupidly, sāabrutir = to become stupefied, sāaccoutumer = to get used, sāacharner = to be very keen, sāadonner = to devote oneself, sāaffoler = to panic, aider = to help, amener = to bring, sāamuser = to amuse oneself, appeler = to call, sāappliquer = to apply oneself, apprendre = to learn, sāappreĢter = to get ready, arriver = to manage, aspirer = to aspire, sāattacher = to attach oneself, sāattarder = to take oneās time, sāattendre = to expect, autoriser = to authorise, 225 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR avoir = to have, se borner = to limit oneself, chercher = to search, commencer = to begin, condamner = to condemn, conduire = to lead, se consacrer = to devote oneself, consentir = to consent, consister = to consist, conspirer = to conspire, se consumer = to waste away, continuer = to continue, contraindre = to constrain, contribuer = to contribute, convier= to invite, se deĢcider = to decide, demander = to ask, deĢpenser de lāargent = to spend, (se) deĢterminer = to determine, se deĢvouer = to be devoted, se disposer = to be disposed, se divertir = to amuse oneself, sāemployer = to be used, encourager = to encourage, sāeĢnerver = to get worked up, (sā)engager = to get involved, sāenhardir = to become bold, sāennuyer = to be bored, enseigner = to teach, sāenteĢter = to be stubborn, (sā)entraıĢner = to train (oneself ), sāeĢpuiser = to get exhausted, eĢquivaloir = to be equal, sāessayer = to try, sāessouffler = to run out of breath, exhorter = to exhort, se fatiguer = to get tired, (sā)habituer = to get used, se hasarder = to risk, heĢsiter = to hesitate, inciter = to incite, incliner = to be inclined, insister = to insist, (sā)inteĢresser = to be interested, inviter = to invite, sāirriter = to get angry, se limiter = to limit oneself, (se) mettre = to put (oneself ), sāobstiner = to be obstinate, (sā)occuper = to be busy, sāoffrir = to offer oneself, sāoublier = to forget oneself, parvenir = to succeed, passer son temps = to spend time, perdre son temps = to waste time, perseĢveĢrer = to persevere, persister = to persist, se plaire = to please oneself, enjoy, se plier = to submit, pousser = to push, (se) prendre = to set about, prendre plaisir = to take pleasure, (se) preĢparer = to prepare (oneself ), se refuser = to refuse, se reĢjouir = to rejoice, renoncer = to renounce, reĢpugner = to be reluctant, se reĢsigner = to resign oneself, se reĢsoudre = to decide, reĢussir = to succeed, se risquer = to take a risk, servir = to serve, songer = to dream, surprendre = to surprise, tarder = to delay, tendre = to tend, tenir = to hold, sāen tenir = to keep, travailler = to work, sāuser = to wear oneself out, utiliser = to use, veiller = to take care, viser = to aim 284 Examples of aĢ linking a verb to a following infinitive Le nouveau produit aide aĢ stimuler la formation osseuse et aĢ ralentir lāosteĢoporose = the new product helps stimulate bone growth and slow down osteoporosis Je māappreĢte aĢ lui donner des explications mais il refuse dāeĢcouter = Iām prepared to explain things to him, but he refuses to listen Il y a des filles qui savent jouer les sceptiques, pour quāon cherche aĢ les convaincre, aĢ les seĢduire = there are some girls who know how to play the sceptic to make you try to persuade them and seduce them On se lave trop, avec trop de produits trop souvent agressifs, nāheĢsite pas aĢ dire le Pr Lorette = we wash ourselves too much with too many products that are too harsh, Professor Lorette does not hesitate to say [is quick to say] Surmontant lāaversion quāil avait envers lui, il lāa inviteĢ aĢ dıĢner aĢ la maison une semaine plus tard = overcoming the aversion he felt for him, he invited him home to dinner a week later Il faut se limiter aĢ prendre une douche par jour, et de preĢfeĢrence le matin = you should limit yourself to having one shower a day, preferably in the morning Je me suis mise aĢ fumer, aĢ boire, mais je ne lāai pas trompeĢ = I began to smoke and drink, but I didnāt cheat on him 226 286 aĢ linking verb to noun Sur certains matchs, sans eĢtre bien, on parvenait aĢ gagner ou du moins aĢ ne pas perdre = for certain matches, without being good, we managed to win or at least not lose Si vous persistez aĢ vous rendre en cours nu(e) ou aĢ porter des accessoires susceptibles de heurter les sensibiliteĢs, vous avez peu de chances de terminer lāanneĢe = if you persist in coming to class naked or wearing accessories that might well offend other peopleās sensitivities, thereās little hope that youāll complete the year On nāa quāaĢ sāen prendre aĢ nous-meĢmes pour ne pas sāeĢtre montreĢs suffisamment malins = all we can do is blame ourselves for not having shown ourselves to be sufficiently crafty Monaco a reĢussi aĢ atteindre les quarts de finale = Monaco succeeded in reaching the quarter finals Il faut veiller aĢ ne pas trop utiliser les soins deĢgraissants = you need to be careful not to use too many skin cleansing products 285 contraindre, forcer, obliger For this group of verbs, practice varies according to whether the verb occurs in the active or passive voice. 1 If the active voice is concerned, the preposition aĢ is used ā Quāest-ce qui nous contraint aĢ fumer une cigarette ou aĢ boire un cafeĢ? ā Le stress et lāenvie de prolonger un moment de deĢtente = what induces us to smoke a cigarette or have a coffee? ā Stress and the desire to prolong a relaxing moment En vacances il faut forcer le corps aĢ faire quelques entorses au reĢgime habituel pour eĢviter les frustrations = on holiday you have to force your body to vary your usual regime in order to avoid becoming frustrated 2 On the other hand, if the passive voice is concerned, it is the preposition de which is used ā Pour certains, en cas de forte chaleur, on se sent forceĢ de reĢduire son alimentation = for some of us, when itās particularly hot, we feel forced to reduce our food intake Mieux vaut eĢtre obligeĢ de faire lāamour tous les jours plutoĢt que de traıĢner au lit aĢ longueur de grasses matineĢes = itās better to be forced to make love every day rather than laze in bed for hours on end 286 aĢ linking a verb to a noun The major verbs involved are ā assister = to attend, sāattaquer = to attack, sāattendre = to expect, se confier = to confide, consentir = to consent, croire = to believe, deĢplaire = to displease, deĢsobeĢir = to disobey, eĢchapper = to escape, faillir = to almost, se fier = to trust, manquer = to fail, se meĢler = to mix, nuire = to harm, obeĢir = to obey, pardonner = to forgive, parer = to ward off, participer = to participate, penser = to think, plaire = to please, prendre part = to take part, remeĢdier = to cure, renoncer = to renounce, reĢpondre = to reply, reĢpugner = to be averse, reĢsister = to resist, ressembler = to resemble, reĢussir = to succeed, servir = to serve, songer = to think, subvenir = to meet, 227 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR succeĢder = to succeed (inheritance), suffire = to suffice, survivre = to survive, teĢleĢphoner = to telephone 287 Examples of aĢ linking a verb to a noun Une fois par semaine un musicien donne un concert ā tous y assistent = once a week a musician gives a concert ā everyone attends Les heĢros sāattaquent aux jeux videĢo ā les heĢros de BD font le grand saut ā les voilaĢ deĢsormais en jeux videĢo = the heroes are attacking video games ā comic strip heroes are making a great leap ā and here they are now in video games Mon copain a des furoncles ā est-ce quāils sont duĢs aĢ la crasse? = my mateās got boils ā are they due to the fact heās a dirty slob? On nāest pas laĢ pour leur faire plaisir ā parfois on leur dit des choses quāils nāont pas envie dāentendre = weāre not there for their pleasure ā sometimes we tell them things they donāt want to hear Au travail, vous reĢpondez favorablement aĢ une offre, certaine de ne pas commettre dāerreur = at work you reply favourably to an offer, convinced youāre not making a mistake Pensez aĢ toutes les astuces qui permettent de varier les gouĢters, surtout sāils sont pris aĢ lāexteĢrieur = think of all the tricks that allow you to vary their snacks, especially if theyāre eaten outdoors Le fromage blanc, doux et frais, reĢpond aĢ toutes nos envies de simpliciteĢ et se preĢte aĢ des recettes varieĢs = soft and fresh white cheese is the answer to all our desires for simplicity and lends itself to a variety of recipes Avec une protection anti-UVA et UVB, voici le duo ideĢal pour reĢsister aux effets nocifs dāun soleil trop brutal = with its anti-UVA and UVB protection, hereās the ideal two-piece to resist the harmful effects of an over-cruel sun Songez aĢ votre partenaire pour qui vos demandes peuvent parfois sonner comme des ordres = spare a thought for your partner for whom your requests may sometimes sound like orders La reĢmuneĢration annuelle doit suffire aĢ vos besoins de deĢpenses normales = your annual income must be sufficient for the needs of your normal expenditure de 288 de linking an adjective to a following infinitive The most common adjectives involved are ā avide = greedy, capable = capable, certain = certain, confus = embarrassed, content = happy, curieux = curious, deĢsireux = desirous, deĢsoleĢ = sad, eĢtonneĢ = astonished, fier = proud, heureux = happy, impatient = impatient, incapable = incapable, libre = free, meĢcontent = discontent, ravi = delighted, reconnaissant = grateful, responsable = responsible, satisfait = satisfied, suĢr = sure Usage with impersonal il est is dealt with in 164. 228 291 Examples: de + noun + infinitive 289 Examples of de linking an adjective to a following infinitive Rien ne sert dāessayer de se retenir dāeĢternuer, meĢme si cela vous paraıĢt bruyant et peu eĢleĢgant ā nous ne sommes pas capables dāy reĢsister ā thereās no point trying to stop yourself sneezing, even if it seems noisy and inelegant ā weāre incapable of resisting Vous pouvez eĢtre certaine dāavoir des jambes impeccables ā en une minute sous la douche avec ce rasoir aĢ teĢte pivotale = you can be sure of having perfect legs ā in a minute under the shower with this razor with a revolving head Je suis suĢr que vous serez content de savoir que les reĢves eĢrotiques sont un signe de bonne santeĢ psychique = youāll be pleased to know that erotic dreams are a sign of good mental health Si vous eĢtes curieux de deĢcouvrir plus sur les postes commerciaux que nous offrons, contactez-nous au plus vite = if youāre curious to discover more about the commercial posts weāre offering, contact us as soon as possible Si vous eĢtes deĢsireux de savoir vos droits de salarieĢ et les bonnes attitudes aĢ adopter pour discuter efficacement avec votre patron, ce guide pratique vous aidera = if youāre keen to know your rights as a wage-earner and the right attitude to adopt to have a useful discussion with your boss, this practical guide will help you Je suis treĢs fieĢre dāavoir travailleĢ avec Jane Birkin = Iām very proud to have worked with Jane Birkin Le printemps est laĢ! je suis impatiente de deĢcouvrir mon corps et de profiter des beaux jours = spring has arrived! Iām impatient to uncover my body and make the most of the fine days 290 de linking a noun to a following infinitive Some of the most common nouns involved are ā air (m) = air, appearance, autorisation (f) = authorisation, besoin (m) = need, capaciteĢ (f) = ability, chance (f)= chance, deĢsir (m) = desire, droit (m) = right, envie (f) = desire, honte (f) = shame, impossibiliteĢ (f) = impossibility, incapaciteĢ (f) = inability, les moyens (mpl) = the means, neĢcessiteĢ (f) = necessity, obligation (f) = obligation, occasion (f) = opportunity, permission (f) = permission, peur (f) = fear, plaisir (m) = pleasure, rage (f) = anger, raison (f) = reason, right, risque (m) = risk, temps (m) = time, tort (m) = wrong, volonteĢ (f) = wish 291 Examples of de linking a noun to a following infinitive Avoir un trou sur ses dates de stage en entreprise ou heĢsiter sur ses qualifications fait plutoĢt mauvais genre. Au mieux vous aurez lāair de souffrir dāun Alzheimer preĢcoce et au pire dāavoir bidonneĢ votre CV = having a gap in your dates for work experience or hesitating over your qualifications makes a rather bad impression. At best it will look as if youāre suffering from the early onset of Alzheimerās, at worst as if youāve cheated with your cv Tous mes patients eĢprouvent le besoin de se confier deĢs que je commence aĢ manipuler leurs pieds = all my patients feel the need to confide in me as soon as I start manipulating their feet 229 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Des mauvaises langues rapportent que les filles adeptes du gonflage des leĢvres ont un deĢsir, conscient ou inconscient, dāeĢveiller des envies chez le maĢle = gossip-mongers say that girls who go for lip enhancement have the desire, conscious or subconscious, to arouse the male of the species Jāai treĢs envie de remonter sur sceĢne, de refaire du cineĢma = Iām very keen to return to the stage, to take up the cinema again AĢ ce moment-laĢ, jāai eu la sensation que le temps sāarreĢtait, je nāavais pas les moyens de reĢagir = at that moment, I had the feeling that time stood still, I didnāt have the means to react Pour se deĢfendre contre les preĢdateurs, portez un grand sac plastique. Pour lāhonneĢte garcĢ§on, cāest la fille qui fait les courses et nāa pas peur dāaller lui chercher une bieĢre quand il est fatigueĢ = to protect yourself against predators, carry a large plastic bag. To the honest guy, itās the sign of a girl who does the shopping and isnāt afraid to fetch him a beer when heās tired Si vous nāouvrez pas la porte, il nāira pas plus loin, ou alors il fera preuve de violence, avec le risque de rameuter les flics = il you donāt open the door, he wonāt go any further, or he may become violent, with the risk of alerting the cops Ce rapport est menaceĢ aĢ cause de la volonteĢ de lāEtat de voir les femmes se tourner de preĢfeĢrence vers un geĢneĢraliste au lieu dāun speĢcialiste = this report is under threat because of the Stateās wish to see women preferably consult a GP rather than a specialist 292 de linking a verb to a following infinitive The main verbs involved are ā sāabstenir = to abstain from, accepter = to accept, accuser = to accuse, achever = to complete, sāaffliger = to be distressed, (sā)arreĢter = to stop, attendre = to wait, sāaviser = to realise, blaĢmer = to blame, bruĢler = to burn, cesser = to cease, charger = to make responsible, choisir = to choose, comploter = to plot, consoler = to console, se contenter = to be satisfied, continuer = to continue, convaincre = to convince, craindre = to fear, deĢcider = to decide, deĢdaigner = to disdain, demander = to ask, se deĢpeĢcher = to hurry, deĢsespeĢrer = to despair, deĢtester = to detest, dire = to say, dispenser = to dispense, dissuader = to dissuade, douter = to doubt, sāefforcer = to exert oneself, sāempeĢcher = to prevent oneself, sāempresser = to hurry, enrager = to be enraged, entreprendre = to undertake, envier = to envy, envisager = to envisage, essayer = to try, sāeĢtonner = to be astonished, eĢviter = to avoid, sāexcuser = to apologise, bien faire = to do well, faire semblant = to pretend, feindre = to feign, (se) feĢliciter = to congratulate, finir = to finish, se flatter = to flatter, se garder = to take care not, gronder = to scold, se haĢter = to hurry, hurler = to howl, implorer = to beg, sāindigner = to be indignant, sāinquieĢter = to worry, interdire = to forbid, jurer = to swear, louer = to praise, manquer = to fail, en avoir marre = to be fed up, meĢditer = to meditate, se meĢler = to mix, menacer = to threaten, meĢriter = to deserve, neĢgliger = to neglect, sāoccuper = to be busy, offrir = to offer, omettre = to omit, ordonner = to order, oublier = to forget, pardonner = to forgive, parler = to speak, permettre = to allow, persuader = to persuade, se piquer = to like to make out, plaindre = to pity, prendre garde = to take care, (se) presser = to hurry, prier = to beg, projeter = to propose, promettre = to promise, (se) proposer = to propose, recommander = to recommend, redouter = to fear, refuser = to refuse, 230 294 de linking a verb to a noun regretter = to regret, se reĢjouir = to rejoice, remercier = to thank, se repentir = to repent, reĢsoudre = to resolve, se retenir = to restrain oneself, reĢver = to dream, risquer = to risk, rougir = to blush, simuler = to simulate, se soucier = to worry, soupcĢ§onner = to suspect, se souvenir = to remember, suffire = to suffice, suggeĢrer = to suggest, supplier = to beg, supporter = to tolerate, taĢcher = to attempt, teĢleĢphoner = to telephone, tenter = to attempt, se vanter = to boast, venir = just ā see 143. 293 Examples of de linking a verb to a following infinitive La premieĢre chose aĢ faire, pour trouver son poids initial, est dāarreĢter de boire des calories = the first thing to do to recover your original weight is to stop drinking calories Jāessayais de mettre tous les atouts de mon coĢteĢ = I tried to keep all the tricks up my sleeve Ne jamais ressentir de la haine est suspect ā cela veut dire que lāon sāinterdit dāeĢprouver un sentiment tout aĢ fait normal = never to feel hatred is suspect ā that means that you forbid yourself experiencing a perfectly normal feeling Mon exemple peut permettre dāalerter des millions de gens = my example can put millions of people on their guard Je refuse toujours de juger individuellement = I refuse to judge individual cases Cāest comme aĢ la Bourse ā plus on investit, plus on risque de perdre gros = itās like the Stock Exchange ā the more you invest, the more you risk losing big time AĢ ce niveau il ne suffit pas de reĢaliser un bon match = at this level itās not enough to pull off a good match Un de vos petits amis vous a deĢjaĢ suggeĢreĢ de changer quelque chose dans votre teĢte ā le nez, le maquillage, la coiffure = one of your boyfriends has already suggested changing something on your face ā your nose, your make-up, your hairstyle 294 de linking a verb to a noun The major verbs involved are ā abuser = to abuse, sāaccommoder = to make the best, sāaccompagner = to be accompanied, accoucher = to give birth, sāagir = to be a question (il sāagit de = itās a question of ), sāaider = to use, sāalimenter = to live on, sāalourdir = to increase, sāapercevoir = to notice, (sā)approcher = to approach, sāarmer = to arm oneself, avoir besoin / envie / honte / peur = to need / want / be ashamed / be afraid, changer = to change, se charger = to take responsibility, convenir = to admit, to agree, se deĢfier = to distrust, deĢmissionner = to resign, deĢpendre = to depend, disposer = to have at oneās disposal, se douter = to suspect, sāeĢchapper = to escape, sāembellir = to grow more attractive, sāeĢmerveiller = to wonder, sāemparer = to seize, sāennuyer = to be bored, sāenrichir = to get rich, sāentourer = to surround oneself, sāenvelopper = to wrap oneself up, sāeĢvader = to escape, sāexcuser = to apologise, sāindigner = to be indignant, sāinquieĢter = to worry, sāinspirer = to be inspired, jouir = to enjoy, juger = to judge, manquer = to lack, se marrer = to have a good laugh, meĢdire = to malign, se meĢfier = to distrust, se moquer = to make fun, sāoccuper = to be dealing with, sāoffenser = to take offence, sāorner = to adorn oneself, se parer = to array oneself, partir = to start, se passer = to do without, penser = to think, profiter = to benefit, reĢpondre = to be responsible, rire = to laugh, se saisir = to grab hold, se servir = to use, 231 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR sortir = to leave, se souvenir = to remember, teĢmoigner = to bear witness, triompher = to triumph, se tromper = to be mistaken, se vanter = to boast, vivre = to live 295 Examples of de linking a verb to a noun De fait, il ne sāagit pas dāune eĢvolution brutale mais dāune accumulation de petites frustrations = in fact itās not a question of a painful evolution but of an accumulation of minor frustrations Encore faut-il disposer dāoutils peĢdagogiques efficaces = but you have to have effective pedagogical tools at your disposal La vraie star intelligente eĢpouse un industriel, elle sait que les acteurs sont des idiots ā ne vous en riez pas! = the really intelligent star marries an industrialist, she knows that actors are idiots ā donāt laugh! Beaucoup de scientifiques ont duĢ se marrer de cet article sur lāexercice des abdominaux = a lot of scientists must have had a good laugh at this article on exercising abdominal muscles On peut jouir de la vie et du jour preĢsent mais il faut aussi avoir de la chance = you can enjoy life and the present time but you also need luck On peut juger de lāinteĢreĢt de ce sujet par la correspondance que nous avons recĢ§ue = you can judge the interest this subject has aroused by the mail weāve received En tant quāeĢcrivain cāest du drame que je māoccupe, du drame ouĢ les personnages principaux sont des femmes = as a writer, itās drama that interests me, drama in which the main characters are women GraĢce aĢ ceci on peut profiter des indicateurs preĢcoces de lāapparition de la fatigue = thanks to this we can benefit from the early indicators of the on-set of fatigue Que pensez-vous de lāimagerie ultraviolente du Gangsta Rap? = what do you think of the ultraviolent imagery of Gangsta Rap? Il vit de ses livres et de ses films sur le crime, qui rapportent bien plus dāargent aux honneĢtes gens que le crime aux malfrats = he lives from his books and films on crime, which bring in much more money for honest guys than crime does for villains 296 Verbs with direct object and de with a second noun The main verbs involved are ā absoudre = to absolve, accabler = to overwhelm, accuser = to accuse, approcher = to draw near, arracher = to snatch, assurer = to assure, avertir = to warn, aviser = to notify, charger = to entrust, complimenter = to compliment, deĢbarrasser = to get rid of, deĢgouĢter = to disgust, deĢlivrer = to deliver, deĢtourner = to divert, dispenser = to exempt, eĢcarter = to move aside, eĢloigner = to move away, enlever = to take away, excuser = to excuse, exempter = to exempt, feĢliciter = to congratulate, frapper = to strike, informer = to inform, libeĢrer = to free, menacer = to threaten, oĢter = to remove, persuader = to persuade, preĢvenir = to warn, remercier = to thank, traiter = to call (somebody something) 232 298 Verbs with aĢ with noun, de with infinitive 297 Examples of verbs with direct object and de with a second noun Cāest une reĢvolution dans ma vie et je nāexcuserai jamais mes parents de leur manque de compreĢhension = itās been a revolution in my life and Iāll never forgive my parents for their lack of understanding Jāai la surprise de deĢcouvrir que je ne connais personne dont le nom de famille commence par F ā je tāinforme de cette nouvelle parce que cĢ§a devrait tāintriguer aussi = Iām surprised to discover that I donāt know anyone whose surname begins with F ā Iām informing you of this piece of news because it ought to intrigue you as well Quand on croit en Dieu on a tendance aĢ prier un Dieu maĢle, ce qui est treĢs bien, mais on ne doit pas oublier que Dieu est aussi une meĢre ā quand on reconnaıĢt ce concept, cela nous libeĢre de beaucoup de complexes = when you believe in God you tend to pray to a male God, which is good, but you mustnāt forget that God is also a mother ā when we acknowledge this concept it frees us from a lot of complexes Nous ne sommes pas faits pour eĢtre carnivores ā jāessaie de persuader tous ceux que je rencontre de cette veĢriteĢ fondamentale = weāre not made to be carnivores ā I try to persuade all the people I meet of this fundamental truth Une nouvelle science inutile au progreĢs humain vient dāeĢclore ā la nanologie, soit tout ce qui concerne lāunivers du nain du jardin ā il faut feĢliciter les Britanniques de Sudbury de cette addition au pantheĢon des -ologies = a new science useless for human progress has just burst on the scene ā gnomology, in other words everything relating to the universe of the garden gnome ā we have to congratulate the inhabitants of Sudbury in Britain for this addition to the pantheon of -ologies Un mec gonflable a eĢteĢ inventeĢ aux Etats-Unis ā il se preĢte aĢ lāinvestissement affectif mais ne vous accable pas dāexigences personnelles en eĢchange = an inflatable man has been invented in the USA ā he is available for emotional attachment, but doesnāt overwhelm you with personal demands in return Certaines pop stars entonnent une chanson lugubre, la voix se brise, la star cesse de chanter, baisse la teĢte et pleure ā dans la salle cāest lāhysteĢrie, mais ceci devient grotesque quand il se reĢpeĢte chaque soir ā il faut preĢvenir le public de cette surencheĢre du marketing = certain pop stars embark on a lugubrious song, their voice cracks, the star stops singing, lowers his or her head and weeps ā the place goes mad, but this becomes grotesque when itās repeated every evening ā the public should be warned about this piece of marketing extravagance 298 Verbs involving aĢ with a noun and de with an infinitive For a sizeable group of verbs, it is important to remember that certain constructions in which they are involved necessitate the use of both aĢ and de ā appartenir (impersonal usage) il appartient = it is up to, arriver (impersonal usage) il arrive = it happens, commander = to order, conseiller = to advise, deĢconseiller = to advise against, deĢfendre = to forbid, demander = to ask, dire = to say, imposer = to impose, interdire = to forbid, ordonner = to order, pardonner = to forgive, permettre = to allow, persuader = to persuade, preĢter = to credit, reprocher = to reproach, savoir 233 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR greĢ = to be grateful, suggeĢrer = to suggest, tarder (impersonal usage) il me tarde = Iām longing, en vouloir = to bear a grudge 299 Examples of verbs involving aĢ with a noun and de with an infinitive Quand votre petit ami vient te chercher, est-ce quāil arrive aĢ ton peĢre de se lancer dans un grand monologue sur la neĢcessiteĢ du respect dāun minimum de reĢgles sociales pour que la vie soit plus supportable? = when your boyfriend comes to take you out, does it happen that your dad launches into a great monologue on the necessity of respecting a minimum of social rules so that life is more bearable? On nous a conseilleĢ de ne pas utiliser le terme « nain » dans notre article ā mais de parler plutoĢt de « personne de petite taille » = we were advised not to use the term ādwarfā in our article, but rather to talk of āpeople of small statureā La Carte 12ā25 vous permet de bouger toujours plus loin = the Young Peopleās Card allows you to travel further and further Classiquement, on preĢte aux garcĢ§ons dāappartenir au « sexe fort » et aux filles dāappartenir au « sexe faible » = traditionally boys are credited with belonging to the āstronger sexā and girls to the āweaker sexā Je saurais greĢ aĢ vos lecteurs de me fournir des renseignements sur la preĢvention de lāentorse du genou = Iād be grateful to your readers for supplying me with information on how to prevent knee sprains 300 Verbs with variable prepositional usage Certain verbs may be followed by different prepositions depending upon the syntactic circumstances or register of the context or to indicate subtle nuances of meaning. Occasionally there seems to be no difference in the use of the different prepositions involved ā in other words they are used in free variation. 301 Examples of verbs with variable prepositional usage avoir droit / avoir le droit avoir droit aĢ = to be entitled to is linked to a noun by aĢ Il a droit aĢ des sorties avec ses enfants le weekend = heās entitled to weekend outings with his children avoir le droit de = to have the right to is linked to an infinitive by de Il a le droit de sortir avec ses enfants le weekend = he has the right to go out with his children every weekend commencer Commencer is normally accompanied by aĢ + infinitive, but de is used with a high register or to avoid a succession of /a/ sounds Elle commencĢ§a de rire = she began to laugh is preferred to Elle commencĢ§a aĢ rire 234 301 Examples: verbs + variable prepositions commencer, finir, terminer Finir, terminer are used with de or par to convey different aspects of time ā finir, terminer + de = an action has just finished finir, terminer + par = the action indicated by the infinitive occurs at the same time as the āendingā. Vous nāavez pas fini de vous disputer? = havenāt you finished arguing? Les grands eĢtablissements nāont pas fini de faire des eĢconomies = the big establishments havenāt finished making economies Je voudrais finir / terminer par vous donner des chiffres = I should like to end / conclude by giving you some figures En deĢcembre dernier, les discussions aĢ lāAssembleĢ nationale sur la loi de bioeĢthique ont fini par lever cette interdiction = last December, discussions in the National Assembly on the bioethics law finished by lifting this ban Tu avances dans la vie et aĢ travers les expeĢriences tu finis par te trouver = you advance in life and through your experiences you finish up by finding yourself The situation is the same with commencer except that aĢ rather than de (see above) tends to be involved to indicate that an action has just begun ā Je voudrais commencer par vous donner des chiffres = I should like to begin by giving you some figures An alternative to the par + infinitive construction with all three verbs is en + present participle ā Je voudrais commencer en vous donnant des chiffres = I should like to begin by giving you some figures comparer Comparer = to compare is normally followed by aĢ + noun, but by avec in a low register situation ā Comparez la situation actuelle aĢ / avec celle de nos aıĢeules qui avaient duĢ combattre pour deĢfendre le droit de se colorer les leĢvres sans eĢtre eĢtiqueteĢes filles de mauvaise vie = compare the present situation with that of our grandmothers who had to fight for the right to paint their lips without being labelled tarts continuer Continuer may be followed by aĢ and de interchangeably ā Pour continuer aĢ / de deĢvelopper nos capaciteĢs geĢneĢtiques, nous devons recevoir lāamour de lāautre = in order to continue to develop our genetic capabilities, we have to receive anotherās love croire Croire + en = to believe in, to have faith in Je crois en JeĢsus-Christ, fils de Dieu = I believe in Jesus Christ, Son of God Croire + aĢ implies intellectual trust 235 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Elle croit aĢ la homeĢopathie = she believes in homeopathy Croire + a direct object implies trust/confidence Je la croyais = I used to believe her demander Demander + aĢ + infinitive = to ask, when no indirect object is involved Avec lui, je me sens en seĢcuriteĢ, je ne demande quāaĢ passer le reste de ma vie avec lui = with him, I feel safe, all I ask is to spend the rest of my life with him Demander + de + infinitive = to ask, when an indirect object is specified Une voiture sāarreĢte aĢ ma hauteur, le conducteur me demande de lui indiquer le chemin dāun restaurant indien = a car drew up beside me, the driver asked me to tell him the way to an Indian restaurant dire Dire + de + infinitive = to order Elle māa convoqueĢe pour me dire de partir le lendemain = she summoned me to tell me to leave the next day Le bruit est devenu un veĢritable fleĢau citadin ā on doit souvent dire aĢ ses voisins de modeĢrer le volume de leurs teĢleĢvisions = noise has become a real scourge in towns ā you often have to tell your neighbours to turn down their televisions Dire + zero preposition + infinitive occurs when the subject for dire is the same as for the other infinitive ā Quoiquāils disent le faire, la majoriteĢ ne suit pas les reĢgles preĢalables aĢ lāinstauration du traitement: un reĢgime alimentaire controĢleĢ et lāarreĢt du tabac = although they say they do, the majority donāt follow the rules which should precede the beginning of treatment: a controlled diet and an end to smoking eĢchapper EĢchapper + aĢ = to avoid Il a reĢussi aĢ eĢchapper aĢ la prison = he managed to avoid prison Normalement je māendors en deux minutes, mais laĢ jāai mis une demi-heure ā je nāai pas pu eĢchapper aux penseĢes neĢgatives qui māassaillaient = normally I go to sleep in a couple of minutes, but then it took me half an hour ā I couldnāt avoid the negative thoughts that kept attacking me sāeĢchapper de = to escape from Il a reĢussi aĢ sāeĢchapper de ses kidnappeurs = he managed to escape from his kidnappers Professionnel depuis 1987, il a eĢteĢ tout preĢs dāabandonner son meĢtier onze ans apreĢs ses deĢbuts, de sāeĢchapper des anneĢes dāangoisse et de stress = a professional since 1987, he was very close to abandoning his job eleven years after beginning, to escape from the years of anguish and stress 236 301 Examples: verbs + variable prepositions sāennuyer Sāennuyer = to be bored, to get bored may be followed by aĢ and de + infinitive interchangeably ā On passe un tiers de sa vie au lit ā alors, quand on choisit un partenaire, il ne faut pas sāennuyer aĢ / de preĢter attention au comportement de celui-ci au lit = we spend a third of our lives in bed ā so, when you choose a partner, you mustnāt get fed up with paying attention to his behaviour in bed Sāennuyer + de + noun = to miss Elle commence aĢ sāennuyer de son petit ami = sheās beginning to miss her boyfriend Je change mes draps tous les trois ou quatre jours ā je māennuie des draps hyperpropres = I change my sheets every three or four days ā I miss hyperclean sheets faire Faire = to do (with / to) may be followed by avec and de + noun interchangeably ā Quāest-ce quāelle a fait avec / de ses cheveux? = what has she done to / with her hair? Quāest-ce que vous allez faire avec / de ce mec psychopathe? = what are you going to do with this psychopath? faire = to do (by) may be followed by de and par interchangeably ā Il nāa pas le droit de le faire de / par lui-meĢme = he hasnāt got the right to do it by himself finir see commencer insister = to insist may be followed by aĢ and pour + infinitive interchangeably ā Pour expliquer sa performance deĢcevante, elle insiste aĢ / pour dire que les conditions eĢtaient trop difficiles = to explain her disappointing performance, she insists on saying that the conditions were too difficult insister + pour que is used when a subordinate clause is involved ā Il māa teĢleĢphoneĢ pour insister pour que son ami soit reĢinteĢgreĢ dans lāeĢquipe = he telephoned me to insist that his mate was taken back into the team jouer Jouer + de = to play used with musical instruments Elle joue de la guitare acoustique = she plays the acoustic guitar Jouer + aĢ = to play used with sports Nous jouons au tennis le mercredi soir = we play tennis Wednesday evenings manquer Manquer ā this verb is particularly complicated to handle ā manquer = to lack can be used in two ways ā 237 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR ļ£¼ Si vous manquez de mateĢriel pour reĢaliserļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ les exercices de musculation if you lack the equipment to carry out = Si le mateĢriel pour reĢaliser les exercices ļ£“ muscle building exercises ļ£“ ļ£¾ de musculation vous manque ļ£¼ Avec un tel comportement vous nāallez pas ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ manquer dāadmiratrices with such behaviour youāre not going = Avec un tel comportement les admiratricesļ£“ to lack admirers ļ£“ ļ£¾ ne vont pas vous manquer manquer = to miss is followed by a direct object ā Jāai manqueĢ un rendez-vous avec lui, je nāai pas lāintention de manquer le prochain = I missed one date with him, I donāt intend missing the next one manquer = almost ā de and zero preposition + infinitive are used interchangeably ļ£¼ Je tāobserve aĢ la deĢrobeĢe, jāattends ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£“ que nos regards se croisent. ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ I watch you out of the corner of my eye, Enfin. Puis, je manque me deĢgonfler = I wait for our eyes to meet. At last. Then Je tāobserve aĢ la deĢrobeĢe, ļ£“ ļ£“ I almost lose my nerve ļ£“ jāattends que nos regards se croisent. ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£¾ Enfin. Puis, je manque de me deĢgonfler ne pas manquer + de + infinitive = not to fail Ne manque pas de te brosser les dents le matin et le soir = donāt fail to brush your teeth morning and evening Si vous avalez de lāessence, ne manquez pas de prendre du lait ou un verre dāeau pour la diluer = if you swallow petrol, donāt fail to drink some milk or a glass of water to dilute it se meĢler Se meĢler + aĢ = to mix (physically) ā Beaucoup de gens sont treĢs mal aĢ lāaise quand il faut se meĢler aux autres ā cāest ce qui explique le boom des sites de rencontres sur Internet = lots of people are very uncomfortable when they have to mix with others ā thatās what explains the popularity of Internet dating sites Se meĢler + de = to mix, to meddle (implying intellectual involvement or interference) ā Tu ne devrais pas te meĢler des affaires des autres = you shouldnāt stick your nose in other peopleās business sāoccuper Sāoccuper = to be busy, to deal with may be followed by aĢ and de + infinitive interchangeably ā Trop souvent on sāoccupe aĢ / de masquer ses sentiments, parce quāon veut eĢviter les eĢchecs douloureux = too often, we are busy hiding our feelings, because we want to avoid painful failures 238 301 Examples: verbs + variable prepositions Il faut les caresser subtilement en sāoccupant aĢ / de sāattarder sur les bras ou les jambes= you have to caress them subtly, taking care to linger over their arms and legs EĢtre occupeĢ ā in the passive aĢ + infinitive only is used Si tu me teĢleĢphones quand je suis tout occupeĢe aĢ prendre un bain, tu peux laisser un message sur mon reĢpondeur = if you phone when Iām busy having a bath, you can leave a message on my answerphone JāeĢtais occupeĢ aĢ boire une cannette de bieĢre quand je lāai vue, elle eĢtait si sexy! = I was busy drinking a can of beer, when I saw her, she was so sexy! Sāoccuper / eĢtre occupeĢ + noun ā de only is used Il faut sāoccuper de la facĢ§on dont on sāhabille pour attirer les filles = you have to pay attention to the way you dress to attract the girls Je mangeais les hamburgers, les cheese-burgers, les frites, je nāeĢtais pas du tout occupeĢ des conseĢquences = I used to eat hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chips, I wasnāt at all concerned about the consequences penser Penser + zero preposition = to think, to intend Cela nous rappelle le temps ouĢ lāon donnait de lāhuile de foie de morue aux enfants pensant contrecarrer leur retard de croissance = that reminds me of the time when we gave cod liver oil to children thinking that we could counteract the fact that they were slow developers Penser + aĢ = to think of, about ApreĢs une dispute, vous vous reĢconciliez treĢs facilement et vous nāy pensez plus = after an argument, you make it up very easily and donāt think about it any more Je pense aĢ lui tout le temps, je lāaime parce que cāest lui qui descend la poubelle = I think about him all the time, I love him because heās the one who puts the bin out Plus le blouson est deĢlaveĢ, plus vous devez lui accorder de lāeĢleĢgance ā pensez aĢ le porter avec de belles chaussures = the more faded your jacket is, the more you need to enhance its elegance ā think about wearing it with a smart pair of shoes Penser + de = to think about, to have an opinion on Quāest-ce que tu penses de sa robe? = what do you think of her dress? Selon les pays, on reĢpond diffeĢremment au probleĢme poseĢ par lāhyperactiviteĢ des enfants. Dans la culture anglo-saxonne, on prescrit des meĢdicaments. Dans les pays latin, on favorise lāapproche psychotheĢrapeutique. Quāest-ce que vous pensez de cette diffeĢrence dāapproche dāordre culturel? = According to country, people react differently to the problem posed by hyperactivity amongst children. In Anglo-Saxon countries, medicines are prescribed. In Mediterranean countries, a psychotherapeutic approach is preferred. What is your opinion of this culture-based difference of approach? 239 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR prendre Prendre + aĢ = to take from used with people ā Jāai pris la valise aĢ la dame et lāa hisseĢe dans le porte-bagages = I took the case from the lady and heaved it onto the luggage rack Prendre + dans = to take from (= within) Elle a pris sa chemise dans le tiroir = she took her blouse from the drawer prendre + sur = to take from (= off) Il ne peut monter que si tu as pris la lessive sur ton lit = he canāt come up till youāve taken the washing off your bed reĢpondre ReĢpondre + aĢ = to answer JāespeĢre que tu pourras reĢpondre aĢ ma question = I hope youāll be able to answer my question ReĢpondre + de = to be responsible Tout le monde doit reĢpondre de ce quāil a fait dans la vie = everyone must be responsible for what they do in life Jāai une seule reĢflexion aĢ faire aĢ ton probleĢme ā tu seras condamneĢe aĢ de telles histoires chaotiques si tu ne commences pas aĢ reĢpondre de tes actions = Iāve got one simple comment to make on your problem ā youāll be doomed to such chaotic episodes if you donāt begin taking responsibility for your actions servir Servir + aĢ = to be useful, to serve to ļ£¼ Les documentaires teĢleĢviseĢs serventļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ aĢ lāeĢlargissement des esprits television documentaries are useful for = Les documentaires teĢleĢviseĢs serventļ£“ broadening the mind ļ£“ ļ£¾ aĢ eĢlargir les esprits Sa formule aux micro-bulles et son agent anti-bacteĢrien servent aĢ combattre vos probleĢmes de peau = its micro-bubble formula and antibacterial agent serve to combat your skin problems Servir + de = to be used Organisez dāautres tentations ā le shopping orgiaque peut servir dāalternative aĢ la consommation de trop de sucreries = organise other temptations ā a shopping orgy can be used as an alternative to eating too many sweet things Chez les Indiens de Papouasie-Nouvelle-GuineĢe, les feuilles servent dāassiettes = amongst the Papua New Guinea Indians, leaves are used as plates Se servir is always used with de ā Servez-vous de ce kit de rouges aĢ leĢvres pour obtenir une couleur bien aĢ vous ou pour jouer la bouche bicolore, meĢme tricolore = use this lipstick kit to obtain your very own colour or to produce a two-colour or even three-colour mouth 240 301 Examples: verbs + variable prepositions Je me sers dāinternet pour māinformer sur les vols bon marcheĢ = I use the Internet to get information on cheap flights tarder Tarder + aĢ = to delay Ne tardez pas aĢ deĢnicher un petit morceau de tissu capable dāarranger vos atouts = donāt delay getting hold of a little piece of tissue capable of displaying your best points to greatest effect Je suis folle amoureuse dāun mec et jāai peur de trop tarder aĢ le lui dire ā mais comment? = Iām madly in love with a guy and Iām afraid of leaving it too long before telling him ā but how can I do it? Tarder + de = to miss, to be keen to ā the impersonal form of the verb is used Vous vouliez vivre en communauteĢ, il vous tardait de faire la reĢvolution, mais rien de tout cela ne sāest passeĢ = you wanted to live in a community, you were keen to take part in the revolution, but nothing of all that has come to pass Il me tarde de manger mes petits pots de creĢme au chocolat ā si jāai un peu de stress, cāest ma seule drogue = I miss my little pots of chocolate cream ā if I feel a bit stressed, itās the only drug I need tenir Tenir + aĢ = to want to Je tiens aĢ souligner que les Verts sont en train de sāameĢliorer = I want to stress the fact that the Greens are in the process of improving Les nutritionnistes tiennent aĢ nous dire que la betterave est riche en magneĢsium antistress et en vitamine B9 anti-aneĢmique, deux micronutriments dont les carences affectent particulieĢrement les femmes = nutritionists are keen to tell us that beetroot is rich in antistress magnesium and in anti-anaemia vitamin B9, two micronutrients whose lack particularly affects women Tenir + de = to take after Mon fils tient de sa meĢre = my son takes after his mother venir Venir + zero preposition = to come MeĢfiez-vous des poux ā ils peuvent venir vous contaminer la teĢte sans que vous vous en rendiez compte = beware of lice ā they can come and infect your head without you realising it Venir + de = just ā see 143. Vous venez dāaccumuler quelques petits kilos suppleĢmentaires? ā la meilleure facĢ§on de sāen deĢbarrasser, cāest la marche = if youāve just put on a few extra kilos, the best way to get rid of them is walking 241 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Je venais de suivre un traitement contre la migraine quand je deĢcouvrais que cela māavait fait prendre beaucoup de poids = I had just followed a course to treat my migraines, when I discovered that it was making me put on weight Prepositional expressions 302 Prepositional expressions Sometimes there is a one-to-one correlation between French and English prepositions, especially when those with fairly specific meanings are involved, but very often no such correlation exists, especially with those prepositions with a vague meaning. By providing a large number of examples for the most common prepositions and especially those with the vaguest meanings, it is hoped that the various values will emerge. What follows cannot be an exhaustive list of examples ā the hope is that the flavour and typical uses of the prepositions will become clear. 303 aĢ AĢ is equivalent to English at, in, to, on and sometimes zero preposition; it is used in relation to place, time, manner and measurement. It is extremely common. 304 aĢ indicating place AĢ indicates position in and movement towards. eĢtre aĢ lāeĢcole = to be at / in school aller aĢ lāeĢcole = to go to school eĢtre / aller aĢ la faculteĢ / aĢ lāuniversiteĢ = to be at university / to go to university sāinscrire aĢ la fac = to register at university eĢtre / aller aĢ lāeĢglise = to be in / at church / to go to church eĢtre / aller aĢ lāhoĢtel = to be in the hotel / to go to the hotel eĢtre / aller au restaurant = to be in the restaurant / to go to the restaurant eĢtre / aller au commissariat de police = to be in the police station / to go to the police station eĢtre / aller au village = to be in the village / to go to the village but en villeā = in town eĢtre / aller aĢ Paris = to be in Paris / to go to Paris au sud, au nord, aĢ lāest, aĢ lāouest = in / to the south, the north, the east, the west au nord de la France = in / to northern France aĢ la campagne = in / to the country aĢ la montagne = in / to the mountains 242 304 aĢ indicating place au jardin = in / to the garden aĢ la salle aĢ manger = in / to the dining room au poĢle sud, au poĢle nord = at / to the south pole, at / to the north pole au plafond = on the ceiling aĢ la fermeā = on / to the farm eĢcrire au tableau blanc = to write on the white board eĢtre aĢ bicyclette / aĢ pied = to be on a bike / on foot eĢtre au teĢleĢphone / au portable = to be on the telephone / on the mobile aĢ la teĢleĢvision = on television aĢ la radio = on the radio au journal = in the newspaper aĢ la page numeĢro 2 = on page number 2 tomber aux genoux = to fall on / to your knees frapper aĢ la porte = to knock on / at the door eĢtre aĢ bord dāune voiture = to be in a car au soleil = in the sun aĢ lāombre = in the shade tomber aĢ lāeau = to fall in the water tenir quelque chose aĢ la main = to hold something in your hand eĢtre blesseĢ au bras / genou, etc = to be wounded in the arm / knee, etc porter quelque chose aux pieds = to wear something on your feet travailler aĢ la mine / aux chemins de ferā = to work in the mine / on the railways tomber aĢ terreāā = to fall to the ground (from a height) aĢ lāinteĢrieur = inside, indoors aĢ lāexteĢrieur = outside, outdoors aĢ lāarrieĢre = in / at the back aĢ lāenvers = back to front aĢ la place de / au lieu de = in place of / instead of ā see 333, 390 dans āā see 374, 390 par For aĢ with names of countries, see 393. 243 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 305 aĢ indicating time aĢ dix heures = at ten oāclock aĢ minuit / aĢ midi = at midnight / at midday aĢ lāheure actuelle = at the present time au deĢbut = at the beginning aĢ la fin = at the end aĢ la mi-temps = at half-time au soir = in the evening au printemps = in the spring aĢ lāautomne = in the autumn aĢ notre eĢpoque = in our time au 21e sieĢcle = in the twenty-first century aĢ la mi-janvier = in mid-January aĢ la Saint-Sylvestre / aĢ la Toussaint = (on) New Yearās Eve / on All Saintsā Day aĢ notre arriveĢe / aĢ notre retour = on our arrival / on our return arriver aĢ temps = to arrive on time la date aĢ laquelle elle est partie = the date on which she left aĢ lāavanceā = in advance ā see de and par 390. 306 aĢ indicating manner fabriqueĢ aĢ la main = hand-made un aĢ un = one by one mot aĢ mot = word for word pas aĢ pas = step by step aĢ pas lents / aĢ pas de loup = slowly / stealthily aĢ reculons = backwards aĢ ce que jāai entendu = from what Iāve heard reconnaıĢtre quelquāun aĢ sa voix = to recognise someone from / by their voice eĢcrire au stylo / aĢ lāencre = to write in pen / in ink lire aĢ la lumieĢre dāune lampe = to read by the light of a lamp eĢtre abattu aĢ coups de pied / poing / couteau = to be kicked / punched / knifed to the ground 244 309 aĢ expressing compound phenomenon eĢtre au choĢmage = to be out of work le gouvernement au pouvoir = the government in power une collection aux tons de sable et de terre = a collection with tones of sand and earth un album aux accents romantiques = an album with a romantic flavour aĢ mon avis = in my opinion aĢ leur manieĢre = in their way aĢ regret = regretfully aĢ la rigueur = if need be au cas ouĢ = in the case in which Au cas ouĢ les discussions seront bloqueĢes = in case discussion is foreclosed au secours! / au voleur! = help! / thief! manger aĢ lāindienne = to eat squatting down aĢ la francĢ§aise = in the French style 307 aĢ to mark responsibility aĢ vous dāeĢtre positif = itās up to you to be positive aĢ vous de simplifier la taĢche = itās up to you to simplify the task cāest aĢ lui de trouver une justification = itās up to him to find a justification aĢ moi le tour = itās my turn 308 aĢ expressing measurement aĢ 21 ans = at 21 (years old) elle a au moins 18 ans = sheās at least 18 un billet aĢ 10 euros = a ten-euro note aĢ une vitesse de 90 km aĢ lāheure = at 90 km per hour rouler aĢ 120 km aĢ lāheure = to travel at 120 km an hour Paris se trouve aĢ 20 km dāici = Paris is 20 km from here il habite aĢ au moins 5 km dāiciā = he lives at at least 5 km from here ce produit est preĢsent aĢ forte concentration = this product is present in a strong concentration ā see du moins 390. 309 aĢ expressing a compound phenomenon Where English uses one noun adjectivally to qualify another, French often has recourse to a construction with aĢ. un verre aĢ bieĢre / au vinā = a beer / wine glass 245 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR un pot aĢ fleurs = a flower pot un moulin aĢ vent = a windmill de la soupe aĢ lāoignon = onion soup une sauce au vin = wine sauce une cuilleĢre aĢ soupe dāeau plate = a soupspoon of still water une femme aux cheveux blonds = a blonde un homme au nez tordu = a man with a twisted nose une machine aĢ traitement de texte = a word-processor taper aĢ la machine = to type ā see de 337. 310 aĢ + infinitive AĢ lāeĢcouter, vous diriez quāil aime se donner en spectacle = listening to him, youād say he liked making a spectacle of himself AĢ la voir, on nāaurait jamais cru quāelle eĢtait riche = looking at her, youād never think she was well off 311 aĢ cause de = because of AĢ cause de la chaleur il a pris une douche froide = because of the heat he took a cold shower 312 aĢ condition de = subject to AĢ condition de is only used with infinitives ā AĢ condition de comprendre les dangers, vous pouvez profiter des joies du sexe en toutes circonstances = subject to understanding the dangers, you can enjoy sex in each and every situation AĢ condition dāafficher une endurance mentale aĢ toute eĢpreuve, il est possible de surmonter les douleurs rencontreĢes lors des marathons = subject to possessing high-resistance mental endurance, itās possible to overcome the pain encountered during marathons 313 aĢ coĢteĢ de = next to, in comparison with Sa maison se trouve aĢ coĢteĢ de la mienne = her house is next to mine A coĢteĢ des icoĢnes dāhier, celles dāaujourdāhui vendent plutoĢt le vice, le niais = in comparison with the icons of yesteryear, todayās purvey vice and stupidity 314 afin de = in order to Afin de is used only with infinitives ā Afin dāeĢviter des ennuis judiciaires, agissez la nuit ā le clair de la lune assure la discreĢtion et accentue la tension = in order to avoid problems with the law, act at night time ā moonlight ensures discretion and increases tension 246 318 apreĢs / dāapreĢs = after / according to, from Afin de profiter au maximum des asperges, il faut les choisir cassantes et de couleur franche = in order to get the most out of asparagus, you have to choose them when they snap easily and are uniform in colour 315 aĢ force de = by virtue of Je sais que cāest aĢ force de tous vos efforts que vous avez reĢussi ce test = I know that it was by virtue of all your efforts that you passed that test AĢ force dāenchaıĢner les flirts dāun soir, vous risquez de vous noyer dans des aventures sans lendemain = by virtue of a series of one-night stands, you run the risk of drowning yourself in a series of liaisons which lead nowhere 316 aĢ moins de = unless AĢ moins de is used only with an infinitive ā Une voiture cāest comme une femme, aĢ moins de sāen servir, on se la fait piquer = a car is like a woman, unless you use it someone will pinch it AĢ moins dāeĢtre irreĢprochable, le brossage des dents manuel risque dāeĢtre trop superficiel = unless itās absolutely thorough, cleaning your teeth by hand runs the danger of being too superficial 317 aĢ partir de = from Je serai chez moi aĢ partir de trois heures =Iāll be at home from three oāclock 318 apreĢs / dāapreĢs = after / according to, from ApreĢs alone is usually equivalent to English after; dāapreĢs = according to, from apreĢs apreĢs le deĢbut de lāeĢmission = after the programme begins / began Jāarriverai apreĢs 21 heures = Iāll arrive after 9 oāclock SeĢlectionneĢ geĢneĢtiquement apreĢs feĢcondation in vitro = genetically selected after in vitro fertilisation ApreĢs les eĢtudes, le temps de lāemploi = after your studies, itās time to get a job Note the difference between the French and English versions for the following examples ApreĢs avoir fini mon yaourt nature = having finished / after finishing my natural yoghurt ApreĢs lui avoir offert un bracelet en fibres naturelles = having offered / after offering her a bracelet made of natural fibres ApreĢs sāeĢtre fait greffer un portable aĢ lāoreille = having had a mobile grafted onto his ear dāapreĢs DāapreĢs ce quāil a dit = from what he said DāapreĢs moi, il ne faut jamais vous priver de dessert = in my opinion you must never deprive yourself of a dessert 247 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR DāapreĢs la teĢleĢvision, il y aurait dix victimes = according to the telly there were ten casualties 319 aĢ travers = through Elle māa appeleĢ aĢ travers ses larmes = she shouted to me through her tears Je lāai vue qui fumait aĢ travers la porte = I saw her smoking through the door Voyager aĢ travers lāEurope / le temps = to travel through Europe / time Sentir le froid aĢ travers ses veĢtements = to feel the cold through your clothes 320 au bout de = at the end of Au bout de 6 km de marche, on commence aĢ developper de nouvelles capaciteĢs respiratoires = at the end of 6 kms walking, you begin to develop new respiratory capabilities Au bout de la cour tu trouveras des pots inteĢressants = at the end of the yard youāll find some interesting pots au bout dāun an = a year later Il est arriveĢ au bout de trente minutes = he arrived half an hour later 321 au cours de = during, in the course of CāeĢtait au cours dāun rendez-vous avec un copain = it was during a meeting with a mate Elle arrivera au cours de lāapreĢs-midi = sheāll arrive in the course of the afternoon 322 au-delaĢ de = beyond, apart from Au-delaĢ de lāoriginaliteĢ, ils nāoffrent pas grandāchose = beyond / apart from their originality, they donāt have much to offer 323 au-dessous de = underneath, beneath, below Il y avait une station de meĢtro au-dessous de leur hoĢtel = there was an underground station beneath their hotel La tempeĢrature est au-dessous de 4 degreĢs = the temperature is below 4 degrees Ce poste est au-dessous de ses capaciteĢs = this job is beneath her ability au-dessous de la moyenne = below average 324 au-dessus de = over, above Ce chaĢteau feĢerique se trouve au-dessus dāune valleĢe pittoresque = this fairy-tale castle stands above a picturesque valley Un cheĢque au-dessus de 1000 euros = a cheque for over 1000 euros Vous pensez que cāest au-dessus de vos compeĢtences de vous passer de sucre? = you think itās beyond your ability to do without sugar? au-dessus de la moyenne = above average 248 330 chez = at the home of, among 325 au lieu de = instead of Ce soir jāespeĢre que tu porteras une jupe au lieu de ce jean affreux = I hope youāll wear a skirt instead of those awful jeans this evening Il māa apporteĢ un Pepsi au lieu dāun Coke = he brought me a Pepsi instead of a Coke 326 aupreĢs de = in relation to, in comparison with, among AupreĢs des autres mascaras celui-ci est excellent = in comparison with the other mascaras this one is outstanding Il sāest plaint aupreĢs du directeur = he complained to the headteacher Un sondage aupreĢs de quatre mille personnes = a survey among 4000 people 327 autour de = around, round, about Il a voyageĢ autour du monde = heās travelled around the world Elle a organiseĢ un colloque autour du theĢme du tatouage = she organised a conference on the theme of tattooing 328 avant = before (of time) Tu dois rentrer avant onze heures = you must be home before 11 oāclock Il se leĢve avant vous = he gets up before you avant de + infinitive Avant de vous engager, essayez de faire attention ouĢ vous mettez les pieds = before committing yourself, try to be careful where you stick your feet Avant dāajouter les framboises, faites dorer aĢ la poeĢle 75 grammes dāamandes = before adding the raspberries, lightly brown 75 grammes of almonds in a pan 329 avec = with Il est arriveĢ avec sa petite amie = he turned up with his girlfriend Cāest un veĢlo avec vingt vitesses = itās a bike with twenty gears Un deĢpistage compatible avec un enfant nouveau-neĢ = screening compatible with a newly born infant Nous avons pris le dessert avec des cerises = we went for the dessert with cherries Il est treĢs gentil avec votre nouvel assistant = heās very nice to your new assistant Une meĢthode qui ne marche quāavec la compliciteĢ de tout le monde = a method that only works with everyoneās complicity / if everyone colludes 330 chez = at the home of, among Je serai chez moi aĢ partir de trois heures = Iāll be at home from 3 oāclock La plupart des chutes ont lieu chez soi = most falls occur in the home Il vous appelle chez vous le weekend pour reĢgler quelques petits deĢtails = he calls you at home at the weekend to sort out a few minor details 249 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Cela peut provoquer de graves troubles du systeĢme nerveux chez le foetus = that can cause major problems in the nervous system for the foetus 331 compris / y compris = including Y compris is used when the preposition precedes the noun, but compris alone when it follows, in which case it agrees with the gender and number of the noun (see 198) ā service compris / service non compris = including service / excluding service TVA comprise / non comprise = including VAT / excluding VAT Il y aura cinq eĢpreuves sportives, y compris un saut aĢ lāeĢlastique et une demi-heure de kayak = thereāll be five sporting challenges, including a bungee jump and half an hour in a kayak Un demi-verre de Vanish suffit pour effacer toutes les taches, y compris les taches de vin et dāherbe ā half a glass of Vanish is enough to get rid of all stains, including wine and grass stains 332 contre = against Je nāai rien contre les Anglais = I havenāt got anything against the English Il a changeĢ deux mille livres contre des euros = he changed two thousand pounds into euros Les tests contre placebo le prouvent = tests with a placebo prove it Lutter contre la douleur = to fight against pain 333 dans = in, from, during dans expressing position dans lāespace = in space dans lāair = in the air dans la reĢgion parisienne = in the Paris area dans la capitale = in the capital dans lāaeĢroport = in the airport (buildings) dans le parking = in the carpark travailler dans la mineā = to work in a mine eĢtre dans la maison = to be in the house (not outside) dans la campagne / le jardin = in the country / the garden dans le train = in the train dans lāeau = in the water Jāaime les vacances dans les Alpes = I love holidays in the Alps La Butte Montmartre, cāest mon coin preĢfeĢreĢ dans Paris = the Butte Montmartre is my favourite spot in Paris 250 335 de indicating possession Il y a eu beaucoup de bruit dans la rue = there was a lot of noise in the street Il est tombeĢ dans lāeau = he fell into the water La preuve dans ce numeĢro = the proof is in this issue Dans lāintimiteĢ du fond de teint = in the intimacy of foundation cream Du mercure dans le thon = mercury in tuna Ma grand-meĢre preĢfeĢre boire dans une tasse en porcelaine = my grandmother prefers to drink out of a china cup Elle a pris son pull dans le tiroir = she took her jumper out of the drawer ā see 391 for discussion of different prepositions translating English in dans expressing time dans les anneĢes quatre-vingt-dix = in the 1990s dans les prochains jours = in the next few days Jāarriverai dans vingt minutesā = Iāll be there in 20 minutes Je le ferai dans la semaine = Iāll do it during the week Je le ferai dans dix jours = Iāll do it in ten daysā time ā see 357 en below and also 391 334 de De occurs with many different values and uses and, with aĢ, is the most commonly encountered preposition in French. It is most frequently used to indicate some association or link of possession between two nouns. In many cases, the English version of a French phrase with de does not require a preposition. The following examples illustrate typical uses. 335 de indicating possession LāeĢquipe de foot de France = the French football team Des cours de neĢerlandais et dāanglais = courses in Dutch and English La ceĢreĢmonie dāouverture = the opening ceremony Le meilleur athleĢte du pays = the best athlete in the country Les meilleurs aliments de la gamme offerte aux enfants = the best foods in the range for children Une place de parking vide = an empty parking space La cause principale de mon anxieĢteĢ = the main cause of my anxiety Cāest un style de vie qui me plaıĢt = itās a way of life that appeals to me JāinterpreĢte la petite amie dāun des potes du heĢros = I play the girlfriend of one of the heroās mates 251 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Jacqueline Lens, responsable de la communication chez ReĢfeĢrences = Jacqueline Lens, in charge of communication for āReĢfeĢrencesā Vous avez des souvenirs de votre temps de serveuse? = have you got some memories of your time as a waitress? Quāest-ce qui vous deĢgouĢte? ā Lāodeur et le gouĢt du chou-fleur = what turns you off? ā The smell and taste of cauliflower Vous beĢneĢficiez de nombreuses possibiliteĢs de promotion = you benefit from numerous opportunities for promotion Vous trouverez sur notre site internet une description deĢtailleĢe des profils que nous recherchons = youāll find on our internet site a detailed description of the types of people weāre looking for 336 de expressing place, origin Le train de / aĢ destination de Paris = the Paris train (for Paris) Le train de / venant de Paris = the Paris train (from Paris) Dāici aĢ Paris cāest cent kilomeĢtres = from here to Paris is 100 km Elle vient de Paris = she comes from Paris LāEurope de lāOuest = Western Europe LāAfrique du Sud = South Africa LāAmeĢrique du Nord = North America Le nord de lāAmeĢrique = north / northern America Je viens dāarriver de la Roumanie = Iāve just got back from Romania Elle vient de lāautre coĢteĢ de la ville = she comes from the other side of town Un enfant de son mariage preĢceĢdent = a child from his previous marriage Il est neĢ de parents immigreĢs du Pakistan = he was born to parents who had immigrated from Pakistan Un disque qui passe de la plainte soul au murmure suggestif = a record that goes from plaintive soul to suggestive murmurings AĢ lāissue de lāopeĢration = at the end of the operation Au milieu de cette foreĢt de beĢton et dāacier = in the midst of this forest of concrete and steel Pour se deĢplacer de baĢtiment en baĢtiment = to move from building to building Sāinspirant de la mythologie grecque = taking his inspiration from Greek mythology Il convient de rester prudent si la proposition vient dāune socieĢteĢ peu ou pas connue = itās appropriate to be prudent if the offer comes from a firm that is little known or completely unknown 252 338 de with expressions of quantity 337 de expressing the idea of containing, measurement un verre de vinā = a glass of wine (not a wine glass) un pot de fleurs = a pot of flowers (not a flower pot) un pot de yaourt = a pot of yoghurt une compote de pommes = stewed apple une bouteille de bieĢre = a bottle of beer quatre blancs de poulet = four chicken breasts un sachet de vanille sucreĢ =a sachet of sweetened vanilla une fusion de ceĢdre, de santal, de bois de rose = a fusion of cedar, sandalwood and rosewood une cuillereĢe aĢ cafeĢ de jus de citron = a teaspoon of lemon juice un sac de riz vaut mieux que les pommes de terre = a bag of rice is better for you than potatoes 250 grammes de fromage de cheĢvre = 250 g of goatsā cheese une maison de poupeĢes = dollsā house lāensemble de mes dessins = the entire collection of my drawings un article de 200 mots = an article 200 words long un quart dāheure = quarter of an hour on a deux heures de retard = weāre two hours late avancer de deux jours = to bring forward by two days reĢduire de cinq euros = reduce by five euros battre quelquāun de deux meĢtres / dāun dixieĢme de seconde = to beat someone by two metres / by a tenth of a second ā see 309 aĢ 338 de with expressions of quantity Jāai envie dāexplorer des voies nouvelles, de prendre beaucoup de risques = I want to explore many new paths, to take lots of risks Son imagination deĢlirante ne se tarit pas ā il continue de mettre en sceĢne un grand nombre de vedettes dans des deĢcors kitsch = his wild imagination doesnāt dry up ā he continues to present a large number of celebrities in kitsch surroundings Ecrivez un journal intime ouĢ vous vous inventerez plein dāhistoires extraordinaires = keep a diary in which youāll invent masses of amazing stories about yourself 30 ans dāexpeĢrience ā parce que la science des plantes ne sāimprovise pas, Klorane met aĢ profit 30 anneĢes dāexpeĢrience et de recherche pour vous faire beĢneĢficier de leurs bienfaits = 30 yearsā experience ā because plant science canāt be 253 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR improvised, Klorane takes advantage of 30 yearsā experience and research to help you profit from their beneficial effects 10% de la population francĢ§aise gagnent plus de 1600 euros nets par mois = 10% of the French population earns more than 1600 euros net a month 25% des femmes de plus de 35 deĢclarent vivre dans la solitude sexuelle, contre 15% des hommes = 25% of women over 35 declare that they live in sexual solitude, against 15% of men La majoriteĢ de ceux qui ont cocheĢ la bonne reĢponse ne savaient pas ce quāils faisaient = the majority of those who ticked the right box didnāt know what they were doing La plupart dāentre les femmes qui ont reĢpondu au questionnaire ne sāimaginent pas avoir une relation sexuelle sans eĢtre amoureuses = most of the women who answered the questionnaire donāt conceive of having a sexual relationship without being in love Ce nāest pas un scoop, la moitieĢ dāentre nous trompe notre fianceĢ = itās no scoop ā half of us deceive our fianceĢs La moitieĢ de ceux qui ont des fantasmes nāosent pas en parler = half the people with fantasies donāt dare talk about them Note the use of either a singular or a plural verb with moitieĢ; with other expressions of quantity, including la plupart, a plural verb is used; see 242ā244. 339 de expressing function, material un livre de grammaire = a grammar book un cours de francĢ§ais = a French course une salle de reĢunion = a meeting room des proteĢines de soja et de bleĢ = proteins of soya and wheat un petit sac de sport = a small sports bag ses lentilles de contact vertes = her green contact lenses un pantalon en toile de coton = cotton trousers des boucles dāoreilles en forme de fuchsia = earrings in the shape of fuchsias un speĢcialiste dāinformatique = a computer expert 340 de expressing time dāheure en heure = from one hour to the next de temps en temps = from time to time du matin au soir = from morning to evening de lundi aĢ mercredi = from Monday to Wednesday du temps des anceĢtres = at the time of our ancestors Je serai laĢ de dix-huit heures aĢ vingt heures = Iāll be there from six to eight 254 343 de with attribute of noun / pronoun Je nāai rien fait de la journeĢe = I havenāt done a thing all day Une boutique pour les enfants de trois mois aĢ douze ans = a shop for children from three months to twelve years Elle est enceinte de cinq mois = sheās five months pregnant 341 de indicating cause Elle mourait dāenvie de le voir = she was dying to see him Ce disque eĢveillera des envies de protection et dāaffection = this disc will arouse a desire to be protective and tender Il est mort de ses blessures / dāun cancer / dāune crise cardiaque = he died from his wounds / cancer / a heart attack Elle pleurait de joie / de rage / de deĢsespoir = she wept with joy / anger / despair grelotter de froid = to shiver with cold 342 de expressing manner dāune facĢ§on / manieĢre amusante = in an amusing way Cāest un film dāun gouĢt un peu douteux = itās a film of dubious taste Il faut tirer de toutes ses forces = you need to pull with all your might Il a reĢpondu dāun geste obsceĢne = he replied with an obscene gesture Elle vit de haricots et lentilles = she lives on beans and lentils frapper du pied = to kick battre des mains = to clap cligner des yeux = to wink Il a pousseĢ la porte de son pied = he kicked the door open Il lāa cogneĢ de sa teĢte = he gave him a headbutt See 347. de in passive voice EĢtre aimeĢ de tout le monde = to be loved by everyone Ce film a eĢteĢ suivi dāun autre beaucoup moins original = the film was followed by a much less original one See 114, 376. 343 de introducing the attribute of a noun or pronoun un bras de casseĢ = a broken arm un seul ticket de valable = only one valid ticket un livre dāemprunt = a borrowed book 255 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR un CD dāexception = an exceptional CD quelque chose dāimpressionnant = something impressive Jāai encore une heure de libre = Iāve still got one hour free Quelquāun de dynamique a reĢussi aĢ la faire sortir de soi = some dynamic person succeeded in bringing her out of herself Personne dāinteĢressant nāeĢtait laĢ = no one interesting was there rien de nouveau = nothing new Rien de si aimable quāun homme seĢduisant, mais rien de plus odieux quāun seĢducteur = thereās nothing more agreeable than a seductive man, but nothing more hateful than a seducer Ce parfum a quelque chose dāintemporel = thereās something timeless about this perfume Ce quāil y a dāattirant chez elle, cāest sa naıĢveteĢ = whatās attractive about her is her innocence Vous faites comme si de rien nāeĢtait = youāre acting as if nothing had happened ce quāil y a dāinteĢressant = the interesting thing is 344 de introducing an infinitive Elle se dit flatteĢe dāeĢtre consideĢreĢe comme lāune des sportives les plus sexy. Et dāajouter: « Ma maman me reĢpeĢte tellement que je suis la plus jolie, que je vais finir par le croire » = she says sheās flattered to be considered one of the most sexy sporting stars. Then she adds, āMy mum tells me so often that Iām the prettiest that Iāll finish up believing itā Pas de panique ā les deĢbuts des peĢres ceĢlibataires sont souvent difficiles, mais on prend vite le rythme, cāest le papa expeĢrimenteĢ qui le dit. Et dāajouter quāon adore entrer dans la peau dāun papa poule = donāt panic ā itās often very difficult for a single dad to get started, but you get into the rhythm, itās an experienced dad whoās telling you. I should also add that you canāt beat getting into the skin of a daddy hen Tout est utile, assure le Dr Elisabeth Fresnel, directrice du Laboratoire de la voix. Et de poursuivre: Les Anglo-Saxons apprennent treĢs toĢt aĢ parler en public = everything has its uses, Dr Elisabeth Fresnel, director of the Voice Lab, assures us, and she continues: Anglo-Saxons learn to speak in public early on 345 de forming expressions Indicating age un jeune homme de 20 ans = a 20-year-old young man une fille aĢgeĢe de 13 ans = a 13-year-old girl Indicating a measurement un mur haut de 2 meĢtres = a wall two metres high une rivieĢre large dāun demi kilomeĢtre = a river half a kilometre wide Elle a les jambes longues de 80 cm = her legs are 80 cms long 256 348 depuis = since Set expressions dāun air triste = with a sad look Vous riez lāair de rien = youāre laughing as if nothing had happened De lāavis de mon professeur = in my teacherās opinion Remercie-la de ma part = thank her on my behalf Je le connais de vue / de reĢputation = I know him by sight / by reputation dāun coĢteĢ / de lāautre (coĢteĢ) = on the one hand / on the other de tout mon coeur = with all my heart en cas de reĢbellion = in case of a rebellion Au risque dāencaisser un refus = at the risk of getting a refusal jamais de ma vie = never in my life Tout au long de lāanneĢe les jeunes diploĢmeĢs peuvent placer leur CV en ligne = all year round newly qualified young people can put their cv on line Les reĢsultats seront publieĢs au fur et aĢ mesure de leur arriveĢe = the results will be published as and when they arrive 346 de crainte de / de peur de = for fear of De crainte de / de peur de are only used with an infinitive ā De crainte de prendre des kilos, il a deĢcideĢ de renoncer aux hamburgers et aux frites = for fear of putting on weight, he decided to give up hamburgers and chips De peur dāeffrayer votre partenaire peu expeĢrimenteĢe, vous devez dompter vos eĢlans eĢrotiques = for fear of frightening your inexperienced partner, you must control your erotic impulses 347 de facĢ§on aĢ / de manieĢre aĢ = so as to De facĢ§on aĢ and de manieĢre aĢ are only used with an infinitive ā Je dois me forcer aĢ eĢtre devant le public, de manieĢre aĢ apprendre le courage, la patience = I have to force myself to appear before an audience, so as to learn courage and patience Une tunique kimono, treĢs souple en viscose noire et rouge de facĢ§on aĢ jouer en toute simpliciteĢ la carte de lāeĢleĢgance = a very soft kimono in black and red viscose so as to play very simply the elegance card 348 depuis = since With a date or point of time depuis 1994 = since 1994 depuis le deĢbut = since the beginning Jāapprends le francĢ§ais depuis lāaĢge de onze ans = Iāve been learning French since I was eleven 257 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Je vivais avec elle depuis juillet dernier = I had been living with her since last July Elle luttait pour reconqueĢrir ses droits depuis la fin de 2001 = she had been fighting to reclaim her rights since the end of 2001 Je ne lāai pas vue depuis 2004 ā I havenāt seen her since 2004 depuis = for with length of time depuis toujours = for ever Il travaille laĢ depuis douze ans = heās been working there for twelve years Je vivais avec elle depuis longtemps = I had been living with her for a long time Il est directeur artistique depuis cinq ans = heās been artistic director for five years Je nāai pas eu de leurs nouvelles depuis cinq ans = I havenāt had any news about them for five years See 140, 142. 349 derrieĢre = behind Le meilleur endroit pour le parfum, cāest derrieĢre vos oreilles = the best spot for perfume is behind your ears Serrez vos bras derrieĢre votre dos tout en inspirant = squeeze your arms behind your back while breathing in Quelquefois nous reĢveĢlons ce que nous preĢfeĢrerions cacher derrieĢre notre sourire = sometimes we reveal what we would prefer to hide behind our smile DerrieĢre cette histoire il y a des veĢriteĢs quāon ne peut pas eĢviter = behind this story there are some truths you canāt avoid 350 deĢs = from deĢs le deĢbut = from the beginning / the outset deĢs maintenant = from now on DeĢs le premier mouvement du foetus = from the first movement of the foetus DeĢs les premieĢres anneĢes de la vie = from the earliest years of life DeĢs le moment ouĢ il lāa vue = from the moment he saw her 351 devant = in front of, before, faced with mettre un pied devant lāautre = to put one foot in front of the other Quand il nāest pas devant la teĢleĢ, il se bat avec sa soeur = when heās not in front of the telly, heās fighting his sister Je lāai trouveĢ assis devant son ordinateur = I found him sitting in front of his computer Je lāai vue devant le bar aĢ parler aĢ mon rival = I saw her at the bar talking to my rival 258 355 en Tous les hommes sont eĢgaux devant la loi = all men are equal before the law Le roĢle des pleurs ā manifester lāaffliction eĢprouveĢe devant quelque situation peĢnible = the role of tears ā to demonstrate the distress experienced in the face of some painful situation Devant une personne qui se plaint dāeĢtre fatigueĢe le diagnostic de deĢpression est souvent eĢvoqueĢ = faced with someone who complains about being tired, a diagnosis of depression is often mentioned Le beĢbeĢ fait des grimaces devant les saveurs saleĢes = babies make faces when confronted with salty flavours Elle ne recule devant rien pour filer avec le mec = she doesnāt flinch one bit about making off with the guy Elle avait mis son pull devant derrieĢre = she had put her jumper on back to front 352 du coĢteĢ de = as for Du coĢteĢ des pellicules, pour les eĢradiquer, faites deux shampooings successifs = as for dandruff, in order to eradicate it, shampoo your hair twice in succession Du coĢteĢ des repas, il est important de retrouver le rythme des trois repas par jour = as far as meals are concerned, itās important to get back to eating three meals a day The expression is sometimes shortened to just coĢteĢ ā CoĢteĢ gastronomie. . . . coĢteĢ hygieĢne . . . = from a gastronomic point of view . . . from a hygienic point of view . . . 353 du haut de = from the top of Il a calculeĢ la possibiliteĢ dāun saut aĢ lāeĢlastique du haut de la falaise = he calculated the possibility of a bungee jump from the top of the cliff Elle a reĢciteĢ le poeĢme du haut du balcon = she recited the poem from the balcony 354 durant = for, during Durant is virtually restricted to written French. Durant des heures = for hours Durant cette peĢriode de notre histoire = during that period of our history En prendre deux le matin et aĢ midi durant dix jours = take two, morning and midday, for ten days Il māa calomnieĢe durant toute ma scolariteĢ = he bad-mouthed me throughout my time at school 355 en En is being used more and more frequently in contemporary French ā in situations where in the past dans would have occurred. When its use contrasts with that of dans, it tends at times to have a more general, less specific value ā this is because dans is 259 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR usually accompanied by an article, whereas it is unusual for en so to be. As soon as some qualification of the noun occurs, en is replaced by dans + definite or indefinite article. En le never occurs, en la very rarely, but en lā, as in the first example in the next section, is quite common. En is widely used in many fixed expressions. 356 en expressing position en lāair = in the air en reĢgion parisienne = in the Paris area en meĢtropole = in the capital en banlieue = in the suburbs en province = in the provinces en montagne = in the mountains en car = in a coach, by coach en voiture = in a car, by car en train = in a train, by train en avion = in a plane, by plane en bateau = in a boat, by boat en ambulance = in an ambulance, by ambulance en ville = in town aller en ville = to go to town en mer = at sea en prison = in prison en centre sportif = in the sports centre en ligue des champions = in the championsā league aller en classe = to go to school eĢtre en sixieĢme = to be in year 5 eĢtre en terminale = to be in year 11 eĢtre en faculteĢ / en fac = to be at university en librairie / en pharmacie = in a bookshop, in bookshops / in a chemistās, in chemistsā 357 en expressing time en hiver = in winter en eĢteĢ = in summer en automneā = in autumn en janvier = in January 260 358 en with clothing, materials, containers en juin = in June en novembre = in November en 2003 = in 2003 en lāan 2004 = in the year 2004, in 2004 mardi en quinze = a fortnight on Tuesday demain en huit = a week tomorrow en deĢbut de seĢance = at the beginning of the session Je voudrais vivre autre chose en ce deĢbut du troisieĢme milleĢnaire = I should like to live differently at the beginning of this third millennium en fin de journeĢe = at the end of the day en meĢme temps = at the same time en premieĢre / deuxieĢme mi-temps = in the first / second half (of a match) en retard = late Il est en troisieĢme anneĢe de theĢse sur la liposuccion = heās in the third year of his thesis on liposuction partir en weekend = to go away for the weekend lanceĢ en deĢcembre dernier = launched last December Dis adieu aĢ la fatigue en deux temps trois mouvements = say goodbye to tiredness in double quick time En trente ans nous avons grandi = in 30 years weāve got bigger En une semaine ce programme va vous reĢinvigorerāā = this programme will reinvigorate you in a week Je lāai fait en trente minutes = I did it in half an hour Il lāavait lu en une heure = heād read it in an hour En ce moment je la vois beaucoup = I see her a lot at the moment ā but au printemps = in the spring For the difference between dans and en in this context, see 390. āā 358 en with clothing, materials, containers With clothing en maillot de bain / en bikini = in a bathing costume / in a bikini en tenue de soireĢe = in evening dress en uniforme = in uniform en jean = in jeans une robe en coton = a cotton dress 261 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR une veste en cuir = a leather jacket Lāavocat plaide en robe noire = a lawyer appears in court in a black robe Rien ne vaut un costume en lin = nothing equals a linen suit en with materials and containers une barrieĢre en fer = an iron gate un bol en bois = a wooden bowl une statue en bronze = a bronze statue un bracelet en or = a gold bracelet des boucles dāoreille en argent = silver earrings Il se preĢsente en plaquette de vingt-huit jours = it comes in a 28-day packet Un meĢdecin conseillera un antiviral en creĢme ou en comprimeĢs = a doctor will prescribe an anti-viral cream or tablets Votre alimentation est trop riche en graisse et en sucre = your diet is over-rich in fat and sugar 359 en with names of languages and countries en with languages en francĢ§ais = in French en espagnol = in Spanish Traduis cĢ§a en roumain = translate that into Romanian en with names of countries See 393. 360 en in fixed expressions eĢtre en voyage = to be on a trip en vacances = on holiday en route = en route en vente = for sale en moyenne = on average Nous avons gagneĢ en moyenne 300 euros chacune = each of us earned on average 300 euros en feu = on fire rester en silence = to stay quiet Votre peĢre est remarquable ā il souffre en silence dāun probleĢme de prostate = your fatherās incredible ā he suffers in silence with a prostate problem eĢtre en deuil = to be in mourning 262 360 en in fixed expressions dormir en paix = to sleep in peace eĢtre en danger = to be in danger eĢtre en difficulteĢ = to be in difficulty mettre en valeur = to highlight se mettre en marche = to set out en matieĢre de = as far as . . . is concerned Elle conseille sur leurs droits en matieĢre de contrats immobiliers = sheās an adviser on peopleās rights in the area of property contracts en lāoccurrence = in this case, in this instance en lāhonneur de = in honour of en preĢsence de = in the presence of en direct = live (broadcast) Eurofoot 2004 ā en direct de Lisbonne = Euro 2004, live from Lisbon en jeu = at stake en son nom = in her name, in his name en revanche = on the other hand en effet = in fact (supporting previous statement) Rien ne sert de se retenir dāeĢternuer. En effet ce meĢcanisme de deĢfense naturelle permet dāexpulser hors du nez un corps eĢtranger irritant = thereās no point holding back your sneezes. In fact this natural defence mechanism enables us to expel irritating foreign bodies from our nose en fait = in fact (contradicting previous statement) en tant que = as En tant quāeĢleĢve-fonctionnaire vous gagnerez 6 000 euros par mois = as a trainee civil servant youāll earn 6,000 euros a month en promotion / en promo = on special offer en solde = in a sale Les articles acheteĢs en solde doivent beĢneĢficier des meĢmes droits que les autres = goods bought in a sale benefit from the same rights as any others gagner en mysteĢre = to grow in mystery avoir le vent en poupe = to have the wind in your sails en cas de = in case of en lāespeĢce = in this instance Se deĢguiser en policier, cāest marrant = disguising yourself as a policeman is a laugh 263 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR agir en speĢcialiste = to act as a specialist en plus = in addition En plus des dix deĢjaĢ existants = in addition to the ten youāve already got se mettre en coleĢre = to get angry en eĢtat de guerre = in a state of war partir en tourneĢe = to go on tour (eg of pop group) en version originale / en VO = in the original (eg of film) eĢtre en choĢmage = to be out of work eĢtre en greĢve = to be on strike en partie = in part Votre succeĢs deĢpend en partie du statut de votre directeur de theĢse = your success depends in part upon your thesis supervisorās status en reĢaliteĢ = in reality, really En reĢaliteĢ, le choix deĢpend du reĢsultat voulu = in reality, what you choose depends upon the result you want un film en noir et blanc = a black-and-white film parler en connaissance de cause = to speak with full knowledge of the facts avec des teintes brillantes en contraste = with brilliant contrasting tints des silhouettes en 3D = silhouettes in 3D 361 en-dehors de = outside, apart from Je voulais la rencontrer en-dehors de la ville = I wanted to meet her outside the town Je ne vois personne en-dehors de deux potes = I donāt see anyone apart from a couple of mates 362 en deĢpit de = in spite of En deĢpit de ce que je lui dis, ma femme reĢserve toujours une place dans notre lit pour son chien = in spite of what I say to her, my wife still reserves a place in our bed for her dog En deĢpit de sa reĢticence, elle sāy habituera en douceur = in spite of her reluctance, sheāll gradually get used to it 363 entre = between, among, through entre nous = between ourselves entre parentheĢses / entre guillemets = in brackets / in inverted commas entre le 25 et le 30 mai = between the 25th and 30th May La route se faufile entre les petits villages = the road winds its way through the tiny villages 264 368 graĢce aĢ = thanks to Un deĢcalage entre les probleĢmes percĢ§us par les parents et leurs enfants = a gap between the problems perceived by parents and their children 43% dāentre eux souhaitent eĢtre mieux informeĢs sur le suicide = 43% of them want to be better informed on suicide Lāenfance, une eĢpoque beĢnie entre toutes = childhood, a time blessed amongst all others 364 envers = towards Je ne sens que de la reconnaissance envers elle = I feel nothing but gratitude towards her Son attitude envers son travail est deĢcevante = her attitude towards her work is disappointing Si vous ressentez une attirance envers une de vos amies, cāest le moment de choisir votre camp = if you feel yourself attracted towards one of your friends the same sex as you, thatās the moment when you have to decide which side youāre on 365 environ = about Un petit bijou de technologie qui couĢte environ 150 000 euros = a little peach of technology which costs about 150,000 euros AĢ environ dix meĢtres, je ne vois plus rien sans mes lunettes = at about ten metres I canāt see a thing without my glasses 366 excepteĢ = except for, apart from Jāaime toutes les couleurs, excepteĢ le bleu = I like all the colours, except for blue Tout le monde sera laĢ, excepteĢ mon cousin = everyone will be there apart from my cousin See 198. 367 face aĢ = opposite, facing face aĢ lāhoĢpital = opposite the hospital face aux cameĢras = facing the cameras Face aĢ lāaugmentation des ventes de meĢdicaments contre le cholesteĢrol = faced with the increasing sales of anti-cholesterol remedies Ils se disent deĢsempareĢs face aux reĢponses recĢ§ues = they say theyāre confused when confronted by the answers received 368 graĢce aĢ = thanks to GraĢce aĢ lāaction de la vitamine C = thanks to the action of vitamin C Jāai deĢcrocheĢ mon bac graĢce aĢ mes lectures = I got my A-levels thanks to all the reading Iād done 265 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 369 hors de = out of hors dāhaleine = out of breath JāeĢtais hors de moi quāil ait pu penseĢ ainsi = I was beside myself that he could have such thoughts Tu seras hors de danger dans les toilettes = youāll be out of danger in the loos 370 jusquāaĢ = as far as, until aller jusquāaĢ Biarritz = to go as far as Biarritz jusquāaĢ preĢsent = up to the present moment jusquāau 14 feĢvrier = until 14th February Restez vigilante jusquāen septembre = stay on your guard till September Vous ne percez jamais vos boutons, vous les laisser muĢrir jusquāaĢ eĢclosion spontaneĢe = never squeeze spots ā let them ripen until they form a head spontaneously Jāirais jusquāaĢ dire quāil ne faut pas reĢprimer vos eĢternuements sous peine de provoquer une nouvelle crise = Iād go so far as to say that you shouldnāt repress your sneezes ā you might induce another attack Nous nāallons pas jusquāaĢ accepter cette deĢcision ridicule = weāre not going so far as to accept that ridiculous decision 371 le long de = along Il traıĢnait le long des couloirs avant dāentrer = he wandered along the corridors before going in Promenade aĢ veĢlo le long des quais de la Seine = a bike ride along the banks of the Seine 372 lors de = during, at the time of Lors des dernieĢres rencontres parlementaires = at the time of / during the recent meetings of Parliament Lors dāun reĢcent congreĢs = at the time of / during a recent conference 373 malgreĢ = in spite of MalgreĢ les demandes croissantes des parents = in spite of increasing demands from parents MalgreĢ tout, il vaut mieux continuer = in spite of everything, itās better to carry on 374 par = through, by, per, on, in par expressing position voyager par chemin de fer / par le train = to travel by rail / by train voyager par avion / par bateau = to travel by plane / by boat 266 375 par-dessous = underneath par ici / par laĢ = this way / that way par-ci par-laĢ = hither and thither Vous regardez par la feneĢtre les souris qui sāamusent = through the window you watch the birds enjoying themselves Il dormait sur un matelas sans draps par terre = he slept on a mattress without sheets on the floor par expressing time par un temps pluvieux = in rainy weather par le temps qui court = as it [the weather] is par une journeĢe dāhiver = on a winterās day + 20% par an = + 20% per year / + 20% a year En peĢriode dāextreĢme chaleur il faut boire 2,5 aĢ 3 litres dāeau par jour = in times of extreme heat, you should drink between 2.5 and 3 litres of water a day par expressing an agent, animate or inanimate ā see 414 de and 390 Une efficaciteĢ prouveĢe par des dermatologues = an effectiveness proved by dermatologists Commencez par un eĢchauffement suffisant = begin with sufficient warm-up exercises Un entraıĢneur a eĢteĢ mordu par un chien errant = a trainer was bitten by a dog off the lead Il sāexprime par gestes = he expresses himself through gestures On remplace le sucre par le fructose = sugar may be replaced by fructose par in fixed expressions par courrier = by mail par eĢcrit = in writing par ordre alphabeĢtique = in alphabetical order par milliers = in thousands, in their thousands par honte / par reconnaissance = out of shame / out of gratitude par ignorance / par amour = out of ignorance / out of love par exemple = for example par contre = on the other hand 375 par-dessous = underneath Pour y arriver il fallait passer par-dessous la haie = to get there we had to climb under the hedge 267 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 376 par-dessus = over Il se plante derrieĢre vous et regarde par-dessus votre eĢpaule = he plonks himself behind you and looks over your shoulder par-dessus le marcheĢ = into the bargain 377 parmi = among Le village se trouve parmi les plus belles montagnes du monde = the village is set amongst the most beautiful mountains in the world Cāest une plainte exprimeĢe surtout parmi les femmes = itās a complaint commonly expressed among women Parmi les hommes lāideĢe de « mieux habilleĢ » a changeĢ = among / for men the idea of ābest dressedā has changed 378 par suite de = as a result of Par suite de lāanxieĢteĢ, vous tremblez comme une feuille aĢ chaque fois que vous prononcez un discours devant une assembleĢe = as a result of anxiety, you tremble like a leaf every time you give a speech at a meeting Par suite de sa deĢlicatesse et geĢneĢrositeĢ, vous jouissez de moments inoubliables ensemble = because of her sensitivity and generosity you enjoy unforgettable moments together 379 pendant = for, during pendant la journeĢe = during the day Je lāai attendue pendant une heure = I waited for her for an hour On ne vous dit plus rien pendant des mois = no one says anything else to you for months Pendant les anneĢes 70 je portais un pull col V en mohair rouge = during the 70s I used to wear a V-neck pullover in red mohair See 390. 380 pour = for pour expressing time Elle nāeĢtait laĢ que pour quelques jours = she was only there for a few days pour la troisieĢme anneĢe conseĢcutive = for the third consecutive year Pour cet eĢteĢ lāassociation recherche des eĢtudiants en meĢdecine = for this summer the association is seeking medical students Pour lāavenir immeĢdiat elle nāa aucun projet professionnel = for the immediate future she hasnāt got any professional plans See 390. pour in other contexts Cāest le minimum aĢ faire pour ceux quāon appelle les nouveaux pauvres = itās the least that can be done for those we call the new poor 268 383 sans = without Petits soins pour zones sensibles = delicate care for delicate areas Une bonne nouvelle pour tous les parents concerneĢs = good news for all concerned parents Avec symptoĢme de deĢsinteĢreĢt pour son travail et sa vie = with the symptom of lack of interest in his work and life Pour son nouveau film il veut une jeune fille susceptible dāincarner un ideĢal de pureteĢ = for his latest film he wants a girl who is capable of embodying an ideal of purity Bouger pour une saine fatigue = keep moving for good, healthy tiredness Eau de toilette pour homme = eau de toilette for men Elle se prend / se passe pour une star = she considers herself / passes herself off as a star Pour vous faciliter la vie, voici notre seĢlection dāarticles sympas = in order to simplify your life, hereās our selection of great items Les ados peuvent utiliser le service « Fil santeĢ jeunes » pour poser les questions qui les tracassent = youngsters can use the Help Line to ask the questions that worry them 381 preĢs de = close to, near Lāessentiel de mon travail consistait aĢ me tenir preĢs de lui = the essential part of my work involved me staying close to him Jāaime garder mes choses preĢs de moi = I like keeping my things close to me PreĢs du magasin il y a toujours des mecs qui chahutent = near the shop there are always some guys messing about 382 quant aĢ = as for quant aĢ moi = as for me Quant aux peĢres, meĢme si on nāen a pas, on a une image de peĢre = as for fathers, even if you havenāt got one, youāve got an image of them 383 sans = without Je suis sans regrets = Iām without regret, I have no regrets Je traıĢne de salle en salle sans but preĢcis = I mope from room to room without any precise aim Une moto sans silencieux = a motorbike without a silencer De lāeĢnergie sans les kilos = energy without putting on weight sans fin = endless, ad infinitum les sans domicile fixe = the homeless les sans-papiers = illegal immigrants Ils peuvent poser des questions personnelles sans reĢveĢler leur identiteĢ = they can ask personal questions without revealing their identity 269 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Vous pouvez faire votre shopping sans quitter la maison = you can do your shopping without leaving the house 384 sauf = except for, apart from Tous les premiers jeudis du mois aĢ partir de 21 h sauf janvier = all the first Thursdays of the month from 9pm except for January Si un mec vous plaıĢt, dites-lui tout ā sauf la veĢriteĢ = if a guy appeals to you, tell him everything ā apart from the truth 385 selon = according to Selon un sondage reĢaliseĢ par ce magazine = according to a poll undertaken by this magazine Selon cette eĢtude, un baĢton de rouge aĢ leĢvres exerce un pouvoir de seĢduction incroyable sur les hommes = according to this study, a lipstick exerts an unbelievable power of seduction on men 386 sous = underneath, beneath Sous ma chemise jāaime porter un bustier en jean = underneath my blouse I like wearing a denim bustier Sous cette plainte courante = beneath this frequent complaint Le couteau sous la gorge = with a knife under / at his throat Voir la vie sous un angle convenable = to see life from an appropriate angle Jāai sous la main tout ce dont jāai besoin pendant la journeĢe = Iāve got everything I need during the day to hand Son homosexualiteĢ, est-ce que on peut continuer de la passer sous silence? = can we keep on keeping quiet about his homosexuality? sous la pluie = in the rain sous la preĢsidence de = under the presidency of sous peu = shortly sous un jour favorable = in a favourable light sous tous les rapports = in all respects 387 suivant = following Suivant la discussion, jāai dit que jāeĢtais gay = following the discussion I said I was gay Suivant une enqueĢte sur la nutrition des teenagers = following an investigation into the eating habits of teenagers 388 sur = on, over, about Passez le jet sur tout le corps = direct the jet all over your body Le pistolet sur la tempe = with a pistol to his temple 270 389 vers = to, towards, about Le point sur ces interventions = the latest on these speeches On vous dit tout sur la meilleure facĢ§on de marcher = we tell you everything about the best way to walk Un test clinique sur 28 femmes = a clinical test on 28 women Un FrancĢ§ais sur quatre souffrira dāheĢmorroıĢdes, un sur dix sāen plaint reĢgulieĢrement = one French person out of four will suffer from piles, one out of ten will complain about it regularly Pourquoi cette sensation de « chape de plomb » sur nos eĢpaules? = why do we have this sensation of a āleaden cloakā on our shoulders? Un programme baĢti sur mesure = a programme made to measure Sur des milliers de gens je nāai eu que quelques treĢs grosses mauvaises surprises = out of thousands of people Iāve only had a few unpleasant surprises sur le parking = in the (open-air) car park sur la mer = at sea sur le stade = in the stadium sur le ring = in the boxing ring marcher sur la route / le trottoir = to walk on the road / the pavement donner sur la rue = to look onto the street (of a building) sur sceĢne / sur la sceĢne = on stage la clef est sur la porte = the key is in the door grimper sur le toit = to climb onto the roof eĢtre sur un veĢlo = to be on a bike revenir sur ses pas = to retrace your steps un livre sur la mode = a book on fashion naviguer sur Internet = to surf the net sur Internet = on the Internet sur un ton satisfait / content = in a satisfied / content tone of voice 389 vers = to, towards, about Poussez les bras et les jambes vers lāarrieĢre = push your arms and legs towards the back Il sāest tourneĢ vers les autres = he turned to the others Nos discussions se sont orienteĢes vers le sexe = our discussion turned towards sex vers 15 heures = about three oāclock vers le deĢbut du mois = towards the beginning of the month 271 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 390 Slight shifts in meaning brought out by varying the prepositions Accurate handling of prepositions is a very delicate and complicated matter and one that puts the seal on competent use of the language. There are one or two patterns of alternation between prepositions that allow shades of meaning to be conveyed in a subtle way. There are also occasions, often fixed expressions, where a particular noun attracts one preposition rather than another aĢ / dans aĢ cet endroit = in this place dans ce lieu = in this place aĢ / dans / en When translating English in, a distinction may be drawn between the physical and the abstract values of the preposition: dans implies the former, ie a more specific, more concrete or physical value and aĢ the latter, ie a more vague, less well-defined value ā Les parents sont entreĢs dans lāeĢcole pour voir le prof de leur fils = the parents went into the school to see their sonās teacher Il est entreĢ aĢ lāeĢcole en 1998 = he began his school career in 1998 Dans mon jardin il y a une grande varieĢteĢ de plantes = in my garden thereās a wide variety of plants Jāaime travailler au jardin pour profiter de lāair frais = I like working in the garden to benefit from the fresh air The same applies to the following examples ā eĢtre aĢ Paris / eĢtre dans Paris = to be in Paris Jāai toujours aimeĢ eĢtre aĢ Paris = Iāve always liked being in Paris Trouver une station dāessence dans Paris est de plus en plus difficile = finding a petrol station in Paris is getting more and more difficult eĢtre aĢ la campagne / dans la campagne = to be in the country eĢtre aux champs / dans les champs = to be in the fields eĢtre au salon / dans le salon = to be in the drawing room eĢtre aĢ la cuisine / dans la cuisine = to be in the kitchen eĢtre aĢ lāombre / dans lāombre = to be in the shade tomber aĢ lāeau / dans lāeau = to fall in the water However, aĢ la ferme = on the farm, whereas dans la ferme = in the farmhouse. In in relation to names of countries, departments, etc, is dealt with in 393. In / on in relation to streets is often represented by a zero preposition in French ā Visitez son studio rue GueĢneĢgaud = visit her studio in the rue GueĢneĢgaud 272 390 Meaning with different prepositions Son nouveau restaurant se trouve place de lāEĢglise = his new restaurant is situated on the Place de lāEĢglise In / by with modes of transport may be translated by dans, en or par, with occasional slight differences of interpretation ā voyager dans / par le bus, dans / par le train = to travel by bus, train voyager en ambulance, en auto, en avion, en bateau, en heĢlicopteĢre, en veĢlo, en moto, en voiture = to travel by ambulance, car, plane, boat, helicopter, bike, motorbike, car voyager par bateau = to travel by boat voyager dans un taxi, dans une ambulance = to travel in a taxi, an ambulance As with the aĢ / dans contrast above, the use of dans underlines the physical position of the traveller. dans lāavion = in the plane (stressing the position of who or what is doing the travelling) en avion = by air (stressing the method of transport) par avion = by airmail When it is desired to qualify the noun, dans or par, not en, must be used ā Je suis arriveĢ dans la voiture de mon mec = I arrived in my boyfriendās car Je suis arriveĢ par le train de quinze heures = I arrived by the three oāclock train aĢ / de With verbs denoting moving/snatching, aĢ is used to refer to people, de to things ā Elle lāa arracheĢ aĢ son amie = she snatched it from her friend Il lāa enleveĢ / oĢteĢ de la table = he took it from / off the table When linking two nouns, aĢ denotes that the nouns form a single unit and stresses the function of the object, whereas de denotes a looser connection, stressing what is contained in the object. un pot aĢ moutarde = a mustard pot un verre aĢ vin = a wine glass un pot de moutarde = a pot of mustard un verre de vin = a glass of wine The first two items could be empty, whereas the second two must contain some mustard or wine. aĢ sa manieĢre = in his / her way dāune certaine manieĢre = in a certain way au moins = at least (of numbers) 273 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Il y a au moins dix coffrets de portables parmi lesquels choisir = there are at least ten mobile holders to choose from du moins = at least, the bottom line Les chanteuses aĢ grosse voix prennent dix rides aĢ chaque concert ā du moins cāest ce quāon preĢtend = female singers with big voices develop ten wrinkles per concert ā at least thatās whatās claimed (jouer +) aĢ / de With jouer, aĢ is used with names of sports and de with musical instruments jouer au tennis, au foot, au golf = to play tennis, football, golf jouer dāun instrument de musique, du piano, de la guitare, de la batterie = to play a musical instrument, the piano, the guitar, the drums See 301. aĢ / en eĢtre au village = to be in the village eĢtre en ville = to be in town aĢ la mi-temps = at half-time en premieĢre / deuxieĢme mi-temps = during the first / second half aĢ / par When translating English to (in to the ground), use of aĢ implies from a height, and use of par from a standing position ā Il eĢtait dans lāarbre et est tombeĢ aĢ terre apreĢs sāeĢtre pencheĢ trop en avant = he was up the tree and fell to the ground because heād leant out too far Il faut se jeter par terre pour eĢviter la fusillade de lāennemi = you have to throw yourself to the ground to avoid the shots coming from the enemy aĢ / sur With reference to radio and TV, the former is used generally, the second more specifically (ie to a specific station or channel) ā Il y a treĢs peu dāeĢmissions inteĢressantes aĢ la teĢleĢ = there arenāt many interesting programmes on the telly Sur Canal Plus il y a un grand nombre de films ameĢricains = on Canal Plus there are lots of American films dans / en When used with reference to time, dans is used to indicate that the action will be accomplished after the period of time specified by dans has elapsed; en indicates the period of time during which the action will be accomplished ā Je lui ai dit que je le ferais dans dix minutes = I told him Iād do it in ten minutes (begin to do it in ten minutes) 274 390 Meaning with different prepositions Je lui ai dit que je le ferais en dix minutes ā I told him Iād do it in ten minutes [it would take ten minutes to complete it] dans / sur The difference between (stationner) dans le parking and sur le parking is that the first refers to a multi-storey carpark and the latter to an open-air one; in the case of (eĢtre) dans le stade and (eĢtre) sur le stade, the former refers to the spectators, the latter to the competitors/players. dans le square = in the square (a small public square with a garden) sur la place = in the square (a large public square) dans lāaeĢroport = at the airport (in the airport buildings) sur lāaeĢroport = at the airport (on the runway) eĢtre assis dans un fauteuil = to be sitting in an armchair eĢtre assis sur une chaise, un banc, un sieĢge = to be sitting on a chair, a bench, a seat dans lāalleĢe, dans lāavenue, dans la rue = on the path, in the avenue, in the street sur le boulevard, sur la chausseĢe, sur le chemin, sur la route, sur le trottoir = on the boulevard, on the road (not the pavement), on the track, on the road, on the pavement de / en When used with materials, de implies a vaguer connection than en, which emphasises the material from which the object is made ā un pantalon en coton ā un pantalon de coton = cotton trousers de / par When introducing the agent in the passive voice or in a similar construction (ie I was chased by a mugger), de is used when the agent is relatively passive or a state is described, par when the agent is more dynamic. Pour avoir un buste brancheĢ, la gorge doit eĢtre enduite dāun produit luisant = to have a really trendy bust, your neck needs to be covered with something shiny Servez aussitoĢt accompagneĢ dāune salade de pousses dāeĢpinard = serve it straightaway accompanied by a salad of spinach sprouts Un avertissement ā il est attireĢ par les jeunes, il te jettera rapidement pour une cadette = a word of warning ā heās attracted by young women, heāll soon throw you over for a younger version Pour vous aider aĢ mincir sans vous priver trop, votre boisson habituelle doit eĢtre remplaceĢe par un theĢ infusion = to help you slim without depriving yourself too much, your usual drink must be replaced by an infusion However, at times these two prepositions seem to have exactly the same value and are used in identical contexts. 275 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR pendant / pour When these prepositions are used to express a certain period of time, pendant normally refers to time that is past and pour to time to come, as the examples given under each preposition above show. However, pendant may also be used with reference to time to come when the event is being stressed, for example in the case of medical directions ā Une ampoule chaque matin pendant une semaine = one capsule each morning for a week plus de, moins de / plus que, moins que Plus de, moins de are used to express quantity, and normally precede a numeral, whereas plus que, moins que are used to express a comparison and are not necessarily followed by a numeral ā Le sac aĢ dos ne doit pas eĢtre plus large que le dos de lāenfant et ne doit pas peser plus de 500 g pour les plus jeunes et pas plus dāun kg pour les adolescents = the rucksack must not be wider than the childās back and must not weigh more than 500 grammes for the youngest and not more than one kg for teenagers Bonne nouvelle, les adultes qui gouĢtent sont proportionnellement plus minces que ceux qui ne gouĢtent pas! = good news ā adults who indulge are proportionately slimmer than those who donāt! Pour plus dāinformations, contactez notre site internet = for more information, contact our website 391 Prepositional alternation In other cases, it is possible to use different prepositions before a noun without altering the sense. remplir avec / remplir de = to fill with aĢ lā / dā / par avance = in advance au deĢbut de lāapreĢs-midi / en deĢbut de lāapreĢs-midi = early in the afternoon aĢ la fin de la reĢunion / en fin de la reĢunion = at the end of the meeting aĢ lāautomne / en automne = in autumn dans la / en reĢgion parisienne = in the Paris area dans le secret / en secret = in secret dans / en lāair (note the use of an article with en here) = in the air aux / sous les Tropiques, lāeĢquateur = in the Tropics, at the Equator aĢ la / en faculteĢ = at university dans / sous une tente = in a tent tomber dans / entre les mains de quelquāun = to fall into the hands of someone dans la semaine / en semaine = during the week dāun ton seĢrieux / sur un ton seĢrieux = in a serious tone 276 392 French/English prepositions de toutes facĢ§ons / en tout cas = at any rate en mer / sur la mer = at sea eĢchanger une chemise pour / contre une autre = to exchange one shirt for another eĢtre aĢ / en choĢmage = to be out of work aller dans / sur la lune = to go to the moon 392 The interlocking of French and English prepositions The following chart lists English prepositions and prepositional expressions and shows the French equivalents ā about above according to after against along among apart from around as a result of as far as as for at at the end of at the home of at the time of because of before behind below beneath beside between beyond by by virtue of close to during except for faced with facing following for for fear of from from the top of in aupreĢs de, environ, vers au-dessus de dāapreĢs, selon apreĢs contre le long de chez, entre, parmi au-delaĢ de, en-dehors de, excepteĢ, sauf aupreĢs de par suite de jusquāaĢ du coĢteĢ de, quant aĢ aĢ, en, sous, sur au bout de chez lors de aĢ cause de avant, devant derrieĢre au-dessous de sous hors de entre au-delaĢ de, au-dessus de aĢ, de, en, par aĢ force de preĢs de au cours de, dans, durant, lors de, pendant excepteĢ, sauf devant face aĢ suivant aĢ, chez, depuis, durant, en, par, pendant, pour de crainte de, de peur de aĢ, aĢ partir de, dāapreĢs, dans, de, deĢs, sous du haut de aĢ, chez, dans, de, en, entre, par, sous, sur (cont.) 277 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR including in comparison with in front of in order to instead of in spite of in the course of into near next to of on opposite out of outside over per round since so as to subject to than thanks to through till to towards under underneath unless until up to with without zero (y) compris aĢ coĢteĢ de devant afin de au lieu de en deĢpit de, malgreĢ au cours de dans preĢs de aĢ coĢteĢ de de, entre aĢ, de, en, par, sur face aĢ dans, hors de, par, sur en-dehors de au-dessus de, par-dessus de, sur par aupreĢs de depuis de facĢ§on aĢ, de manieĢre aĢ aĢ condition de de graĢce aĢ aĢ travers, entre, par jusquāaĢ aĢ, en, vers envers, vers au-dessous de, sous au-dessous de, par-dessous de, sous aĢ moins de jusquāaĢ aĢ aĢ, avec, de sans aĢ, de, en, par, sans 393 Prepositions with place names in 1 With names of countries With masculine names of countries beginning with a consonant ā au in Europe au Danemark = in Denmark, au Luxembourg = in Luxemburg, aux Pays Bas = in the Netherlands, au Pays de Galles = in Wales, au Portugal = in Portugal, au Royaume-Uni = in the United Kingdom in Africa au BeĢnin = in Benin, au Botswana = in Botswana, au Burkina Faso = in Burkina Faso, au Burundi = in Burundi, au Cameroun = in Cameroon, au Gabon = in Gabon, 278 393 Prepositions with place names au Ghana = in Ghana, au Kenya = in Kenya, au LibeĢria = in Liberia, au Malawi = in Malawi, au Mali = in Mali, au Maroc = in Morocco, au Mozambique = in Mozambique, au Niger = in Niger, au NigeĢria = in Nigeria, au Ruanda = in Rwanda, au SeĢneĢgal = in Senegal, au Soudan = in Sudan, au Tchad = in Chad, au Togo = in Togo, au Zimbabwe = in Zimbabwe in Asia au Bangladesh = in Bangladesh, au Cambodge = in Cambodia, au Japon = in Japan, au Laos = in Laos, au NeĢpal = in Nepal, au Pakistan = in Pakistan, au Tibet = in Tibet, au Vietnam = in Vietnam in the Middle East au Liban = in Lebanon, au YeĢmen = in Yemen in the Americas au BreĢsil = in Brazil, au Canada = in Canada, au Chili = in Chile, au Costa Rica = in Costa Rica, aux EĢtats-Unis = in the United States, au GuateĢmala = in Guatemala, au Honduras = in Honduras, au Mexique = in Mexico, au Panama = in Panama, au Paraguay = in Paraguay, au Salvador = in San Salvador, au VeĢneĢzueĢla = in Venezuela With masculine names beginning with a vowel ā en en EĢquateur = in Ecuador, en Irak = in Iraq, en Iran = in Iran, en IsraeĢl = in Israel With feminine names ā en in Europe en Albanie = in Albania, en Allemagne = in Germany, en Angleterre = in England, en Autriche = in Austria, en Belgique = in Belgium, en BieĢlorusse = in Belorus, en Bosnie = in Bosnia, en Bulgarie = in Bulgaria, en Croatie = in Croatia, en EĢcosse = in Scotland, en Espagne = in Spain, en Estonie = in Estonia, en Finlande = in Finland, en France = in France, en Grande Bretagne = in Great Britain, en GreĢce = in Greece, en Hollande = in Holland, en Irlande du Nord / du Sud = in Northern / Southern Ireland, en Italie = in Italy, en Lettonie = in Latvia, en Lithuanie = in Lithuania, en NorveĢge = in Norway, en Pologne = in Poland, en ReĢpublique tcheĢque = in the Czech Republic, en Roumanie = in Romania, en Russie = in Russia, en Serbie = in Serbia, en Slovaquie = in Slovakia, en SloveĢnie = in Slovenia, en SueĢde = in Sweden, en Suisse = in Switzerland, en Turquie = in Turkey, en Ukraine = in Ukraine in Africa en Afrique du Sud = in South Africa, en AlgeĢrie = in Algeria, en Angola = in Angola, en EĢthiopie = in Ethiopia, en GuineĢe = in Guinea, en Libye = in Libya, en Mauritanie = in Mauritania, en Namibie = in Namibia, en Ouganda = in Uganda, en ReĢpublique centrafricaine = in the Central African Republic, en Sierra LeĢone = in Sierra Leone, en Somalie = in Somalia, en Tanzanie = in Tanzania, en Tunisie = in Tunisia, en Zambie = in Zambia in Asia and Australasia en Afghanistan = in Afghanistan, en Australie = in Australia, en Birmanie = in Burma, en Chine = in China, en CoreĢe du Nord / du Sud = in North / South Korea, en 279 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Inde = in India, en IndoneĢsie = in Indonesia, en Malaisie = in Malaysia, en Nouvelle CaleĢdonie = in New Caledonia, en Nouvelle ZeĢlande = in New Zealand, en ThaıĢlande = in Thailand in the Middle East en Arabie SeĢoudite = in Saudi Arabia, en EĢgypte = in Egypt, en Jordanie = in Jordan, en Syrie = in Syria in the Americas en Argentina = in Argentina, en Bolivie = in Bolivia, en Colombie = in Colombia, en Guyane = in Guyana, en ReĢpublique dominicaine = in the Dominican Republic, en Uruguay = in Uruguay If the name of the country is qualified, en is replaced by dans and the definite article. This applies to both masculine and feminine names of countries ā dans la Roumanie de lāeĢre post-Ceausescu = in post-Ceausescu Romania dans le Japon contemporain = in contemporary Japan 2 With names of islands and island states Usage is more variable ā aĢ aĢ Chypre = in Cyprus, aĢ Cuba = in Cuba, aĢ Madagascar = in Madagascar, aĢ Majorque = in Majorca, aĢ Malte = in Malta, aĢ (lāıĢle) Maurice = in Mauritius, aĢ Singapour = in Singapore, aĢ Sri Lanka = in Sri Lanka aĢ la aĢ la Dominique = in Dominica, aĢ la JamaıĢque = in Jamaica, aĢ la ReĢunion = in ReĢunion aux aux Antilles = in the West Indies, aux Bahamas = in the Bahamas, aux BaleĢares = in the Balearic Islands, aux Malouines = in the Falklands, aux Philippines = in the Philippines en en Corse = in Corsica, en Sardaigne = in Sardinia, en Sicile = in Sicily aĢ or en aĢ / en HaıĢti = in Haiti aĢ la or en aĢ la / en Guadeloupe = in Guadeloupe, aĢ la / en Martinique = in Martinique 3 With names of French regions and departments With masculine names dans dans le Centre = in the Centre, dans le Poitou = in the Poitou, dans le RhoĢne = in the RhoĢne 280 393 Prepositions with place names but en Anjou = in Anjou, en Limousin = in the Limousin dans le Berry = in the Berry, dans le Gard = in the Gard, dans le Jura = in the Jura With feminine singular names ā en en Bretagne = in Brittany, en CorreĢze = in the CorreĢze, en Normandie = in Normandy, en Provence = in Provence, en SaoĢne et Loire = in SaoĢne et Loire, en VendeĢe = in the VendeĢe dans la dans la Charente = in the Charente, dans la Haute-Garonne = in the Haute-Garonne, dans la Marne = in the Marne With feminine plural names dans les Alpes Maritimes = in the Alpes-Maritimes, dans les Hautes-PyreĢneĢes = in the Hautes-PyreĢneĢes, dans les Landes = in the Landes 4 With names of British counties dans dans le Nottinghamshire, dans le Suffolk, dans le Yorkshire exception aux Cournouailles = in Cornwall 5 With names of American states dans dans la Louisiane, dans le Texas, dans lāUtah 6 With names of towns preceded by the definite article au Havre = in le Havre, au Mans = in le Mans, au Touquet = in le Touquet aĢ la Rochelle = in la Rochelle from With names of countries With masculine names beginning with a consonant ā du venir du Danemark, venir du BeĢnin, venir du Bangladesh With masculine names beginning with a vowel ā dā venir dāIrak, venir dāIran, venir dāIsraeĢl with feminine names ā de venir dāAlbanie, venir dāAfrique du Sud, venir dāAfghanistan 281 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Exercises 1 Les preĢpositions qui relient ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en ajoutant dans le blanc, si cāest neĢcessaire, la preĢposition qui convient ā a Jāaimerais . . . avoir des conseils pour māaider . . . eĢradiquer ce probleĢme. b Parfois un enfant hausse le ton parce quāon ne le laisse pas suffisamment . . . sāexprimer. c AgeĢe de 22 ans, je suis atteinte . . . une maladie du systeĢme nerveux. d Jāaimerais que quelquāun me dise les effets secondaires . . . craindre. e Cela arrive, mais il sāagit . . . cas treĢs rares. f Lorsque je dois . . . faire un gros saut dans le veĢlo acrobatique, je cherche dāabord . . . maıĢtriser le stress dans ma teĢte ā cela māaide . . . le passer. g Il a beau . . . eĢtre la plus grande star francĢ§aise ā il fait toujours de treĢs gros efforts pour plaire . . . ses admiratrices. h Les voleurs et politiciens ripoux ont toujours beĢneĢficieĢ . . . une certaine consideĢration de la part du public. i Cāest une mode qui plaıĢt . . . jeunes filles comme . . . femmes plus aĢgeĢes. j Comment est-ce que vous pouvez . . . aider votre enfant . . . vaincre le beĢgaiement ā reformuler les mots apreĢs lui de facĢ§on correcte, sans lui demander . . . les reĢpeĢter. Vous devez vous amuser . . . faire ensemble des bruits avec la bouche. k Il ne manque jamais . . . raconter ses conqueĢtes. l Ces lentilles sont faciles . . . poser et . . . enlever. m On se promet . . . reprendre une activiteĢ physique, histoire . . . garder la forme, . . . sāaeĢrer et . . . sāoccuper . . . soi. n Pour seĢduire, une femme peut . . . passer beaucoup de temps . . . sāappreĢter. o JāeĢprouve un besoin terrible . . . dormir apreĢs le deĢjeuner. p On māexpliquait que je ne risquais pas . . . devenir steĢrile. q Les beĢneĢfices des lavages du nez ne sont plus . . . deĢmontrer. r Est-ce quāil a tendance . . . augmenter le son de la teĢleĢvision? s Cette reĢaction permet . . . ceux qui sont doteĢs . . . une peau deĢlicate . . . reĢsister . . . la bruĢlure du soleil. t Leur usage convient treĢs bien . . . jeunes filles, car ils sāadaptent . . . leur style de vie. u Jāai impression que les coussins ont besoin . . . eĢtre secoueĢs et tapoteĢs, et je ne me prive pas . . . le faire. v Je ne māadonne . . . ce vice compulsif avec nāimporte quoi ā jāai une preĢfeĢrence pour les tickets de cineĢma! w Si vous avez avaleĢ seulement une quantiteĢ infime dāessence, du lait ou un verre dāeau suffira . . . le diluer. x Tu devrais eĢviter . . . prendre lāavion si vous avez un rhume. 282 Exercises y Vous en sortez plutoĢt bien, compte tenu . . . vos petites mauvaises habitudes. z Finalement, mes parents se sont deĢbarrasseĢs . . . moi. 2 Les preĢpositions qui forment les locutions preĢpositives ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en ajoutant la preĢposition qui convient. Quelquefois plus dāune preĢposition conviendrait. a La natation peut se pratiquer . . . allure modeĢreĢe, . . . douleur ni essouflement meĢme si lāon reprend . . . une peĢriode . . . inactiviteĢ. b Jāai pris trois comprimeĢs . . . jour, une prise . . . sang . . . semaine au deĢbut et puis une . . . mois . . . la suite. c Nous avons domineĢ . . . la majeure partie du match, . . . le terrain . . . Milan. d Vous avez le choix . . . deux formules. La premieĢre assure votre enfant seulement lorsque lāaccident survient . . . les activiteĢs organiseĢes . . . lāeĢtablissement ou . . . le chemin . . . lāeĢcole. Elle est obligatoire . . . les voyages organiseĢs. e . . . leur second beĢbeĢ, nombre de femmes ne retrouvent pas leur ventre « dāavant », . . . la gym. f . . . la salle de fitness et dāautres clubs, les propositions ne manquent pas. On choisit . . . ses besoins. g Les salarieĢs ont droit . . . quatre jours . . . congeĢ lorsquāils se marient, trois jours . . . la naissance ou lāadoption . . . un enfant, un . . . le mariage . . . un enfant, deux jours . . . le deĢceĢs du conjoint et un jour . . . le deĢceĢs du peĢre ou de la meĢre. h Je consideĢre que je vis aĢ peu preĢs normalement, . . . les contraintes dues au traitement. i . . . une situation comme celle-ci, une partie des soins vous sera rembourseĢe. j . . . lāesprit, il voyage lui aussi . . . votre randonneĢe ā on part . . . tension, mais on rentre apaiseĢ, serein. k . . . les tout-petits, les produits alcooliseĢs sont . . . proscrire. Une meĢme quantiteĢ de produit appliqueĢe . . . un beĢbeĢ aboutit . . . des concentrations . . . cinq fois supeĢrieures . . . son faible poids. l Le chignon existe . . . la nuit des temps. m Elle portait une veste . . . jean surpiqueĢ . . . dentelle . . . un jupon . . . coton. n Il est conseilleĢ dāagir preĢcocement . . . lāaĢge . . . 3 ans. o Une directive europeĢenne applicable . . . France . . . le deĢbut de lāanneĢe a renforceĢ les normes . . . qualiteĢ de lāeau. p . . . la douleur postopeĢratoire, elle varie . . . 2 et 4 . . . une eĢchelle de 10. q Jāaime passer . . . le miroir . . . la salle de bains. r Cāest . . . pantalon . . . coton noir et . . . tee-shirt quāelle est arriveĢe. s LāopeĢration . . . anestheĢsie geĢneĢrale dure . . . deux heures. t Les coiffeurs sāy reĢsignent . . . bonheur. u Les Parisiens, . . . deux buts spectaculaires ont battu Porto. v . . . un controĢle sanguin, jāai deĢcouvert que je souffrais . . . une anomalie physique. 283 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR w Il figure . . . les meilleurs super-leĢgers mais il fait figure dāinconnu . . . France. x La compeĢtence . . . le plaisir, le talent . . . la joie ne servent aĢ rien. y Souvent . . . lāacheteur compulsif, lāachat se fait . . . la honte et . . . une grande solitude. z 76% des hommes se tournent . . . leur partenaire pour chercher soutien . . . une situation difficile. 284 Chapter 9 Adverbs and adverbial expressions 394 The role of adverbs The role of an adverb is to modify the meaning of a word, a phrase or a sentence. Characteristic of adverbs Adverbs are invariable in form (but see 480 for tout as adverb of degree). Types of adverbs adverbs of manner adverbs of time adverbs of place adverbs of degree adverbs of affirmation and negation interrogative adverbs adverbs as connectors 395 Formation of adverbs Only a small sample of examples is given below. 1 By adding āment to the masculine form of the adjective ā This category includes those adjectives which do not distinguish masculine from feminine gender and those ending in āeĢ, āi, āu (see 3 below) or āuĢ ā absolu + ment = absolument = absolutely aiseĢ + ment = aiseĢment = easily ambigu + ment = ambigument = ambiguously atroce + ment = atrocement= atrociously deuxieĢme + ment = deuxieĢmement = secondly duĢ + ment = duĢment =duly gauche + ment = gauchement = awkwardly modeste + ment = modestement = modestly poli + ment = poliment = politely vrai + ment = vraiment = truly 285 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 2 By adding āment to the feminine form of the adjective actif > active + ment = activement = actively dernier > dernieĢre + ment = dernieĢrement = lastly fou > folle + ment = follement = madly grossier > grossieĢre + ment = grossieĢrement = coarsely leĢger > leĢgeĢre = leĢgeĢrement = lightly premier > premieĢre = premieĢrement = firstly public > publique = publiquement = publicly tel > telle + ment = tellement = so total > totale + ment = totalement = totally exception ā gentil > gentiment = kindly 3 A small number of adjectives in āu form their adverb in āuĢment assidu > assiduĢment = assiduously continu > continuĢment = continuously cru > cruĢment = crudely 4 Adjectives ending in āant or āent form their adverb in āamment or āemment abondant > abondamment = abundantly brillant > brillamment = brilliantly constant > constamment = constantly freĢquent > freĢquemment = frequently neĢgligent > neĢgligemment = negligently prudent > prudemment = prudently violent > violemment = violently exception ā lent > lentement = slowly Notamment = notably, preĢcipitamment = precipitously have no corresponding adjectives ā see 7 below. 5 Adverbs derived from past participles used as adjectives aveugler > aveugleĢ + ment = aveugleĢment = blindly forcer > forceĢ + ment = forceĢment = necessarily preĢciser > preĢciseĢ + ment = preĢciseĢment = precisely 6 Other adjectives forming their adverbs in āeĢment conforme > conformeĢment = in accordance with 286 395 Formation of adverbs eĢnorme > eĢnormeĢment = enormously intense > intenseĢment = intensely obscur > obscureĢment = obscurely profond > profondeĢment = profoundly 7 Adverbs with no corresponding adjective brieĢvement = briefly grieĢvement = seriously See also 4 above. 8 Adjectives used as adverbs without any change of form bas = low, as in parler bas = to speak quietly bon = good, as in sentir bon = to smell good, tenir bon = to hold firm chaud = hot, as in servir chaud = to serve hot cher = dear, as in couĢter cher = to cost dear cheĢrement = dearly (but not involving money) ā une indeĢpendance cheĢrement acquise = an independence acquired at great cost (politically, emotionally, intellectually, etc) clair = clear, as in voir clair = to see clearly court = short, as in sāarreĢter court = to stop abruptly, sāhabiller court = to dress in short skirts droit = straight, as in aller tout droit = to go straight ahead dur = hard, as in travailler dur = to work hard ferme = firm, as in tenir ferme = to hold fast fort = loudly, strong, as in crier fort = to shout loudly, sentir fort = to smell strong frais = cool, as in servir frais = to serve cool gros = a lot, as in perdre / risquer gros = to lose/risk a lot haut = aloud, high, as in lire haut = to read aloud, parler haut = to speak loudly, viser haut = to aim high juste = accurately, as in deviner juste = to guess accurately lourd = heavily, as in peser lourd = to weigh heavily mauvais = bad, as in sentir mauvais = to smell bad net = plainly, point blank, as in parler net = to speak plainly, refuser net = to refuse point blank 287 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 9 Using dāune manieĢre, dāune facĢ§on, dāun air Most of the adverbs illustrated above derive from relatively short adjectives; to avoid a rather clumsy, multi-syllabic adverb, the expressions dāune manieĢre + adjective or dāune facĢ§on + adjective may be used ā dāune facĢ§on indescriptible = in an indescribable fashion dāune facĢ§on ridicule = in a ridiculous way dāune manieĢre extraordinaire = in an extraordinary way dāune manieĢre fantaisiste = in an eccentric manner Dāun air + adjective may be used in a similar way ā dāun air soupcĢ§onneux = in a suspicious way dāun air surpris = in a surprised way 10 Adverbial phrases In the section on prepositional expressions a large number of adverbial phrases were illustrated. Here are some very common ones ā au maximum = to the utmost aĢ la fois = at the same time aĢ lāheure = on time aĢ part = separately aĢ peu preĢs = almost aĢ qui mieux mieux = outdoing the other au fur et aĢ mesure = as you go along aĢ coĢteĢ = beside coĢte aĢ coĢte = side by side de bonne heure = early de plus belle = with renewed vigour de temps en temps / de temps aĢ lāautre = from time to time dāhabitude = usually du meĢme coup = by the same token en arrieĢre = behind en avance = early en avant = in front en bas = down(stairs) en dehors = outside 288 397 Position of adverbs en geĢneĢral = in general en haut = up(stairs) en particulier = especially en retard = late en vain = in vain et ainsi de suite = and so on mot aĢ mot = word by word nāimporte ouĢ = anywhere nāimporte quand = at any time ā see 245, 246 par ailleurs = in addition par contre = on the other hand par hasard = by chance sans cesse = constantly tout aĢ coup = suddenly tout aĢ fait = quite tout aĢ lāheure = in a moment, a moment ago tout de suite = immediately tout dāun coup = suddenly 396 Meaning of adverbs As with most words, some adverbs have more than one meaning and may belong to more than one of the types of adverbs listed below ā ainsi = in the same way is both a connector and an adverb of manner. alors = then is an adverb of time and a connector aussi = so as a connector, = also as an adverb of degree 397 Position of adverbs Adverbs are placed in different positions according to the part of speech being modified ā 1 With a verb With simple tenses the adverb normally follows the verb ā Le calcium est surtout preĢsent dans le lait = calcium is especially present in milk Elle eĢgalisa rapidement = she equalised quickly Lāhuile dāolive peut aussi aider aĢ ramollir les eĢcailles = olive oil can also help soften scaly skin 289 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Sa nouvelle vie lui convient parfaitement = her new life suits her perfectly With compound tenses the adverb is normally placed between the auxiliary and the past participle ā La gestion eĢlectronique des documents a peu aĢ peu remplaceĢ le document papier = electronic management of documents has gradually replaced paper documents Les pellicules sont parfois accompagneĢes de deĢmangeaisons et surviennent geĢneĢralement en peĢriodes de stress = dandruff is at times accompanied by itching and generally occurs at times of stress Elle avait bien attaqueĢ le match en dominant largement Sprem au premier set = she had attacked the match well by easily dominating Sprem in the first set Jāai quand meĢme reĢussi aĢ constituer une eĢquipe de quatre personnes = all the same Iāve managed to get together a team of four people 2 With an adjective, the adverb normally precedes the adjective Il est absolument indispensable de maıĢtriser la langue francĢ§aise = itās absolutely indispensable to master French Ce traitement de la peau neĢcessite une utilisation de produits de soins parfaitement adapteĢs aĢ votre sensibiliteĢ = this skin treatment requires use of care products that are perfectly adapted to the sensitivity of your skin MeĢme pour des questions treĢs compliqueĢes, on peut trouver des reĢponses treĢs simples = even for very complicated questions you can find very simple answers 3 With an adverb, the adverb normally precedes the adverb SeĢchez treĢs doucement vos cheveux = dry your hair very gently Bien bizarrement, tous les gens oublient quelque chose chez toi = very strangely, everyone forgets something in your house Il ne monte jamais plus sur les tables de lāamphi pour affirmer quāil existe = he never climbs on the lecture room tables any more in order to prove he exists The principles set out illustrate the normal practice as far as the positioning of adverbs is concerned. However, if the adverb is being highlighted or is accompanied by another adverb it may follow the adjective ā Etre prof dans une eĢcole maternelle est eĢpuisant nerveusement et physiquement = being a nursery school teacher is tiring both nervously and physically Certain adverbs tend to be more mobile than others, especially those of time, those that are relatively long, and those consisting of prepositional expressions. Time Demain on eĢtudiera toutes les familles dāaliments et leurs proprieĢteĢs nutritionnelles = tomorrow weāll study all categories of foodstuffs and their nutritional properties Hier nous avons laisseĢ la voiture pour suivre un chemin abrupt = yesterday we left the car to follow a steep track 290 398 Adverbs of manner Les autres inviteĢs vont pratiquer VTT, escalade et ski dāhiver demain = the other guests are going to do some mountain biking, climbing and skiing tomorrow Une page dans lāhistoire du club a eĢteĢ tourneĢe hier = a page in the history of the club was turned yesterday Long adverbs and adverbial expressions On peut se tromper mutuellement et, de la meĢme manieĢre, on peut se quitter = you can cheat on each other mutually and, in the same way, you can split up When a number of adverbs occur in the same sentence, they are usually organised according to length, the shortest closest to the verb, the longest furthest away ā but again considerations of rhythm, logic, emphasis and style may decide otherwise ā Lāagence nous propose de fournir de quoi vivre nos aventures [1] sans anxieĢteĢ, [2] en parfaite seĢcuriteĢ = the agency proposes supplying us with the wherewithal to live out our adventures without anxiety and in complete safety [1] Sur le parvis de lāHoĢtel de Ville, [2] dans la nuit de samedi aĢ dimanche, il a parleĢ du jeu = on the square outside the Town Hall, on SaturdayāSunday night, he spoke about the game Il fonctionnera [1] avec sa propre personnaliteĢ, [2] avec sa capaciteĢ aĢ eĢcouter les autres = heāll carry on with his own personality and his ability to listen to others 398 Adverbs of manner These adverbs describe the way in which something is done and are extremely numerous. They answer questions introduced by comment, such as ā Comment lāa-t-il fait ? = how did he do it? A number of the most common adverbs of manner are short words, that do not end in āment ā ainsi = thus bien = well debout = standing ensemble = together expreĢs = deliberately mal = badly mieux = better pis = worse plutoĢt = rather vite = quickly volontiers = willingly Many others do end in āment ā 291 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR attentivement = attentively brusquement = abruptly cyniquement = cynically doucement = gently efficacement = efficiently fermement = firmly gaiement = gaily heureusement = happily intelligemment = intelligently joliment = prettily librement = freely mollement = idly nonchalamment = nonchalantly ouvertement = openly preĢcipitamment = precipitously richement = richly solidement = solidly tranquillement = quietly unanimement = unanimously vaillamment courageously There is virtually an infinite number of adverbial phrases of manner, including those mentioned in the section on formation of adverbs and discussed under prepositional expressions ā aĢ dessein = on purpose aĢ grande vitesse = at top speed aĢ la fois = at the same time aĢ tort = wrongly avec enthousiasme = enthusiastically de tout son coeur = whole-heartedly en connaissance de cause = with full knowledge of the facts en nāheĢsitant pas = by not hesitating en utilisant toutes ses forces = by using all his strength par erreur = in error 292 399 Examples: adverbs of manner sans attendre = without waiting tout droit = straight ahead together with similes introduced by comme = like dormir comme un loir / une souche = to sleep like a log eĢtre malade comme un chien = to be as sick as a dog eĢtre souĢl comme une grive / un Polonais = to be as drunk as a lord rire comme un bossu = to laugh like a drain 399 Examples of adverbs of manner Ceux qui ne savent pas sāhabiller aĢ la mode ne demandent pas mieux que dāeĢtre conseilleĢs = those who donāt know how to dress fashionably canāt do better than ask for advice Lors dāun divorce, le juge doit meĢticuleusement veiller aux inteĢreĢts de chacun des eĢpoux = during a divorce, the judge must meticulously pay attention to the interests of each spouse Nouez la ficelle solidement = tie a tight knot in the string āPhiltre dāamourā est un vaporisateur que lāon glisse facilement dans son sac = āPhiltre dāamourā is a spray that you can easily slip into your bag Si la soupe vous paraıĢt trop eĢpaisse, rallonge-la ideĢalement avec un reste de bouillon = if the soup seems too thick, thin it ideally with some of the left-over stock Les doutes elle les chasse avec un revers de la main = she brushes away doubts with the back of her hand Lāauteur deĢcrit sans empathie la meĢcanique ravageuse dāune manipulation mentale qui paralyse la victime = the author describes without empathy the destructive mechanism of mental manipulation which paralyses the victim Cette version oscille alleĢgrement entre les genres: chansons, cirque, comeĢdie = this version oscillates merrily between various genres ā song, circus, comedy Maintenez chaque tube en place en tordant soigneusement le fil de fer au dos du tableau = hold each tube in place by carefully twisting the wire at the back of the picture ReĢparez votre capital jeunesse en atteĢnuant visiblement rides et ridules graĢce aĢ un extrait de ginkgo = restore your youthfulness by visibly reducing wrinkles and fine lines with an extract of ginkgo Il montre aĢ la fois lāeĢtendue de son talent comme acteur comique et son expeĢrience comme producteur de films = he demonstrates at one and the same time the extent of his skill as a comic actor and his experience as a film director Elle sāest preĢsenteĢe comme une sacrifieĢe, docile comme un phoque, reĢsigneĢe comme une actrice qui ne trouve pas de roĢles = she came across like someone being sacrificed, docile like a seal and resigned like an actress who canāt find a part 293 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 400 Adverbs of place Adverbs of place indicate where an event takes place and answer the questionā OuĢ est-ce que cela a eu / aura lieu ? = where did / will that happen? Typical adverbs and adverbial expressions are ā aĢ dix kilomeĢtres = 10 kilometres away aĢ droite / aĢ gauche = on the right / on the left ailleurs = elsewhere aĢ Paris = in Paris au-dedans = on the inside au-dehors = on the outside au-dessous = below au-dessus = above au loin = in the distance autour = around chez moi = at home ci-dessous = below ci-dessus = above, aforementioned dedans = inside dehors = outside derrieĢre = behind dessous = underneath en bas = down below en dessous = underneath (indicating static position) en haut = up above ici = here laĢ = there loin = far away par-dessous = underneath (indicating movement) partout = everywhere preĢs = nearby Expressions introduced by dans ā dans la chambre = in the bedroom 294 402 Adverbs of time Expressions introduced by preĢs de ā preĢs de la reĢsidence universitaire = near the hall of residence Note ā ailleurs = elsewhere, but dāailleurs = moreover (unless it is being used to mean from elsewhere) and is a connector. 401 Examples of adverbs of place Je veux passer toute ma vie ici avec toi = I want to spend all my life here with you Le dernier concours sāest deĢrouleĢ aĢ Anvers hier = the last competition took place in Antwerp yesterday LaĢ, ces douze pays seront groupeĢs dans trois groupes = there, these twelve countries will be divided into three groups Il faut que je me relance, que jāaille partout pour trouver ce quāil me manque = Iāve got to get myself going again, Iāve got to go everywhere to find whatās missing in my life Servez avec des crouĢtons ailleĢs dessus = serve with garlic croutons on top Des tiroirs ont eĢteĢ placeĢs dessous pour eĢviter ce fameux deĢsordre des salles de bains = drawers have been placed underneath to avoid that notorious untidiness of bathrooms Dans les intervalles, glissez des plantes vivaces = in the spaces slip in some hardy plants 402 Adverbs of time These adverbs indicate the time at or during which an event takes place and answer the question ā Quand est-ce que cela est arriveĢ / arrivera ? = when did / will that happen? Typical adverbs and adverbial expressions are ā actuellement = at present alors = then, at that time apreĢs = afterwards apreĢs la naissance de mon beĢbeĢ = after my babyās birth aĢ preĢsent = at present aujourdāhui = today auparavant = beforehand au printemps = in the spring aussitoĢt = immediately autrefois = in the past bientoĢt = soon 295 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR dāabord = first of all deĢjaĢ = already demain = tomorrow demain matin = tomorrow morning depuis = since then deĢs lors = from then on deĢsormais = from now on en ce moment = at the moment encore = still, again en feĢvrier = in February enfin = finally en hiver = in winter en retard = late ensuite = afterwards freĢquemment = frequently hier = yesterday immeĢdiatement = immediately jamais = ever longtemps = a long time maintenant = now mercredi soir = Wednesday evening parfois = at times preĢceĢdemment = previously prochainement = soon quelquefois = sometimes reĢcemment = recently six semaines plus tard = six weeks later soudain = suddenly souvent = often sur-le-champ = straightaway tard = late toĢt = early 296 403 Comments: certain adverbs of time toujours = always, still tout aĢ coup = suddenly tout aĢ lāheure = soon, a moment ago tout de suite = immediately and the ordinal numbers ā premieĢrement, deuxieĢmement, etc. 403 Comments on certain adverbs of time Encore and toujours cover similar semantic domains as well as distinct ones ā encore = still Jāai encore ton deĢbardeur = Iāve still got your top Une transmission de la maladie de la vache folle aux humains est encore possible = the transmission of mad cow disease to humans is still possible encore = again Je lui ai encore demandeĢ de me preĢter le cd = I asked him again to lend me the CD Elle sāest encore vexeĢe quand jāai fumeĢ aĢ la maison = she got angry again when I smoked in the house encore + noun / adverb = still more, even (with a comparative) Je prendrai encore du vin, sāil vous plaıĢt = Iāll have some more wine please Le silence apporte encore du poids aĢ vos propos = silence adds still more weight to what you say Cāest encore mieux si vous le faites comme cĢ§a = itās even better if you do it like that toujours = still Elle est toujours laĢ = sheās still there Si tout se passe bien, aĢ 90 ans, vos os seront toujours en bon eĢtat = if everything goes well, your bones will still be in good condition when youāre 90 toujours = always Je vais toujours aĢ lāeĢtranger pour mes vacances = I always go abroad for my holidays Une voix de crooner rocailleuse mais toujours eĢmouvante = a croonerās voice, gravelly but always moving For word order with toujours, see 210. Tard and en retard = late, but with different connotations ā tard bears no negative meaning ā Jāaime me lever treĢs tard le samedi = I like getting up very late on a Saturday Je rentrais tard de la boıĢte quand deux mecs qui traıĢnaient dans la rue se sont approcheĢs de moi = I was coming home late from the nightclub when two guys who were hanging about in the street approached me 297 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Only en retard carries the connotation of being behind time ā Il māa dit que si je continuais dāarriver en retard il me virerait = he told me that if I kept on arriving late heād fire me Je devenais de plus en plus anxieuse parce que le train eĢtait deĢjaĢ en retard dāune demi-heure = I was becoming more and more anxious because the train was already half an hour late 404 Examples of adverbs of time Ce sera alors au juge dāeĢvaluer les conseĢquences = then it will be up to the judge to assess the consequences Cette capaciteĢ aĢ tenir son service sera la clef de son match aujourdāhui = this ability to hold his service [in tennis] will be the key to his match today Mes parents sont divorceĢs depuis six ans = my parents have been divorced for six years DeĢsormais, jāappreĢcie quāon ne me trouve plus moche = from now on Iām very pleased that no one finds me ugly any more Quinze minutes dāentraıĢnements musculaires et cardio-vasculaires [1] le matin permet de maigrir et de gagner en eĢnergie [2] pour toute la journeĢe = fifteen minutes of muscular and cardio-vascular exercises in the morning help you lose weight and gain energy for the whole day Les deux hommes ne sāeĢtaient pas parleĢ depuis samedi midi = the two men hadnāt spoken since midday Saturday Depuis la loi Madelin, ces cotisations sont deĢductibles des revenus = since the āloi Madelinā these subscriptions are deductible against your income Maintenant je suis dans tous les journaux = now Iām in all the papers Jāai toujours aimeĢ les cochons = Iāve always liked pigs 405 Adverbs of degree Adverbs of degree indicate the intensity with which an action expressed by the verb is undertaken, or the intensity with which a quality expressed by an adjective or adverb is perceived. Adverbs of degree answer questions introduced by combien? = how much? Typical adverbs are ā absolument = absolutely aĢ peine = hardly aĢ peu preĢs = almost assez = enough au moins = at least aussi = also autant = as much beaucoup = much, a lot 298 406 Comments: certain adverbs of degree bien = really compleĢtement = completely de loin = by far deĢmesureĢment = disproportionately encore = still, again eĢnormeĢment = enormously entieĢrement = entirely immenseĢment = enormously juste = just meĢme = even moins = less particulieĢrement = particularly peu = little plus = more plutoĢt = rather presque = almost si = so tant = so much tellement = so, so much terriblement = terribly totalement = totally tout(e) = quite, completely tout aĢ fait = completely treĢs = very trop = too, too much un peu = a little, a little bit vraiment = really, truly 406 Comments on certain adverbs of degree Assez and trop ā when followed by an infinitive, the preposition pour is used to introduce it ā Il a assez de talent artistique pour sāattirer le respect des autres en faisant des caricatures des profs = he has enough artistic talent to attract the othersā respect by drawing caricatures of the teachers 299 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Ces chaussures sont trop serreĢes pour marcher confortablement = these shoes are too tight to walk comfortably in Presque never elides the final āe before a vowel (except in the compound une presquāıĢle = peninsula) Tout ā when used as an adverb, tout varies for number and gender before feminine adjectives beginning with a consonant, and varies optionally if a feminine adjective beginning with a vowel or non-aspirate h is involved, but not in other circumstances (that is not in masculine plural) ā Le message doit eĢtre tout simple = the message must be quite simple Les hommes tout seuls attendent celles qui sāimposeront aĢ eux = men who are completely alone wait for women who will impose themselves on them CheĢrie, tu es tout / toute irreĢsistible = darling, youāre quite irresistible Entre, la maison est toute vide = come in, the house is quite empty Elles ont une beauteĢ toute froide = theyāve got a really cold beauty 407 Examples of adverbs of degree Merci de me reĢpondre ā je suis assez presseĢe = thank you for answering, Iām in quite a hurry Si lāon eĢpouse quelquāun quāon nāaime pas assez, cela tourne vite au calvaire = if you marry someone you donāt love enough, it will soon become a nightmare Les bijoutiers vous accordent leur savoir-faire aussi longtemps que vous gardez votre bijou = the jewellers will give you their expert advice for as long as you keep the item of jewellery Nous avons un treĢs bon indice de satisfaction = we have a very good record of satisfaction Il sont reĢmuneĢreĢs entre 75% et 100% du SMIC, soit un peu plus que ce que preĢvoit la leĢgislation = they are paid at a rate between 75% and 100% of the minimum wage, in other words a little bit more than is laid down by legislation Il joue un patron de salle de gym totalement meĢgalo = he plays the completely megalomaniac owner of a gym On est juste amoureux ā ouĢ en est le mal? = weāre just in love ā whatās wrong with that? Il a beĢneĢficieĢ de quarante-huit heures de repos presque complet = he profited from forty-eight hours of almost complete rest Un peu moins nombreux que les organisateurs ne lāespeĢraient = a little less well-attended than the organisers were hoping for Etre geĢneĢe par lāattitude de son petit ami en public, est-ce donc lāaimer un peu moins? = being embarrassed by the attitude of your boyfriend in public, does it mean you love him a little less? 300 409 Comparative / superlative adverbs Les fans lui apporteĢrent une dose suppleĢmentaire dāeĢnergie bien neĢcessaire pour passer le prochain obstacle = the fans gave him an extra dose of energy, very necessary to overcome the next obstacle Je me sens vraiment respecteĢe = I feel really respected 408 assez, autant, beaucoup, bien, tant, tellement, trop These adverbs of degree can also function as quantifiers modifying nouns ā Elle a recĢ§u assez de conseils pour savoir comment se comporter dans cette situation = sheās had enough advice to know how to act in such a situation Je ne savais pas que cela couĢterait autant dāargent que cela = I didnāt know that that would cost as much money as that Pour obtenir un effet graphique, il faut beaucoup de fleurs de couleurs diffeĢrentes = in order to obtain a graphic effect, you need a lot of flowers of different colours Bien des chemins les plus escarpeĢs demandent une dureĢe dāau moins cinq heures = many of the steepest tracks require at least five hours ApreĢs tant de recherches, on peut enfin conclure quāune femme avec un long nez et un gros visage doit opter pour les cheveux longs ou au carreĢ = after so much research, we can conclude that a woman with a long nose and fat face should go for long or square-cut hair Nous avons eu tellement de probleĢmes que nous avons deĢcideĢ de nous seĢparer = weāve had so many problems that weāve decided to split up Tout le monde est dāaccord, nous importons trop de produits et nāen exportons pas assez = everyone agrees ā we import too many products and donāt export enough 409 Comparative and superlative forms of adverbs The comparative forms of most adverbs in French are created by placing plus, moins or aussi before the adverb; the superlative by placing le plus or le moins before the adverb ā Le psychiatre va plus loin = the psychiatrist goes further Pour eĢviter les pieds empestants, changez vos chaussettes plus reĢgulieĢrement = to avoid stinking feet, change your socks more regularly Il le dit dāautant plus facilement quāil faisait partie de ceux qui avaient refuseĢ de tirer = it was all the easier for him to say it because he was among those who refused to shoot Elle a deĢcideĢ dāagir au plus vite = she decided to act as quickly as possible Ce remeĢde bloque moins ponctuellement les manifestations corporelles geĢnantes = this treatment blocks embarrassing physical manifestations less selectively Il y a beaucoup dāautres chanteurs assez aĢgeĢs qui continuent, mais ils chantent moins bien = there are lots of other fairly old singers who carry on, but they sing less well 301 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Sāils eĢtaient aussi laĢchement lieĢs aux causes honorables que lui, ils nāauraient pas accompli grandāchose = if they were as loosely linked to noble causes as him, they wouldnāt have achieved very much However, a very small number of adverbs of degree have special comparative and superlative forms ā beaucoup = much Plus = more; le plus = the most Ne mangez que des trucs bons, on bruĢle plus quand on diversifie les mets = only eat good-quality stuff, you burn up more when you vary what you eat Ne sautez aucun repas ā on stocke deux fois plus le repas suivant = donāt skip meals ā you stock up twice as much at the next meal For the comparison of adjectives, see 257. English the more . . . the more . . . is conveyed by plus . . . plus in French (see 201); as far as word order is concerned with adjectives, in French plus precedes the verb and the adjective follows it Une eĢtude a montreĢ que plus la main est situeĢe bas sur la fourchette, plus la personne est grosse = a study has shown that the lower you hold your fork, the fatter you are Plus vous eĢtes angoisseĢ, plus vous tremblez, et plus vous tremblez, plus vous angoissez aĢ lāideĢe que lāon sāen apercĢ§oive = the more anxious you are, the more you tremble, and the more you tremble, the more anxious you become that people are noticing Plus jāavancĢ§ais, plus je reĢalisais que cāeĢtait moi et non les autres quāil fallait comprendre = the older I got, the more I realised it was myself and not others that I had to understand bien = well Mieux = better; le mieux = best Vous eĢtes arriveĢ aĢ vous connaıĢtre ? ā Mieux quāavant = youāve managed to get to know yourself ? ā Better than before La digestion commence en maĢchant ā alors, maĢchez et vous digeĢrerez mieux = digestion begins with chewing ā so, chew and youāll digest your food better Ce nāest pas votre cas! ā Tant mieux! = thatās not your style! ā So much the better Sur quels vols mange-t-on le mieux ? = on what flights do you eat best? Elle a danseĢ le* mieux de la salle = she danced the best in the room * le not la (agreeing with elle), because mieux is an adverb and not an adjective. Moins bien = less well, le moins bien = least well, aussi bien = as well are formed normally ā but plus bien is not possible. mal = badly has a double set of comparative and superlative forms ā plus mal / pis = worse; le plus mal / le pis = the worst 302 410 Adverbs of affirmation, negation, doubt The forms with mal are the normal forms ā Il a joueĢ plus mal que dāhabitude = he played worse than usual Cela va de plus en plus mal maintenant ā elle ne me parle meĢme pas = things are going from bad to worse now ā she doesnāt even speak to me Il a organiseĢ son horaire le plus mal du monde ā il est compleĢtement eĢpuiseĢ = heās organised his timetable in the worst possible way ā heās completely worn out Il sāest deĢfendu le plus mal des candidats = he performed the least well of the candidates Pis is limited to a small number of fixed expressions ā Elle ne te preĢte pas attention ā tant pis pour toi! = she doesnāt pay any attention to you ā hard luck on you! Tout va de mal en pis = everythingās going from bad to worse Si vous ne faites rien, la situation va aller de mal en pis ā if you donāt do something, things will go from bad to worse peu = little Moins = less; le moins = the least Tricot, poterie ou peinture, peu importe lāactiviteĢ, cĢ§a fait un bien fou = knitting, pottery or painting, it doesnāt matter which activity, it does you a tremendous amount of good On rit moins quāon aurait penseĢ devant cette comeĢdie peu reĢussie = we laughed less than you would have thought at this not very successful comedy Elle a peu dāimagination = sheās got little imagination Si vous avez moins dāun kilo aĢ perdre, oubliez les reĢgimes, amusez-vous = if youāve got less than a kilo to lose, forget diets, enjoy yourself Le corps supporte de moins en moins bien dāeĢtre priveĢ de nourriture = our bodies cope less and less well with being deprived of food Je lāaime le moins du tout = I like it the least of all 410 Adverbs of affirmation, negation and doubt Typical adverbs are ā bien entendu = of course bien suĢr = of course certainement = certainly certes = certainly eĢvidemment = obviously non = no 303 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR oui = yes peut-eĢtre = perhaps probablement = probably sans aucun doute = without a doubt sans doute = probably si = yes vraisemblablement = probably oui and si Oui is used to say yes to affirmative yes/no questions, whereas si is used to say yes to negative yes/no questions, contradicting the expected answer ā Tu lāas fait? ā Oui = have you done it? ā Yes Tu ne lāas pas fait ? ā Si = you havenāt done it? ā Yes (I have) Oui = so in the following type of expressions ā JāespeĢre que oui = I hope so non = no, not ā see 428. Jāapprends aĢ dire non = Iām learning to say no JāespeĢre que non = I hope not Evidemment que non = obviously not The strength of the reply may be reinforced by adding mais ā mais oui / mais si = definitely mais non = definitely not Note that merci can be used = no thank you ā Tu veux des sels de bain pour ton anniversaire ? ā Merci = would you like some bath-salts for your birthday? ā No thank you 411 Examples of adverbs of affirmation, negation and doubt Une assurance « tous risques » couvre bien suĢr les frais meĢdicaux = comprehensive insurance certainly covers medical expenses Mon amie māa dit que le chocolat est probablement la cause de mon acneĢ = my friend has told me that chocolate is probably the cause of my acne Sans aucun doute une botte noire, pointue et fine, cĢ§a titille lāinconscient masculine = beyond a doubt a black, pointed, slender boot titillates the masculine subconscious Si vous ne faites rien, la situation va vraisemblablement empirer = if you donāt do anything, the situation will probably get worse 304 413 Adverbs as connectors Ne serait-ce pas une facĢ§on de me manipuler ? ā Un peu, sans doute = wouldnāt that be a way of manipulating me? ā A little, probably Votre poids varie, mais vous ne changez pas de reĢgime alimentaire ā ceci pourrait bien entendu eĢtre un symptoĢme de la reĢtention dāeau = your weight varies but you havenāt changed your eating habits ā this might of course be a symptom of water retention 412 Interrogative adverbs The interrogative adverbs are ā combien? = how much, how many? comment? = how? ouĢ? = where? pourquoi? = why? quand? = when? These are discussed in 479. 413 Adverbs as connectors The role of a connector is to indicate the connection between what is being said and what was said before. Connectors are not integrated into the clause but express some evaluation or comment on the speakerās/writerās part. Typical connectors are ā ainsi = in the same way alors = so au contraire = on the contrary au / du moins = at least aussi = thus autrement dit = in other words cependant = yet cāest-aĢ-dire = in other words dāailleurs = besides de toute facĢ§on / manieĢre = anyway en conseĢquence = consequently en effet = in effect en fait = in fact en geĢneĢral = in general en revanche = on the other hand 305 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR en somme = briefly, in a nutshell eĢvidemment = obviously heureusement = fortunately malheureusement = unfortunately neĢanmoins = nevertheless or = now par conseĢquent = consequently par contre = on the other hand plutoĢt = rather pourtant = however puis = then quand meĢme = even so seulement = only soit = so be it toutefois = nevertheless and expressions like dāune part . . . de lāautre part = on the one hand . . . on the other, dāun coĢteĢ . . . de lāautre coĢteĢ = on the one hand . . . on the other ; and words like bizarrement = strangely, franchement = frankly, naturellement = naturally, which are also adverbs of manner but as conjuncts convey some assessment of what is being said. au / du moins = at least; au moins is also used as an adverb of degree puis = then, both as an adverb of time and a connector. 414 Examples of connectors Alors, jāai opteĢ pour le francĢ§ais = so I opted for French En revanche, tu nāas aucune raison de culpabiliser = on the other hand, youāve got no reason to feel guilty MeĢme si lāon ne peut compleĢtement controĢler sa vie, on peut au moins en donner lāimpression = even if you canāt control your life, you can at least give the impression you do De lāautre coĢteĢ ce nāest peut-eĢtre pas la meilleure solution = on the other hand, itās perhaps not the best solution De toute manieĢre, tu me connais ā si je peux aider = in any case, you know me, if I can help Or, oui, je pense que cāest bien de se poser cette question = well, yes, I think itās a good idea to ask yourself that question 306 Exercises Et [1] puis, [2] globalement, il est plus agreĢable de recevoir un bouquet de fleurs quāune paire de baffes = and then, on the whole, itās more pleasant to get a bouquet of flowers than a box round the ears Exercises Traduisez en francĢ§ais les passages qui suivent en anglais ā a Loneliness isnāt a medical defect or a stroke of fate, but a necessary phase, from which you often emerge more aware, more sensitive and more human. b I think that the reason why I became a writer is to a large extent linked to my father and my feelings towards him. c Fast-food culture has completely changed our eating habits and, even more seriously, the amounts we consume. d We live in a very competitive society in which you construct your own self-esteem by constantly comparing yourself to others. e The symptoms of the crisis in the Catholic church in France are so well known that itās scarcely necessary to list them: in half a century regular church-going has collapsed, itās been divided by four and is stagnating around 10%; the number of priests being ordained every year is nowadays a tenth of what it was in the ā50s, and Catholic charities are no more than the shadow of what they used to be. f At the present time, no one is in a position to know if Lille will equal Saint-EĢtienne and Marseille by pulling off a fourth consecutive national title, nor what its fate will be in the Championsā League. g Allow it to cook for 15 mins. on a low heat, then add the stock and cream, allow to cook for a further 15 mins. on a medium heat. Remove the thyme and mix everything together with the remainder of the cream. Add a little stock if it is too thick. h Frequently used to relieve stress, essential oils can also be used, according to their properties, to soothe your skin or fight against wrinkles. i Apply black or very dark brown eyeliner in a classical style on your upper eyelid, going from the centre and extending the line beyond the outer corner of your eye. Once the make-up is completely dry, you apply a slightly shorter identical line of eyeliner to the edge of your lower lashes. j Patches are good at performing conjuring tricks. They are applied locally, like a cream, but they act on the whole of the body, like a pill. The trick consists in enclosing the active ingredient under a small piece of adhesive material, which allows it to spread through the skin in order to connect with the blood supply. k On a wall pureĢe of broccoli is spread like a coating, at the foot of the wall there are two cones of carrots. With time the wall and the cones will 307 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR assume colours that will change under the effect of decomposition ā thatās contemporary art for you! l Traditionally, it is accepted that boys belong to the āstronger sexā and girls to the āweaker sexā. This distinction may reflect a difference in terms of muscles. But when you consider existence as a whole, the reverse is clearly true. Generally speaking, women resist illness better; they eat more healthily; theyāre more cautious when driving and kill each other less spontaneously. As a consequence, they live longer. 308 Chapter 10 Negation 415 Negation + verb To negate a verb, the negative particle ne is used: alone (but very rarely) ā Si ce nāest de garder cette bonne habitude dāavoir toujours une bouteille dāeau aĢ porteĢe de main = unless it is to keep this good habit of always having a bottle of water to hand in conjunction with another item which may be a negative particle ā Monogamie ne rime pas avec monotonie = monogamy and monotony are not the same thing a pronoun ā Personne ne veut provoquer un oedeĢme des cordes vocales et une laryngite chronique ā ne fumez donc pas ā no one wants to cause oedema of the vocal cords and chronic laryngitis ā so donāt smoke a determiner ā Dāautres objets ne doivent en aucun cas eĢtre introduits dans la bouche de lāenfant = under no circumstances must other objects be placed in the childās mouth an adverb ā Un tiers des couples francĢ§ais ne font plus lāamour = a third of French couples no longer make love All these items require ne when negating a verb ā except in informal French when the ne is often dropped ā see 431. However, when they are used without a verb, they still retain their negative values; in other words, personne = no one (but une personne = a person), aucun = no, none, jamais = never (but in certain circumstances, it can also = ever). 416 ne + negative particle ā ne . . . pas = not The negative particle most commonly used ā in fact in the vast majority of cases ā is pas. Point also exists but is rarely found in contemporary French usage. Word order Ne precedes the verb and any unstressed object pronouns or y, en that also precede it. The particle follows the finite verb in simple tenses and the auxiliary verb in compound tenses. It can however be separated from the verb by certain adverbs ā see below. 309 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR ne . . . pas + finite verb in simple tenses Lāimportant nāest pas dāeĢtre meilleur que les autres mais dāeĢtre au mieux de soi-meĢme = the important thing is not to be better than others but to be at your best Je crois fermement que le succeĢs nāarrive pas par accident = I sincerely believe that success does not come by accident Les assurances les plus cheĢres ne sont pas toujours les meilleures = the most expensive insurance is not always the best La mauvaise reĢputation des creĢmes aĢ base de cortisone nāest pas justifieĢe si on prend les preĢcautions neĢcessaires = the bad reputation of creams with a cortisone base is not justified if you take the necessary precautions ne . . . pas + auxiliary verb in compound tenses MalgreĢ un service capricieux, la tenniswoman francĢ§aise ne sāest pas mise en danger face aĢ sa rivale russe = despite a capricious serve, the French tennis player didnāt cause herself any serious problems against her Russian opponent LāeĢquipe tcheĢque ne lui a pas laisseĢ le temps de se construire = the Czech team didnāt give him the time to get his game together Le Ministre de la Justice nāa pas cacheĢ son inquieĢtude face aĢ la situation dans les prisons = the Minister of Justice did not hide his anxiety over the situation in the prisons Ils nāont pas pu riposter aux tirs de canon venant des rebelles = they couldnāt return the cannon fire coming from the rebels Je nāaurais pas cru que preĢserver sa santeĢ dentaire est si difficile = I wouldnāt have thought that preserving your dental health is so difficult ne + unstressed pronouns Je ne me sens pas menaceĢ maintenant = I donāt feel that Iām threatened now Cāest de ceux qui ne lāont pas connu que vient lāhommage le plus eĢmouvant = itās from those who didnāt know him that the most touching homage has come Cāest deĢjaĢ bien beau que le moral ne māait pas laisseĢe plus toĢt = itās already very nice that my morale didnāt abandon me earlier Ne te laisse pas abattre, prends ce mal en patience = donāt let yourself get depressed, be patient with this problem Si je voulais un pain de chocolat et quāil nāy en avait pas, cĢ§a creĢait un mouvement de panique = if I wanted a bar of chocolate and there werenāt any, that created a feeling of panic ne . . . pas with imperative Antibiotiques ā ne les meĢlangez pas au lait de biberon = donāt mix antibiotics in the babyās bottle Ne vous courbez pas sur votre assiette, tenez-vous droite = donāt bend over your plate, sit up straight 310 416 ne + negative particle ā ne . . . pas = not NāheĢsitez pas aĢ vous faire plaisir, vous nāen serez que plus irreĢsistible = donāt hesitate to give yourself some pleasure, youāll only look the more irresistible ne . . . pas + inverted interrogative ā see 472. Ne . . . pas surround the verb and pronoun ā Nāavez-vous pas envie de lui dire dāaller se faire voir? = donāt you want to tell him to take a running jump? Nāaccepterez-vous pas de conformer aux reĢgles, de respecter les interdits? = wonāt you agree to conforming to the rules, to respecting the taboos? Ce besoin dāaccumuler les conqueĢtes, ne reĢveĢlerait-il pas une peur de la solitude ou de lāengagement? = doesnāt this need to collect conquests reveal a fear of loneliness or of commitment? ne pas precedes an infinitive ā and also any pronouns that precede the infinitive ā Le museĢe nāest pas encore neĢ et pourrait ne pas voir le jour = the museum isnāt yet born and might not see the light of day On lui reproche de ne pas tenir compte du facteur humain dans sa queĢte de la rigueur scientifique = they reproach him for not taking account of the human factor in his quest for scientific rigour Il est important de ne pas servir vos repas dans de grandes assiettes blanches, mais dans de petites assiettes coloreĢes = itās important not to serve your meals on big white plates but on small coloured ones Il vous faut des compleĢments alimentaires ā indispensables pour ne pas eĢtre creveĢe de fatigue = you need some food complements ā indispensable so as not to be exhausted with fatigue Il est conseilleĢ de ne pas sāattarder, achetez maintenant = itās advisable not to delay, buy now Pourquoi ne pas lui proposer une escapade dans les dunes? = why not suggest a romp in the dunes to her? ne . . . pas surround the auxiliary with a past infinitive ā Je māen voulais de nāavoir pas su preĢserver notre bonheur = I was angry with myself for not being able to preserve our happiness ne . . . pas surround the present participle ā En nāoubliant pas de lāamener avec toi = not forgetting to bring her with you Pour calmer votre stress, faites des promenades, mais en ne mangeant pas en route = to calm your stress, go for walks, but without eating at the same time Le roĢle du comique ā produire de la critique sociale mais en ne deĢversant pas trop son fiel = the comicās role ā to produce social criticism, but not venting his spleen excessively Vous faites un affront aĢ vos lecteurs en ne respectant pas la voix du peuple = you insult your readers by not respecting the voice of the people 311 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR pas separated from the verb by an adverb The adverbs in question tend to consist of a single word only; but quand meĢme = even so, sans doute = probably are also used in this way ā Le champion nāeĢtait peut-eĢtre pas dans un grand jour si lāon en croit ses mimiques significatives = perhaps the champ wasnāt on top form if you believe his significant gestures Votre beĢbeĢ a horreur du bruit ā ne soyez donc pas eĢtonneĢe de le voir crier si votre radio hurle = your baby canāt stand noise ā so donāt be surprised if you see him screaming if your radio is blasting away Il ne doit surtout pas se reĢveiller avec une gueule de bois = above all he mustnāt wake up with a hangover Le preĢsident du club nāest meĢme pas suĢr de rester en place = the president of the club is not even sure of keeping his job La socieĢteĢ nāest cependant pas composeĢe uniquement de professeurs et dāouvriers = society is, however, not composed entirely of teachers and workers Vous nāallez quand meĢme pas vous lancer dans une autre aventure = even so youāre not going to launch yourself into another adventure Le fait de tomber amoureux nāest sans doute pas un pur hasard = the fact of falling in love is not a pure accident ne . . . pas + indefinite article (un, une, du, de la, de lā, des) + direct object ā the indefinite article is contracted to de (see 260) ā Les paĢtes ne manquent pas dāatouts nutritionnels = pasta is not without nutritional benefits Lāangoisse est consideĢrablement exacerbeĢe sāils nāont pas de recours meĢdical = their anxiety is considerably increased if they havenāt got medical help LāanestheĢsiste est laĢ pour sāassurer que le patient nāa pas de nauseĢes = the anaesthetist is there to assure himself that the patient is not nauseous Jāai remarqueĢ quāil nāy avait pas dāimmigreĢs dans les corteĢges = I noticed that there werenāt any immigrants among the marchers CĢ§a ne me pose pas de probleĢme dāattendre = itās no problem for me to wait Il nāy a pas de mal aĢ se faire du bien = thereās no harm in doing yourself some good This situation is to be distinguished from the following ā ne . . . pas + de combined with the definite article, producing du, de lā, de la, des ā Mais ne servez-vous pas encore du sirop que vous avez mis de coĢteĢ = but donāt use the syrup that youāve put to one side yet Il ne se contente pas du shampooing quotidien ā il utilise en plus le gel pour cheveux, et la cire aĢ cheveux = heās not satisfied with his daily shampoo ā he also uses hair gel and wax 312 417 ne alone ne . . . pas + de combined with the indefinite article, producing pas un, pas une ā Si elle nāa pas une bonne dose dāhumour, oubliez = if she hasnāt got a reasonable dose of good humour, forget it 417 ne alone The use of ne without pas is limited to a small number of circumstances, with certain verbs and expressions ā With cesser Les choses nāont cesseĢ dāempirer = things have kept on getting worse Je ne cessais de me demander comment on avait pu en arriver laĢ = I kept on asking myself how things could have got to such a state With nāavoir de cesse = to persist until Cette fois, cāest deĢcideĢ, vous sortez les grands moyens ā le love-coach ā il nāaura de cesse de vous caser avec votre ideĢal = this time itās for sure, you bring out the big guns ā a love-coach ā he wonāt give up till heās fixed you up with your perfect partner Elle a eĢteĢ initieĢe aĢ un nouveau monde qui nāaura de cesse de libeĢrer son esprit = she has been initiated into a new world which will continually liberate her mind With pouvoir Je ne peux māempeĢcher dāeĢtre nerveuse lorsque mon mari doit prendre lāavion pour ses deĢplacements professionnels = I canāt help being nervous when my husband takes the plane when heās travelling professionally La culpabiliteĢ de ne pouvoir eĢtre aĢ la hauteur de cette image sociale de la sexualiteĢ = guilt at not being able to maintain this social image of sexuality Lāon ne peut preĢtendre en permanence que les preĢceptes reĢpublicains sont bafoueĢs chaque fois quāon lance une reĢforme = you canāt keep on claiming that every time a reform is launched republican principles are flouted With si ce nāest = but for, unless Si ce nāest de garder cette bonne habitude dāavoir toujours une bouteille dāeau aĢ porteĢe de main = unless it is to keep this good habit of always having a bottle of water to hand With je ne sais quoi = goodness knows what Jāen ai marre de ces feĢministes agressives qui veulent que leurs mecs fassent le meĢnage, la vaisselle, le repassage et je ne sais quoi encore = Iām fed up with those aggressive feminists who want their fellers to do the housework, the washing up, the ironing and goodness knows what else With nāimporte qui = anyone, nāimporte quoi = anything ā see 245 Nāimporte qui accepterait pour lui faire plaisir = anyone would accept to please her Vous feriez nāimporte quoi pour eĢviter une situation peĢnible = youād do anything to avoid a painful situation 313 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR With some archaic formulae QuāaĢ cela ne tienne! = never mind! There is also the case of āexpletiveā ne ā used, optionally, in certain types of clause. Unlike the previous cases, this ne has no negative value. Its use here is often but not always associated with high-register French ā After avant que = before On ne pouvait pas lāempeĢcher de voir ses copains, on le harcelait avant quāil ne parte = you couldnāt stop him seeing his mates, you tackled him about it before he left After expressions of prevention En fait cĢ§a eĢvitera quāil ne se sente obligeĢ de se rendre aĢ la fac ce soir = in fact that will save him from going back to the uni. this evening After sans que = without Cāest le cas des employeĢs qui suivent leur entreprise sans que leur conjoint ne puisse partir avec eux = itās the case of workers who follow their firm around without their spouse being able to go with them Si vous eĢtes mal dans votre peau, vous ne serez pas percĢ§u positivement, sans que la personne ne puisse reĢellement en expliquer la cause = if youāre not comfortable with yourself, you wonāt be perceived positively, without the person being really able to explain the reason why 418 ne . . . personne = no one, not anyone As subject Personne ne doit perdre la face = no one must lose face La socieĢteĢ actuelle souhaite nous aligner tous sur le meĢme modeĢle ā personne nāose ne pas paraıĢtre jeune, beau, productif = contemporary society wants to make us all conform to the same model ā no one dares not appear young, good-looking, productive La combine fonctionne ā mais personne nāest dupe = the scams work ā but no one is taken in Personne ne devrait manquer une telle possibiliteĢ = no one should miss such a chance Personne ne voulait de moi = no one wanted me As object With compound tenses the pronoun follows the past participle (instead of preceding it, as with most of the other negators) ā Je nāai personne aĢ qui me confier = I havenāt got anyone to confide in Je nāai reconnu personne dans la salle ā I didnāt recognise anyone in the room Je vous eĢcris parce que je ne trouve personne avec qui je peux partager ma passion des cravates et petits boutons fantaisie = Iām writing to you because I canāt find anyone with whom I can share my passion for ties and small novelty buttons 314 419 ne . . . rien = nothing, not anything As indirect object Ne parlez aĢ personne comme cĢ§a, pas de reĢflexion, ni de prise de teĢte = donāt speak to anyone like that, without thinking, without arguing Ne faites confiance aĢ personne et gardez votre langue dans votre poche = donāt trust anyone and keep your tongue buttoned up LāideĢe nāarriverait aĢ personne dāutiliser de tels comprimeĢs sans lāautorisation de son meĢdecin = the idea wouldnāt occur to anyone to use those pills without their doctorās authorisation After a preposition Jāai deĢcouvert que je ne peux compter sur personne sauf mon amie = Iāve discovered that I canāt count on anyone except my girlfriend Les poigneĢes dāamour ne flattent lāimage de personne = love handles donāt flatter anyoneās image Les divorceĢs qui sont resteĢs des anneĢes sans personne = divorcees who go for years without anybody Without a verb Avec qui es-tu sortie hier soir? ā Personne = who did you go out with last night? ā No one Qui est responsable des fiches de paie des travailleurs inteĢrimaires? ā ReĢponse habituelle ā personne = who is responsible for temporary workersā pay slips? ā Usual answer ā nobody 419 ne . . . rien = nothing, not anything As subject Rien nāest prouveĢ, mais vous pouvez essayer = nothing is proved, but you can try Rien ne doit vous empeĢcher de reĢgler vos histoires de coeur = nothing must prevent you from sorting out your romantic attachments Rien nāest plus dangereux pour la santeĢ que le cholesteĢrol de basse densiteĢ = nothing is worse for our health than low-density cholesterol Rien nāy fait ā tout le monde est toujours faĢcheĢ = nothing can be done about it ā everyone is still cross As object Ces positions nāont rien de treĢs confortable = these positions arenāt at all comfortable Si vous ne faites rien la situation va empirer = if you donāt do something the situation is going to get worse Il ne faut rien effacer, tout se rappeler, pour mieux rebondir = you mustnāt leave out anything, remember everything, to bounce back more effectively Les hauts fonctionnaires nāont rien sacrifieĢ de leurs privileĢges = the top civil servants have not sacrificed any part of their privileges 315 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Before an infinitive Vous eĢtes un peu maladroite, mais cāest toujours mieux que de ne rien faire = youāre a bit clumsy, but itās always better than doing nothing After a preposition Il ne faut toucher aĢ rien = you mustnāt touch anything Elle ne se souvient de rien de cette nuit-laĢ = she canāt remember anything about that night Je ne sortirais avec lui pour rien au monde = I wouldnāt go out with him for anything in the world Je nāeĢchangerais pas cĢ§a pour rien au monde = I wouldnāt change that for anything in the world rien de + adjective = nothing + adjective The adjective is invariable; the expressions may be used with a verb, in which case ne is required before the verb, rien precedes the participle when the verb is compound and the adjectival part follows it, or rien de may be used without a verb, in which case it retains its full negative value ā with simple tense Je crois quāil nāy a rien de pire quāune fille qui fait lāeĢtalage de ses conqueĢtes comme pourrait le faire un mec = I think thereās nothing worse than a girl who displays her conquests, like a guy would do with compound tense Je nāy ai rien appris de nouveau = I didnāt learn anything new there Il nāy avait rien eu dāextravagant aĢ la « Disco Infernale » = there hadnāt been anything that out of the ordinary at the āDisco Infernaleā without ne, rien still preserves its negative value Rien de plus triste que des petits deĢjeuners qui se suivent et se ressemblent = thereās nothing sadder than breakfasts one after the other all the same Rien de tel quāune bonne feĢte paillarde pour eĢchapper au stress = thereās nothing like a good old wild knees-up to avoid stress Rien de pire que les paĢtes trop cuites = thereās nothing worse than over-cooked pasta With sans = without anything Monaco se trouve bredouille, sans rien = Monaco ends up empty-handed, without a thing rien que without negative = only, just VoilaĢ pourquoi elle peut sāoctroyer de temps aĢ autre des moments rien que pour elle = hereās why she can allow herself from time to time some moments just for herself Rien que de penser aĢ tout ce que ma copine va endurer, je me dis que jāai la chance dāeĢtre solo = simply thinking about what my friend is going to go through, I tell myself Iām lucky to be on my own 316 421 ne . . . nul = no, no one rien as noun = the slightest thing and functions as a normal noun Il ne suffit pas de reĢaliser un bon match, tout se joue sur des petits deĢtails, des petites erreurs, des riens = itās not enough to play a good match, everything turns on small details, minor errors, the slightest thing Les repas preĢts en un rien de temps, vous vous en souvenez? = meals ready in the blink of an eye ā do you remember them? 420 ne . . . aucun = no, none As adjective Je ne plaisais aĢ aucune fille = I didnāt appeal to any girl Je nāai aucun lien de sang avec ce monsieur-laĢ = Iāve no blood tie with that man Dans aucune deĢmocratie du monde, on ne trouve pareille situation = in no democracy in the world do you find a similar situation Aucune planeĢte ne vous nuit ce mois-ci = no planet will harm you this month Elle nāa aucune trace eĢcrite de son travail = sheās not got any written proof of her job Without a verb Quel homme reĢsisterait aĢ une jolie femme? ā Aucun = what man could resist a pretty woman? ā None Vous eĢtes tombeĢe sur un mec en boıĢte, mais vous apprenez quāil est marieĢ ā votre reĢponse? ā Aucun probleĢme, suis pas jalouse = you come across a bloke in a club, but you find out heās married ā your reaction? ā No prob, Iām not jealous Aucun is not used as an adjective in the plural ā its role there is assumed by the partitive article de or sans ā see 260, 383. As pronoun Aucun de mes amis ne comprend pourquoi je preĢfeĢre vivre en solo = none of my friends understands why I prefer to live alone Aucune de ses victimes nāa oseĢ deĢcrire leur calvaire personnel = none of his victims dared describe their personal suffering 421 ne . . . nul = no, no one Ne . . . nul is not very common in contemporary French ā it survives particularly in the expression nulle part = nowhere and occasionally as a pronoun and also as an independent adjective. As adjective Partout et jamais nulle part = everywhere and never nowhere As pronoun Pieds malodorants, pellicules, mauvaise haleine, nul nāest eĢpargneĢ = smelly feet, dandruff, bad breath, no one is spared 317 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR = nil, useless Son taux de croissance nāest pas nul = its growth rate is not unimportant La NorveĢge a gagneĢ nuls points = Norway got no points 422 ne . . . gueĢre = hardly, scarcely Il nāeut gueĢre de peine aĢ montrer quāil aurait pu aussi partir dans le Tour avec le maillot jaune = he scarcely had difficulty showing that he could have set off in the Tour [cycle race] wearing the yellow jersey La reĢgion, ouĢ dominent les grosses chemineĢes pleines de fumeĢes industrielles, nāamuse gueĢre = the region, where enormous chimneys spout industrial fumes, is hardly attractive 423 ne . . . jamais = never As with ne . . . pas, an indefinite article dependent on jamais is contracted to de ā see 416. After the verb Du fait que la France nāa jamais connu de gouvernement libeĢral, la gauche nāa pas eu aĢ bouger vers le centre = since France has never had a liberal government, the left has never had to move towards the centre Elle tombe amoureuse une fois par mois, mais aĢ son grand deĢsespoir, le coup de foudre nāest jamais reĢciproque = she falls in love once a month, but, to her great despair, the crush is never reciprocated Ce grand champion, Raymond Poulidor, nāa jamais porteĢ le maillot jaune = this great champion, Raymond Poulidor, never wore the yellow jersey Before the verb Unlike English, French does not invert the verb when jamais precedes it ā Jamais les Portugais ne donnent lāimpression dāeĢtre deĢpasseĢs = never do the Portuguese give the impression of being outdone With infinitive Au coup de sifflet final, on le voit balancer le ballon dans le ciel en espeĢrant ne jamais le voir reĢapparaıĢtre = at the final whistle, you could see him boot the ball into the sky hoping never to see it reappear Les jeunes vieux dāaujourdāhui cherchent aĢ rajeunir et surtout aĢ ne jamais faire leur aĢge = todayās young oldies try to look young and especially not to act their age With infinitive as imperative Ne jamais donner une reĢponse immeĢdiate si lāon sent que le « petit service » que lāon vous demande va se transformer en gros calvaire = never reply straightaway if you feel the āsmall serviceā theyāre asking you is going to change into a real ordeal Without ne = never On peut sāhabiller en bleu, jamais en rouge = you can wear blue, never red 318 424 ne . . . plus = no longer, not any more On y va pour draguer les filles, jamais pour eĢcouter la musique = you go there to chat up girls, never to listen to the music Le conseil de mes amies ā jamais le premier soir = my friendsā advice ā never the first night After sans, jamais = ever Il y retourne dix minutes plus tard sans jamais trouver la fille quāil voulait draguer = he goes back ten minutes later without ever being able to find the girl he wanted to chat up Elle enchaıĢne les relations sans jamais parvenir aĢ construire une histoire durable = she goes from one relationship to another without ever managing to construct one that lasts Vous attendez quāil vous appelle, sans jamais oser lāappeler = you wait for him to call you, without ever daring to call him 424 ne . . . plus = no longer, not any more Je ne sais plus comment me coiffer = I no longer know how to do my hair Il a compris que la France ne pouvait plus refuser la reĢforme = he understood that France could no longer refuse reforms Nāayez plus peur de lāanestheĢsie = donāt be afraid of anaesthetics any more ApreĢs 70 ans, il faudra veiller aĢ boire suffisamment, car les meĢcanismes de la soif ne fonctionnent plus comme avant = after 70 years of age, you have to be careful to drink enough, because the mechanisms controlling your thirst no longer work as they used to Il faudra reĢformer le systeĢme de santeĢ dont les couĢts ne sont plus controĢleĢs = it will be necessary to reform the health system whose costs are no longer under control With infinitive Les craintes du beĢbeĢ peuvent eĢtre dues aĢ des angoisses de toute sorte, celle de ne plus vous voir dans son champ de vision = the babyās fears may be due to all sorts of anxieties, such as no longer having you in its field of vision Il lui suffisait de garder son calme et ne plus chercher lāas mais de mettre sa premieĢre balle en jeu = all he had to do was to keep calm and no longer go for the ace but get his first ball in Ne plus se reĢveiller ā laĢ reĢside la source dāangoisse principale des patients devant lāanestheĢsie = not to wake up again ā thatās the principal source of anxiety for patients when faced with going under an anaesthetic Je me disais quāelle finirait par ne plus y penser = I told myself sheād end up not thinking about it any more Depuis que vous avez trouveĢ le creĢneau qui vous convient au mieux vous devriez ne plus en sortir = since youāve found the slot that suits you best, you shouldnāt abandon it ever again 319 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR In the expression nāen plus pouvoir = not to be able to bear Elle nāen peut plus de sa solitude = she canāt bear being alone any more 425 ne . . . que = only In French the que of this combination immediately precedes the element it qualifies ā unlike English where the position of only is less strictly applied. Ne . . . que can be used to exclude clauses as well as items which do not involve a verb ā 10 kilos de trop ā cĢ§a ne se perd que sous controĢle meĢdical = 10 kilos overweight ā that can only be lost under medical supervision Pour moi, une femme qui fume dans la rue ne peut eĢtre que vulgaire = to me, a woman who smokes in the street can only be common Ce nāest quāun geste anodin, mais vous eĢtes suĢr de le deĢsorienter = itās only a harmless gesture, but youāre sure to put him off his stroke Le reste, ce ne sont que quelques images voleĢes ci et laĢ = as for the rest, itās just a few images stolen here and there Cette soupe leĢgeĢre ne contient que 25 calories aux 100 millilitres = this light soup only contains 25 calories per 100 millilitres Je viens de prendre conscience que je nāai que 20 ans = Iāve just realised that Iām only 20 years old Ne . . . que is often used with a verb to = the only thing, all Peut-eĢtre vivez-vous avec un volcan qui ne demande quāaĢ se reĢveiller = perhaps youāre living with a volcano and all she wants is to burst into life Elle nāa quāaĢ se laisser aller et savourer = all she has to do is let herself go and enjoy Pour se proteĢger des moustiques, on nāa quāaĢ sāasperger de citronnelle = to protect yourself from mosquitoes, all you have to do is sprinkle yourself with citronella ne . . . que + pas = not just, not only On nāy va pas que pour rencontrer le mec dont on a toujours reĢveĢ = you donāt just go there to meet the guy of your dreams On ne partage pas que des souvenirs = you donāt only share memories Dans sa bande dāamis, il nāy avait pas que des mecs bien = in his gang of mates, there were not only good guys Mais le pire cāest quāil nāy a pas que les proches qui tirent partie de votre gentillesse = but the worst thing is it isnāt just your own relatives that exploit your kindness 426 ne . . . (pas) . . . ni . . . ni = neither . . . nor, not . . . or, not . . . either . . . or Ne . . . ni . . . ni can be used with any part of speech ā from adjectives to clauses (see 452). If ne . . . pas (or equivalent) is used ā and this is the most frequent combination ā ni does not occur before the first of the set of items ā 320 427 pas alone = not Le reĢsultat nāest pas deĢnueĢ de charme, ni parfois dāeĢmotion = the result is not without charm or at times emotion Le rapport vite fait nāest pas moins respectable quāun rapport long, ni moins utile dans la vie quotidienne dāun couple = a relationship that is quickly made is no less respectable than a long one, nor less useful in a coupleās everyday life Je nāai pas croiseĢ ses yeux bleus le lendemain ni les jours suivants = I didnāt come across his blue eyes the next day or the following days With ne . . . plus Avec tous les nouveaux reĢglements, aĢ quoi cĢ§a rime dāeĢtre gardien, si on ne peut plus se servir de ses mains, ni de ses pieds, ni de rien? = with all the new regulations, whatās the point of being a goalie, if you canāt use your hands, your feet or anything any more? With ne . . . aucun Cela va faire bientoĢt un an que je nāai aucune vie sentimentale ni sexuelle = itās soon going to be a year since I had any emotional or sexual attachment If no negative particle is used (ie, no pas), then ni precedes every item of the set ā Ce nāest ni lāendroit ni le moment = itās neither the right place nor the right moment Je portais des talons hauts et il ne fallait ni que je perde lāeĢquilibre ni que je deĢvie de la cible = I was wearing high heels and it was necessary for me not to lose my balance or deviate from the target Parfois on nāest ni homo, ni heĢteĢro, mais les deux = sometimes youāre neither homosexual nor heterosexual, but both ni . . . ni without a verb Sāagit-il dāune mode ou dāun pheĢnomeĢne de socieĢteĢ? ā Ni lāun, ni lāautre = is it a matter of fashion or a social phenomenon? ā Neither one nor the other Ni coinceĢe, ni deĢvergondeĢe, vous avez une perception assez reĢaliste des mecs = neither stuck in your ways nor outrageous in your behaviour, youāve got a fairly realistic perception of men 427 pas alone = not Pas is used alone to negate a word or a phrase that does not contain a verb. Remplacez la bouffe par des mots, mais pas par des clopes = replace your food with words, but not with fags La vie pas toujours facile des solos = the not-always-easy life of those who live alone La France eĢpouse la logique des loisirs et pas celle du travail. Pourquoi pas, dāailleurs? = France is wedded to the demands of leisure but not of work. Whyever not? Nous avons celle qui est la plus deĢcente, mais pas la moins sexy = weāve got the girl whoās the most decent, but not the least sexy CĢ§a marche? ā Pas du tout = OK ? ā Not at all 321 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Pourquoi pas organiser un voyage? = why not organise a trip? JāeĢtais venue pour māamuser, pas pour me lamenter = Iād come to enjoy myself not to moan Je lāutilise ou pas? = shall I use it or not? Je nāai jamais su sāil plaisantait ou pas = I never knew whether he was joking or not With indefinite articles, pas de (instead of du, de la, des, etc) is used, as with ne . . . pas above (see 416) ā Pas dāalcool, bien suĢr = no alcohol, thatās for sure Pas de linge sale aĢ ramasser au quatre coins de la maison = no dirty clothes to pick up from the four corners of the house 428 non = no, not Apart from in its role as a negative reply, non functions in much the same way as pas, but is found less frequently. non = no in negative answer Non, solo ne veut pas dire que vous eĢtes disponible pour toutes les corveĢes = no, being alone does not mean youāre available for each and every nasty job Les gens ont tellement peur de dire non = people are so scared to say no Que non emphasises negation of negative answer ā Vous avez peur quāon aille vous aimer moins apreĢs. EĢvidemment que non! = youāre afraid that theyāre going to like you less afterwards. Of course not! non = not Quand nous nous voyons, cāest que nous le voulons vraiment, et non par obligation = when we see each other, itās because we really want to, and not out of obligation Non soigneĢe, une angine bacteĢrienne peut entraıĢner des complications graves = if bacterial angina is not treated, it can cause serious complications In English not only introducing a clause is followed by inversion; the French equivalent, non seulement, is not ā Non seulement ce deĢbardeur aĢ brassieĢre inteĢgreĢe met notre silhouette en valeur, mais en plus il soutient notre fragile poitrine = not only does this crop top with integrated bra show off our silhouette but in addition it supports our fragile bust For non que . . . , see 148. 429 . . . pas non plus = neither, . . . . not . . . either, nor Les tensions ne lui reĢussissent pas non plus = tension doesnāt do him any good either Le bon moment de suivre un reĢgime ā quand vous eĢtes hyper motiveĢe ā pas en eĢtat de stress, pas en peĢriode de reĢvisions, pas non plus en peĢriode de feĢtes (tentations) = the best moment to go on a diet is when youāre highly motivated ā not in a state of stress, not revising, nor when youāre celebrating (temptations) 322 431 Omission of ne Si ce rallye nāest pas interdit, il nāest pas autoriseĢ non plus = even if this rally hasnāt been banned, it hasnāt been authorised either 430 Multiple negators Frequently more than one negator is used in a sentence. The rule for the order of multiple negators following a finite verb is ā ne jamais gueĢre plus rien past participle personne que infinitive Vous nāinvitez jamais personne ou des gens que vous nāaimez pas = you never invite anyone round or people you donāt like Les trucs qui moisissent dans le frigo nāappartiennent jamais aĢ personne = the bits and bobs that are going mouldy in the fridge never belong to anyone Je ne peux plus rien faire des quelques cheveux qui me restent = I canāt any longer do a thing with the few hairs Iāve still got Rien ne va plus dans ma vie = nothing is going right in my life any more Elle ne veut plus rien faire = she doesnāt want to do anything any more CāeĢtait fini. Il nāy avait plus de finale, plus de rencontre, plus rien = it was all over. There wasnāt going to be a final, no more matches, nothing whatsoever Un beĢbeĢ ne pleure jamais pour rien = a baby never cries for nothing Ce qui me fait le plus de mal, cāest savoir que personne ne māa jamais aimeĢe en dehors de ma famille et que je nāai jamais aimeĢ personne = what hurts the most is to know that no one has loved me outside my family and that Iāve never loved anyone However, if the negators precede the verb, the order plus jamais is also found ā Je jure que plus jamais il ne māaccompagnera dans les magasins = I swear that never again will he go shopping with me 431 Omission of ne In modern informal French, the omission of ne is very common ā Viens pas te plaindre si on dıĢne tard = donāt start complaining if your dinner is late Tāavais quāaĢ y penser avant de le lui dire = you should have thought about it before telling her On parlait du boulot ā ah! ā jāavais pas compris = they were speaking about work ā ah! ā I hadnāt understood CāeĢtait pas le moment = it wasnāt the right time Fontainebleau, cāest pas un peu ennuyeux comme ville? = isnāt Fontainebleau a bit boring as a town? Une meĢre, on en a quāune, des mecs, y en a pleins = you only have one mother, but there are stacks of guys 323 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Tu te fais engueuler parce que cāest rien compareĢ aĢ la faim dans le monde = you have your head bitten off because itās nothing compared to the hunger in the world Exercises Traduisez en francĢ§ais la section en anglais des phrases suivantes. Souvent il y a plus dāune solution. a Jāai consulteĢ plusieurs meĢdecins, mais no treatment gives me any relief. b Allegedly 78% des FrancĢ§ais do not understand que les enseignants boycottent les examens. c Nous passons nos soireĢes just talking. d Families no longer hesitate aĢ insulter les enseignants. e Nothing prevents you de commencer la randonneĢe devant chez vous, en toute saison. f I can no longer move my body nor speak nor even breathe. g La douleur only set in plusieurs semaines plus tard. h Faut-il se priver de boeuf ? ā Ah! non, car, tout dāabord meat has never been so safe from a health point of view et surtout parce que beef isnāt as fat as all that. i No passer-by can suspect que lāun des plus grands sex symbols du cineĢma se cache derrieĢre ces verres fumeĢs. j Neither does anyone know what he intends. k You canāt, lorsquāon est attacheĢ aĢ la cause palestinienne, sāempeĢcher de reprendre timidement espoir. l Je vis dans un centre antidouleurs qui me prescrit de la morphine, mais I no longer have any hope. I canāt work any longer. m My problems keep on increasing. n Thereās nothing simpler pour proteĢger sa santeĢ. o In less time than you need to say it, la peau eĢpaissit. p Signez une reconnaissance de dette, ainsi no one will be able to accuse you dāexploiter la situation. q Dans la plupart des familles du temps de notre arrieĢre-grand-meĢre, they only got washed on Sundays. r Si au second rendez-vous, I donāt give you a kiss, alors cela signifie que I never will. s Aujourdāhui on sait que there is no perfect health sans une bonne hygieĢne. t Il y a une ligne blanche que the French donāt want to cross. u She never kisses on the mouth nor does she spend the night avec sa proie. v Cāest le tabou that should not be transgressed. w FreĢquemment la question isnāt even hinted at. x Il faut eĢviter de se moquer de lui, not ask him to speak moins vite. y Il est plus tard que you think. 324 Exercises z Heās never so comfortable que lorsquāil renoue avec ses racines provinciales. aa Thereās scarcely any doubt that itās a case of suicide. bb I never realised. cc Pour ceux qui have neither drawn up a will nor made a gift, le Code civil sāoccupe de tout. dd Les dispositions prises par testament are never definitive: elles peuvent eĢtre changeĢes aĢ tout moment. ee This mega-star canāt buy his bread tranquillement, nor his cigarettes. ff Il a reĢussi et no longer has anything much aĢ prouver. gg Sa tenue de foot, deĢchireĢe, crotteĢe, couldnāt last any longer. hh Ce type de relation sexuelle doesnāt involve any consequence or any commitment. ii Ces artisans donāt need any tricks or structures pour accomplir leurs buts. jj No one will be able to say quāelle ne soit pas attentive aux autres. kk Donāt say: « JāarreĢte de manger nāimporte comment ». Il faut eĢviter a situation of all or nothing. ll Unless the president intervenes, la situation continuera aĢ empirer. 325 Chapter 11 Numerals 432 Cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers Cardinal numbers denote quantity un, deux, trois, quatre Ordinal numbers denote a position in a sequence premier, deuxieĢme, troisieĢme, quatrieĢme 433 Cardinal numbers 0ā10 zeĢro, un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq, six, sept, huit, neuf, dix zeĢro = zero, nil, nought, love Le numeĢro de teĢleĢphone est 02 38 46 89 89 (zeĢro deux trente-huit . . . ) = the telephone number is 02 38 46 89 89 (zero two, thirty-eight . . . ) Elle enseigne les enfants de zeĢro aĢ quatre ans = she teaches kids from nought to six years old Le prof eĢtait furieux ā nous avons tous eu zeĢro dans la dicteĢe = the teacher was furious ā we all got nought in the dictation La France a battu le Danemark trois buts aĢ zeĢro = France beat Denmark 3 nil Elle a remporteĢ le premier set 6ā0 (sixāzeĢro) = she won the first set 6 love un (m), une (f ) These numerals vary for gender according to the noun they qualify ā Jāai un freĢre et une soeur = Iāve got one brother and one sister Il est une heure = itās one oāclock Je nāai quāun vrai ami = Iāve only got one real friend Masculine un is also used in the following contexts ā Cāest aĢ la page un = itās on page one Elle est le numeĢro un de lāopposition = sheās the number one of the opposition Il portait le numeĢro un = he was wearing the number one shirt Feminine une is also used in the following context ā aĢ la une = on the front page Both numerals also act as pronouns ā 326 433 Cardinal numbers Le site est un des majeurs du marcheĢ = the site is one of the major players in the market Prenez une des tranches de pain de mie et passez-la sous le gril du four = take one of the slices of bread and put it under the grill The plural uns occurs in such contexts as ā Il y a trois uns dans cent onze = there are three ones in one hundred and eleven 11ā20 onze, douze, treize, quatorze, quinze, seize, dix-sept, dix-huit, dix-neuf, vingt 21ā30 vingt et un, vingt-deux, vingt-trois, vingt-quatre, vingt-cinq, vingt-six, vingt-sept, vingt-huit, vingt-neuf, trente No hyphens are used with cardinal numbers in et un, but they are used with the others. Vingt et un becomes vingt et une before a feminine noun. This applies to all the cardinal numbers in āun ā Vingt et une anneĢes se sont eĢcouleĢes depuis notre premier rendez-vous = twenty-one years have passed since our first rendez-vous 31ā40 trente et un, trente-deux, trente-trois, trente-quatre, trente-cinq, trente-six, trente-sept, trente-huit, trente-neuf, quarante 41ā50 quarante et un, quarante-deux, quarante-trois, quarante-quatre, quarante-cinq, quarante-six, quarante-sept, quarante-huit, quarante-neuf, cinquante 51ā60 cinquante et un, cinquante-deux, cinquante-trois, cinquante-quatre, cinquante-cinq, cinquante-six, cinquante-sept, cinquante-huit, cinquante-neuf, soixante 61ā70 soixante et un, soixante-deux, soixante-trois, soixante-quatre, soixante-cinq, soixante-six, soixante-sept, soixante-huit, soixante-neuf, soixante-dix In a number of French-speaking countries outside France, eg Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, soixante-dix is replaced by septante. 71ā80 soixante et onze, soixante-douze, soixante-treize, soixante-quatorze, soixante-quinze, soixante-seize, soixante-dix-sept, soixante-dix-huit, soixante-dix-neuf, quatre-vingts 327 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR In those countries where soixante-dix is replaced by septante, soixante et onze is replaced by septante et un, soixante-douze by septante-deux, etc. 81ā90 quatre-vingt-un, quatre-vingt-deux, quatre-vingt-trois, quatre-vingtquatre, quatre-vingt-cinq, quatre-vingt-six, quatre-vingt-sept, quatrevingt-huit, quatre-vingt-neuf, quatre-vingt-dix Quatre-vingts = 80 loses its ās when it is combined with another number, eg quatre-vingt-deux; in other words, it is only in quatre-vingts = 80 that the final ās appears. Quatre-vingts = 80 also loses its ās when it is used as a page or paragraph number ā au paragraphe quatre-vingt. Huitante is used alongside quatre-vingts in Switzerland. In those countries where soixante-dix is replaced by septante, quatre-vingt-dix is replaced by nonante. 91ā100 quatre-vingt-onze, quatre-vingt-douze, quatre-vingt-treize, quatre-vingt-quatorze, quatre-vingt-quinze, quatre-vingt-seize, quatre-vingt-dix-sept, quatre-vingt-dix-huit, quatre-vingt-dix-neuf, cent Quatre-vingt-onze is replaced by nonante et un, quatre-vingt-douze by nonante-deux in Belgium, Switzerland and Canada. Cent = a hundred, one hundred (in other words, there is no word for a, one) ā Jāai envoyeĢ cent une invitations = I sent out a hundred and one invitations 101ā110 cent un, cent deux, cent trois, cent quatre, cent cinq, cent six, cent sept, cent huit, cent neuf, cent dix 111, 112, etc cent onze, cent douze, etc 121, 122, etc cent vingt et un, cent vingt-deux, etc 200ā210 deux cents, deux cent un, deux cent deux, deux cent trois, deux cent quatre, deux cent cinq, deux cent six, deux cent sept, deux cent huit, deux cent neuf, deux cent dix Usage with cent is similar to that with quatre-vingts ā cents preserves its final ās when it is used to indicate round hundreds ā deux cents, trois cents, etc. However, when it is qualified by another number, the ās is dropped ā deux cent un, trois cent deux. 1,000 ā 1,999 1 000 = mille, 1 001 = mille un, 1 010 = mille dix, 1 011 = mille onze, 1 100 = mille cent, 1 101 = mille cent un 328 434 Use of et and hyphens with cardinal numerals Mille = a thousand, one thousand (in other words, there is no word for a, one) ā mille animaux = a thousand animals Numbers between 1 100 and 1 999 may be expressed in two ways ā 1 100 is either onze cents or mille cent, 1567 is either quinze cent soixante-sept or mille cinq cent soixante-sept 2,000 . . . 2 000 = deux mille, 3 000 = trois mille Usage with mille is different from that with cent ā it never takes an ās whatever the circumstances. Where in English a comma is used to separate the figures representing thousands from those representing hundreds ā 1,111 ā in French simply a space is used ā 1 111. The same applies to figures involving millions ā 1,111,111 in English, 1 111 111 in French. Usage with dates ā the above does not apply to dates ā 2005 (not 2 005). In neither French nor English are commas used to separate thousands from the hundreds ā 2005 = 2005. If a date is written out in French (which is extremely rare, see below), the spelling mil is preferred to mille ā en lāan deux mil cinq = in 2005 1 000 000 = un million, 1 000 001 = un million un, 1 111 111 = un million cent onze mille cent onze Since million is a noun, when used in the singular it is preceded by un. The same applies to milliard and billion below. 2 000 000 = deux millions, 2 345 678 = deux millions trois cent quarante-cinq mille six cent soixante dix-huit Another consequence of the fact that million is a noun is that it always has an ās in the plural. In addition when used with another noun it functions as a noun expressing quantity and is followed by de. Again the same applies to milliard and billion below. 13 millions de FrancĢ§ais posseĢdaient un lecteur DVD en 2003 = 13 million people in France owned a DVD player in 2003 However, if the figure is not a round million, no de is required ā La population de la ville est de deux millions cinq cent mille personnes = the population of the town is 2,500,000 persons 1 000 000 000 = un milliard = a thousand million, a billion (American English) 1 000 000 000 000 = un billion = a billion (British English) 434 Use of et and hyphens with cardinal numerals et Used in 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71 hyphens Used for 17, 18, 19, 22ā29, 32ā39 up to 79, then 80ā99 329 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR no hyphen or et cent, mille, million are not connected to any other numeral ā cent vingt-deux, deux mille trois cent quarante-cinq 435 Pronunciation matters Cinq is always pronounced /sĪµĢ k/ except before cent, when it is pronounced /sĪµĢ /. Six is pronounced in a number of ways according to its verbal context ā /sis/ at the end of a sense group ā Jāen ai six = Iāve got six /siz/ before a word beginning with a vowel or non-aspirate h ā six heures = six oāclock, six ombres aĢ paupieĢres = six eye-shadows /si/ before a word beginning with a consonant ā six deĢbardeurs = six tops Huit is pronounced differently according to its verbal context ā /É„it/ at the end of a sense group and before a word beginning with a vowel or non-aspirate h ā Jāen ai huit = Iāve got eight, huit amis = eight friends /É„i/ before a word beginning with a consonant ā huit couleurs = eight colours Neuf is always pronounced /nf/ except before heures and ans, when it is pronounced /nv/ Dix ā as for six Vingt is pronounced /vĪµĢ / before a word beginning with a consonant and at the end of a sense group ā Jāen ai vingt = Iāve got twenty, vingt magazines = twenty magazines /vĪµĢ t/ before a word beginning with a vowel and in the numerals 21ā29 inclusive āVingt-deux amies sont arriveĢes = twenty-two friends turned up Cent is pronounced /saĢ / before a word beginning with a consonant and at the end of a sense group ā Cent mannequins ont deĢfileĢ devant le public = a hundred models paraded before the audience /saĢt/ in cent un, cent huit, cent onze and before a word beginning with a vowel ā Cent arbres ont eĢteĢ planteĢs au bord de la rivieĢre = a hundred trees have been planted by the river 436 When to use figures to express cardinal numbers Figures are used 330 437 Approximate numbers in dates ā lāan 2000, le 29 janvier 1950 in prices ā Lāarmoire couĢte 449 euros = the cupboard costs 449 euros in weights and measures ā Vous pesez 56 kilos pour 1,70 meĢtre = you weigh 56 kilos for 1 metre 70 in mathematical formulae ā 29 + 45 = 74 = 29 plus 45 eĢgale 74 3 + 4 = 7 = 3 et 4 font 7 45 ā 29 = 16 = 45 moins 29 eĢgale 16 45 × 3 = 135 = 45 multiplieĢ par 3 eĢgale 135 45 ÷ 3 = 15 = 45 diviseĢ par 3 eĢgale 15 Votre indice de masse corporelle est eĢgal aĢ 56 diviseĢ par 1,70 × 1,70 = 19,37 soit votre nombre de kilos par meĢtre carreĢ de surface corporelle = your body mass index equals 56 divided by 1.7 times 1.7 = 19.37, in other words your weight in kilos per square metre of body surface in percentages ā La preĢpondeĢrance feĢminine est particulieĢrement marqueĢe en matieĢre de divorce par faute, soit 75% = the preponderance of women is particularly noticeable in the matter of divorce by admission of guilt, namely 75% in addresses and telephone numbers ā 33 avenue Georges-Bernanos, 75005 Paris Renseignements: 0810600243 read as zeĢro huit ā dix ā soixante ā zeĢro deux ā quarante-trois = for information . . . 437 Approximate numbers The pattern is to add āaine to the ātenā concerned ā une dizaine = about 10 une quinzaine = about 15, also a fortnight une vingtaine = about 20 une trentaine = about 30 une centaine = about 100 des centaines de photos = hundreds of photos But un millier = about a thousand des milliers de photos = thousands of photos 331 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Environ can also be used to express approximate numbers ā Elle a environ 40 ans = sheās about 40 But une douzaine = a dozen, 12 438 Fractions and decimals Fractions un demi = a half ā cinq et demi = five and a half but la moitieĢ = half when a mathematical fraction is not involved ā Ajouter la moitieĢ des paĢtes aux deĢs de mozzarella et les tomates = add half the pasta to the cubes of mozzarella and the tomatoes When half is part of a compound expression, demi is used before the noun and remains invariable for number and gender ā un demi-verre de vin = half a glass of wine, une demi-heure = half an hour, une demi-douzaine = half a dozen Il a deux demi-soeurs = heās got two half-sisters When demi occurs after a noun, it varies for gender ā Il est cinq heures et demie = itās half past five Il mesure deĢjaĢ un meĢtre et demi = heās already a metre and a half tall The adverbs aĢ demi and aĢ moitieĢ = half are interchangeable ā Est-ce que tu dirais que ton verre est aĢ moitieĢ vide ou aĢ moitieĢ plein? = Would you say your glass was half-full or half-empty? Laisse la porte aĢ demi ouverte sāil te plaıĢt = leave the door half-open please The prefix mi- is also used in certain expressions ā La premieĢre mi-temps du match eĢtait fascinante = the first half of the match was fascinating LāarreĢt dāautobus se trouve aĢ mi-chemin entre ma maison et le lyceĢe = the bus stop is half-way between my house and the school un tiers = a third but as an ordinal numeral, le troisieĢme = third un quart = a quarter un cinquieĢme = a fifth un sixieĢme = a sixth un septieĢme = a seventh un huitieĢme = an eighth un neuvieĢme = a ninth 332 439 Ordinal numbers un dixieĢme = a tenth, etc When the fraction is above one, the following construction, using the definite article rather than no article as in English, is used ā Les deux tiers des lecteurs preĢfeĢrent les articles sur les rapports sexuels = two thirds of the readership prefer articles on sexual relationships Les trois quarts des parents ont contacteĢ le site interministeĢriel de protection des mineurs sur Internet = three quarters of parents have contacted the interministerial site for the protection of minors on the Internet un et demi = one and a half deux et trois quarts = two and three quarters Decimals French uses a comma where English uses a decimal point and treats the numbers after the comma as one complete number, not as separate units ā 2,5 = deux virgule cinq = 2.5 0,54 = zeĢro virgule cinquante-quatre = 0.54 6,268 = six virgule deux cent soixante-huit = 6.268 439 Ordinal numbers 1stā10th premier (m), premieĢre (f) = first deuxieĢme, second = second troisieĢme = third quatrieĢme = fourth cinquieĢme = fifth sixieĢme = sixth septieĢme = seventh huitieĢme = eighth neuvieĢme = ninth dixieĢme = tenth 11thā20th onzieĢme = eleventh douzieĢme = twelfth treizieĢme = thirteenth quatorzieĢme = fourteenth quinzieĢme = fifteenth 333 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR seizieĢme = sixteenth dix-septieĢme = seventeenth dix-huitieĢme = eighteenth dix-neuvieĢme = nineteenth vingtieĢme = twentieth 21st, 22nd, 30th, 31st, 32nd, 70th, 71st, 80th, 81st, 90th, 91st, 100th, 101st, 200th, 1,000th, 2,000th, 1,000,000th vingt et unieĢme = twenty-first vingt-deuxieĢme = twenty-second trentieĢme = thirtieth trente et unieĢme = thirty-first trente-deuxieĢme = thirty-second soixante-dixieĢme = seventieth, septantieĢme in Belgium, Switzerland, Canada soixante-onzieĢme = seventy-first, septante et unieĢme quatre-vingtieĢme = eightieth, huitantieĢme in Switzerland quatre-vingt-unieĢme = eighty-first quatre-vingt-dixieĢme = ninetieth, nonantieĢme in Belgium, Switzerland, Canada quatre-vingt-onzieĢme = ninety-first, nonante et unieĢme centieĢme = hundredth cent et unieĢme = hundred and first deux-centieĢme = two hundredth millieĢme = thousandth deux millieĢme = two thousandth millionieĢme = millionth Vous eĢtes la deuxieĢme personne aĢ me poser cette question = youāre the second person to ask me that question Le premier et le centieĢme beĢbeĢs aĢ naıĢtre le premier janvier recevront un cadeau de lāhoĢpital = the first and the hundredth baby to be born on January 1st will receive a present from the hospital 440 Telling the time All times are introduced by il est = it is. The 24-hour clock is used for public purposes but not always for more personal use. It is obligatory to use heures (except when it is midi or minuit) when giving the time. 334 440 Telling the time Hours Quelle heure est-il? = whatās the time? Il est une heure = itās one oāclock Il est midi / minuit = itās midday / midnight Il est quatre heures / seize heures = itās four oāclock / four pm Quarter past and quarter to the hour Il est deux heures et quart = itās quarter past two Il est quatre heures moins le quart = itās quarter to four Il est huit heures quinze = itās eight fifteen Half past the hour Il est cinq heures et demie = itās half past five Il est midi / minuit et demi = itās half past midday / midnight Il est neuf heures trente = itās nine thirty Other times Il est sept heures cinq = itās five past seven Il est onze heures moins vingt = itās twenty to eleven 12-hour clock versus 24-hour clock The 12-hour clock specifies the time of day ā du matin / de lāapreĢs-midi / du soir and uses times with moins / et ā Il est quatre heures moins dix de lāapreĢs-midi = itās ten to four in the afternoon/pm Il est dix heures et demie du soir = itās half past ten in the evening The 24-hour clock does not use moins / et nor does it specify the time of day; on the other hand, it specifies the minutes after the hour ā Il est seize heures dix = itās ten past four pm Il est vingt-deux heures trente = itās ten thirty pm, half past ten Il est vingt-trois heures cinquante-cinq = itās five to midnight Precisely Il est six heures preĢcises / justes = itās exactly six oāclock Il est six heures sonnantes / pile = itās dead on six oāclock Approximately Il est vers neuf heures / vers les neuf heures = itās about nine oāclock AĢ environ dix heures, je tāappellerai = at about ten oāclock, Iāll give you a call 335 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 441 Dates The date is always preceded by le, which is not contracted before numbers beginning with a vowel or non-aspirate h. Apart from le premier, cardinal numbers are used with dates. Names of months and days always begin with a lower-case letter. Months Quelle est la date aujourdāhui / On est le combien aujourdāhui? = whatās the date today / whatās todayās date? le premier juin = 1st June le deux juillet = 2nd July le huit aouĢt = 8th August le onze septembre = 11th September le trente et un octobre = 31st October Years 2005 = deux mil / mille cinq When giving a year including a hundred, it is necessary to say cent ā 1950 = mille / mil neuf cent cinquante / dix-neuf cent cinquante Lāan is used to refer to specific years, les anneĢes to decades ā lāan 2000 les anneĢes soixante = the sixties (numbers are invariable) Days Referring to a specific day, no article is used ā Le match retour aura lieu samedi prochain = the return match will take place next Saturday Lundi, je laverai les serviettes de toilette et mon peignoir de bain = Iāll wash my bathroom towels and my bathrobe on Monday With a date, a definite article is required ā Le match retour aura lieu le samedi 23 octobre / samedi le 23 octobre = the return match will take place on Saturday 23rd October Elle est neĢe mardi le 8 novembre = she was born on Tuesday 8th November Otherwise use of the definite article indicates an habitual occurrence ā Ils sāentraıĢnent le lundi soir et le mercredi apreĢs-midi = they train on Monday evenings and Wednesday afternoons 336 442 Miscellaneous matters Le dimanche le culte a lieu aĢ 10 heures et demie = on Sundays, the service is at half past ten Periods of the day / the year The definite article is used to indicate an habitual occurrence ā Je trouve difficile de me lever le matin = I find it hard to get up in the morning Elle fait la lessive le matin et le repassage lāapreĢs-midi = she does the washing in the morning and the ironing in the afternoon LāeĢteĢ / en eĢteĢ, il faut ouvrir les feneĢtres pour laisser entrer lāair frais = in summer you have to open your windows to let the fresh air in Le printemps / au printemps jāaime ne plus porter les lourds veĢtements de lāhiver = in the spring I like not having to wear heavy winter clothes any more 442 Miscellaneous matters Cardinal numbers Used with titles, except for first; English uses ordinal numbers consistently ā FrancĢ§ois I = FrancĢ§ois Premier = Francis 1st Louis XV = Louis Quinze = Louis 15th Page and chapter numbers aĢ la page 36 = on page 36 au chapitre quatre = in chapter 4 Word order ā cardinal number + ordinal number or adjective in French but ordinal or adjective + cardinal in English Les cinq premiers mois tout sāest bien passeĢ = everything went well during the first five months Pendant les six dernieĢres semaines jāai porteĢ ma queue-de-cheval treĢs haut = for the last six weeks Iāve worn my pony-tail very high Ordinal numbers Used with districts of Paris le seizieĢme arrondissement / le seizieĢme = the 16th arrondissement To express the number of times an action is repeated, fois = time(s) is used ā Pour la troisieĢme fois, je te conseille de ne pas porter les talons de plus de sept centimeĢtres = for the third time, I advise you not to wear heels more than seven centimetres high Pour la eĢnieĢme fois, tais-toi! = for the nth time, shut up! Je te lāai dit cinq fois = Iāve told you five times 337 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Exercises EĢcrivez en mots les chiffres qui ne sont pas en italique dans les phrases suivantes ā a Le nombre de beĢtes malades est passeĢ, en France, de 274 en 2001 aĢ 137 en 2003 pour un cheptel de 11 millions de teĢtes. b 4, 58 millions ā cāest, en Inde, le nombre de personnes infecteĢes par le virus du sida. c Tous les FrancĢ§ais peuvent maintenant consulter les fiches biographiques de plus de 1 325 000 soldats morts pour la France pendant la guerre de ā14ā18. d Entre 229 000 et 269 000 FrancĢ§ais sont victimes chaque anneĢe dāune infection alimentaire. e Guy Lux, 83 ans, et Georges Coulonges, 80 ans, sont morts cette semaine. f Plus de 100 000 baladeurs devraient se vendre cette anneĢe, soit une hausse de 250% en un an. 338 Chapter 12 Sentences and clauses Sentences 443 Sentences Sentences in writing Sentences are very visible in writing ā they begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark ā and what comes next is usually another sentence beginning with another capital letter and so on. When we write, we automatically construct what we want to say out of sentences ā sentences are the building blocks of connected language, and we use punctuation marks of various types to show where sentences begin and end and how they hang together internally. Sentences in speech However, in speech, things are different. When we speak we are not so aware of forming sentences ā our speech seems to flow naturally, we do not think in terms of full stops and commas, and we have little consciousness of passing from one sentence to another. However, if we transcribe our speech into writing, and if we analyse what we say, we would soon discover that the most convenient way of dividing it up is into sentences. So, in order to discuss speech and how it is constructed, we need to have recourse to the concept of the sentence and to realise that sentences underlie the way we express ourselves in speech as well as in writing. There are of course differences between the two modes of expression, and these will be pointed out in what follows. Therefore, we can say that sentences constitute the normal unit into which what we want to write or say is divided for communication. The normal structure of a sentence Normally, sentences consist of one or more clauses. Sentences consisting of a single clause ā Dans ce dossier vous allez entendre beaucoup de choses rassurantes = in this report, youāre going to hear a lot of reassuring things Je suis treĢs content pour les joueurs = I am very happy for the players Sentences consisting of two clauses ā Mon dermatologue māa avertie: lāacneĢ mal traiteĢ peut laisser des cicatrices = my dermatologist has told me ā badly treated acne can leave scars On me trouve nulle, mais on ne peut pas me taxer de tricher = you may think me useless, but you canāt accuse me of cheating Si votre beĢbeĢ a soif, donnez-lui un biberon = if your baby is thirsty, give him a bottle Sentences consisting of three clauses ā 339 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Lorsque quelquāun bat mon record du monde, cāest encore plus excitant car je fais tout pour le reĢcupeĢrer = when someone breaks my world record, itās even more exciting, because I do my utmost to get it back Lavez les pommes, pelez-les ou non selon les gouĢts et coupez-les en lamelles = wash the apples, peel them or not according to taste and cut them into slices Sentence consisting of four clauses ā Les eĢtudes scientifiques montrent incontestablement que les oestrogeĢnes limitent la perte osseuse, mais la masse osseuse diminue aĢ nouveau deĢs quāon arreĢte de les prendre = scientific studies demonstrate incontrovertibly that oestrogen limits bone loss, but bone mass diminishes again as soon as you stop taking it Sentence consisting of five clauses ā Il parle treĢs fort, il rit aux eĢclats, drague tout ce qui bouge, se meĢle des conversations des autres = he speaks at the top of his voice, guffaws with laughter, chats up anything that moves and interrupts other peopleās conversations However, some sentences may consist of a single word or phrase, units smaller than a clause. Grammatically speaking, Salut! is as much a sentence as any of the above examples ā see 444, 446, 453. 444 Sentence types There are four types of sentence: Declarative sentences which make statements ā Ma femme reĢserve toujours une place dans son lit pour son chien = my wife always reserves a place in her bed for her dog Dans les stations-service, on voit des affichettes interdisant les mobiles = in petrol stations you can see notices forbidding the use of mobile phones (interdisant is not a finite verb according to the definition given below; it is a present participle and as such does not exhibit person, tense or mood) Interrogative sentences which ask questions ā Que conseillez-vous? = what do you advise? Ne serait-ce pas une facĢ§on de me manipuler? = would it not be a way of manipulating me? Quelle est la diffeĢrence entre le « bon » et le « mauvais » cholesteĢrol? = whatās the difference between āgoodā and ābadā cholesterol? Imperative sentences which give orders ā Ne transformez pas tout en neĢgatif! = donāt be negative about everything! NāheĢsitez pas aĢ peindre, une petite entreĢe par exemple, de la meĢme couleur du sol au plafond = donāt hesitate to do some decorating, a little entrance hall, for example, the same colour from floor to ceiling 340 446 Minor sentences Apportez une touche de gaieteĢ dans votre cuisine avec cet accroche-torchon en bois peint! = introduce a touch of light-heartedness into your kitchen with this painted wood duster-holder Dansons sous la pluie = letās dance in the rain Exclamative sentences which convey exclamations ā Quāelle est belle, cette fille! = how beautiful that girl is! Salaud! = blighter! Sentence structure 445 Sentence structure There are two sentence types ā Minor sentences and major sentences 446 Minor sentences 1 In speech, sentences are often left unfinished, or the speaker may find it satisfactory to express him- or herself with a single word or phrase. In this way, the speaker avoids using major sentences or main clauses ā but the required sense is conveyed successfully. It is not essential to speak in sentences to make oneself fully understood. 2 In written French, in journalistic French in particular, articles, reports and interviews are often punctuated in idiosyncratic ways; in this way prominence may be given to certain elements of what is being written. And if the writer is trying to imitate speech, he or she will use similar techniques to those described above. Minor sentences are sentences which do not contain a main clause. In other words, they may consist of ā 1 a subordinate clause ā Pour eĢtre star aussi jeune, il faut quāil y ait eu un coach parental derrieĢre. Parce que cāest souvent le deĢsir du parent qui pousse lāenfant subordinate clause = to be a star so young, there has to have been a parent coach behind her. Because itās often the parentās desire which pushes the child AĢ en croire les enfants le gouĢter est un de leurs repas preĢfeĢreĢs. Encouragez-les aĢ gouĢter. Des petits plats qui plaisent aĢ nos enfants subordinate clause = If we are to believe our children, a snack is one of their favourite meals. Encourage them. Small dishes that our children like 2 a phrase AĢ vos marques! = on your marks! 341 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Le monde aĢ lāenvers? Non, pas tout aĢ fait = the world back to front? No, not quite Un choc! Cāest le souvenir que je garde du premier baiser eĢchangeĢ avec mon copain actuel = a shock! Thatās the memory Iāve got of the first kiss I exchanged with my current boyfriend Simplement hors norme = simply out of the ordinary (advertisement) 3 a single word Chouette! = great! Bon! = fine! Comment? = what? 447 Major sentences Major sentences are sentences that contain at least one main clause. Major sentences fall into four sentence types: 1 Simple sentences These consist of a single main clause Chacun doit suivre la religion de son coeur = everyone must follow the religion of their heart Boire ou seĢduire, il faut choisir = you have to choose whether to drink or seduce 2 Compound sentences These consist of at least two main clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction. Je māinteĢresse aĢ dāautres choses quāau tennis, comme aĢ la mode, mais mon sport main clause 1 main clause 2 reste ma seule occupation professionnelle = Iām interested in other things besides tennis, such as fashion, but my sport remains my only professional occupation 3 Complex sentences These consist of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses ā Sāil reĢsiste, pratiquez lāhypnose = if he resists, use hypnosis subordinate clause main clause 4 Compound-complex sentences These consist of at least two main clauses and at least one subordinate clause Je travaille comme une folle depuis que jāai cinq ans et main clause 1 subordinate clause 1 main clause 2a si on parle dāun conte de feĢes aĢ mon sujet, je ne le vis que cette anneĢe = subordinate clause 2 main clause 2b Iāve worked like someone possessed since I was five and if someone mentions a fairytale about me, Iāve only been living it this year 342 449 Compound sentences 448 Simple sentences The single main clause may be declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamative ā Declarative Lāemploi de mannequins ramasseuses de balles est taxeĢ de sexisme par la secreĢtaire dāEĢtat espagnole aĢ lāeĢgaliteĢ des sexes = the use of models as ball girls is criticised as sexism by the Spanish Secretary of State for sexual equality AĢ 18 ans, seule une personne sur cinq a encore toutes ses dents en bon eĢtat = at 18 only one person in five has still got all their teeth in good condition Interrogative Comment puis-je faire pour affiner mes hanches et mes jambes? = what can I do to slim down my hips and legs? Pourquoi les surfeurs ont-ils les yeux bleus? = why have surfers got blue eyes? Imperative Pour un maquillage facile, focalisez-vous sur les yeux, les pommettes et les leĢvres = to make yourself up easily, concentrate on your eyes, cheeks and lips PondeĢrez vos reĢactions = weigh your reactions carefully Exclamative Cāest bon aĢ la cantine scolaire! = itās good in the school canteen! Tout cĢ§a, cāeĢtait pour rire! = that was just for a joke! QuāaĢ cela ne tienne! = never mind! 449 Compound sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses, which may or may not be linked by coordinating conjunctions. Compound sentences are more often than not declarative, but may also be imperative, less often interrogative or exclamative. Compound sentence consisting of two main clauses ā AĢ 40 ans, le meĢme reĢgime ne nous fait pas perdre un gramme et clause 1 clause 2 sāapparente aĢ un vrai calvaire = at 40, the same diet doesnāt make us lose a gramme and is just like torture Compound sentence consisting of more than two main clauses ā Sur sceĢne, je semble eĢtre treĢs suĢre de moi, mais dans la vraie vie, je suis hyper-timide, clause 1 clause 2 je ne trouve rien aĢ dire, je deviens nerveuse, jāai des noeuds au ventre clause 3 clause 4 clause 5 = on stage, I seem to be very sure of myself, but in real life, Iām hyper-shy, I canāt find anything to say, I become nervous, my stomach is all knotted up 343 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Compound sentence consisting of three main clauses without coordinating conjunctions ā Je ne me plains pas du tout, je ne deĢsespeĢre pas non plus, ce nāest pas un eĢtat neĢgatif = I donāt complain at all, I donāt despair either, itās not a negative condition 450 Complex sentences A complex sentence consists of a main clause and at least one subordinate clause. Complex sentences are more often than not declarative, less often imperative, interrogative or exclamative. The subordinate clause can precede, follow or be embedded in the main clause. Main clause + subordinate clause AĢ 20 ans, on peut se permettre dāessayer un reĢgime fantaisiste, qui nous fait tout main clause subordinate clause de suite retrouver une taille de gueĢpe = at 20 you can allow yourself to experiment with a fanciful diet, which gives you back your wasp-like waist straightaway Freud appelle « transfert » le mouvement par lequel le patient revit un fragment main clause subordinate clause de son passeĢ = Freud calls ātransferā the movement by which the patient relives a fragment of his past Subordinate clause + main clause ā Si vous māavez bien compris, jāai duĢ māexprimer mal subordinate clause main clause = if you understood me easily, I must have expressed myself badly Quoi quāil arrive, gardez la teĢte froide = whatever happens, keep cool subordinate clause main clause Main clause + embedded subordinate clause ā Un jour, une jolie SueĢdoise, avec qui je sortais, māa redonneĢ confiance = main clause a subordinate clause main clause b one day, a pretty Swedish girl I was going out with gave me back my confidence Le mari et les beaux-parents, qui ont aideĢ leur fils aĢ battre et aĢ eĢtrangler leur main clause a subordinate clause belle-fille, ont eĢteĢ inculpeĢs de tentative de meurtre = the husband and parents-in-law, who main clause b helped their son to beat and strangle their daughter-in-law, have been charged with attempted murder In addition, a second or subsequent subordinate clause can depend upon an earlier subordinate clause ā Pour chasser nos kilos intelligemment, il nāexiste pas une solution mais main clause plusieurs, parce quāon ne maigrit pas de la meĢme facĢ§on quand on est eĢtudiante subordinate clause 1 subordinate clause 2 ou meĢre de famille de trois ados = in order to rid ourselves of our extra pounds in an intelligent way, there is no single solution but several, because we donāt slim in the same way when weāre students or the mother of three teenagers 344 452 Coordinating conjunctions AĢ moins que votre linge soit vraiment treĢs sale, ne lavez pas vos beaux T-shirts subordinate clause 1 main clause blancs aĢ une tempeĢrature supeĢrieure aĢ 40 degreĢs, surtout sāils sont en fibres subordinate clause 2 naturelles, aĢ moins que vous nāayez deĢcideĢā de vous fabriquer un T-shirt aĢ la subordinate clause 3 mode meĢtrosexuelāā , treĢs moulant = unless your linen is really very dirty, donāt wash your lovely white T-shirts at a temperature over 40 degrees, especially if theyāre natural fibre, unless youāve decided to make yourself a fashionable metrosexual T-shirt, very body-hugging ā Note that the use of expletive ne is optional with aĢ moins que ā not present in the first case, it is inserted in the second ā see 417. āā un meĢtrosexuel = a heterosexual man very concerned about his personal appearance and hygiene 451 Compound-complex sentences As their name implies, these sentences combine the clause combinations associated with a compound and a complex sentence. Compound-complex sentences are usually declarative. The permutations are considerable. Main clause + subordinate clause + main clause Des millions dāeĢtres humains reĢvent dāune vie eĢternelle, et sāil pleut le dimanche apreĢs-midi, ils ne savent pas quoi faire = millions of human beings dream of eternal life, and if it rains Sunday afternoon, they donāt know what to do Subordinate clause + main clause + subordinate clause + main clause Quand nous sommes jeunes, nous deĢpensons notre santeĢ pour faire fortune; et quand nous sommes vieux, nous deĢpensons notre fortune pour nous refaire une santeĢ = when weāre young, we expend our health to build a fortune; and when weāre old, we spend a fortune to rebuild our health Main clause + subordinate clause + main clause + subordinate clause + subordinate clause + main clause La femme eĢpouse lāhomme en espeĢrant quāil va changer, et il ne change pas, alors que lāhomme eĢpouse la femme en espeĢrant quāelle ne changera pas, et elle change = a woman marries a man hoping that heāll change, and he doesnāt, whereas a man marries a woman hoping that she wonāt change, and she does 452 Coordinating conjunctions The coordinating conjunctions in French are ā car, et, mais, ni, ou. Coordinating conjunctions link clauses and elements of clauses at the same syntactic level, whereas subordinating conjunctions show a dependence of what follows on what precedes. In other words, coordinating conjunctions link subject with subject, object with object, adjective with adjective, adverb with adverb, clause with clause, whereas subordinating conjunctions link a subordinate clause with a clause of higher level in the sentence. 345 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR car = for, because The conjunction car is usually translated as for in English, but, since for sounds very pedantic in English, in the examples of its use below it is translated by because ā linking elements ā La vision aĢ distance des filles est plus reĢduite que celle des garcĢ§ons car plus petites en moyenne de 10 cm que les garcĢ§ons = girlsā long distance sight is more reduced than that of boys, because theyāre smaller than boys by 10 cm on average linking clauses ā Dans ce meĢtier, vous vous sentez seule, car vous eĢtes souvent aĢ lāhoĢtel = in this job, you feel lonely, because youāre often in an hotel Je ne dirai pas que cāest moi qui ai lanceĢ la mode du nombril aĢ lāair, car je ne veux pas quāon en parle dans les journaux = Iām not saying I was the one who started the trend of the exposed navel, because I donāt want it spoken about in the papers Je lāaurais conseilleĢ de faire de la marche aĢ pied, car la pratique de randonneĢe contribue aĢ densifier les os = I would have advised him to do some walking, because walking helps make our bones denser et = and linking elements of a clause ā Voici un pantalon aĢ porter avec un pull noir et une doudoune sans manche = hereās a pair of trousers to wear with a black pullover and sleeveless body-warmer Il leur parlait de la pluie, de leur famille et de la vie cheĢre = he would talk to them about the rain, their families and the high cost of living Le nez a trois fonctions: filtrer lāair, le reĢchauffer et lāhumidifier = your nose has three functions ā filtering the air, heating it up and humidifying it linking clauses ā ApreĢs, nous nous sommes replieĢs en deĢfense et nous nāavons jamais pu ressortir = afterwards we fell back into defence and we were never able to come forward again Pour moi, Matthieu est un freĢre et je ne peux vraiment pas lui en vouloir de māavoir fait souffrir ce soir = to me, Matthew is a brother and I canāt really bear him a grudge for making me suffer that evening mais = but linking elements ā Charlotte Gainsbourg, fragile mais radieuse = CG, vulnerable but radiant Les quinze diffeĢrences entre hommes et femmes ā eĢgaux mais pas identiques = the fifteen differences between men and women ā equal but not the same linking clauses ā Ah! ces sacreĢes eĢmotions, elles nous font honte parfois, mais imaginez le monde sans elles = ah! those blessed emotions, they make us ashamed at times, but imagine a world without them 346 453 Clauses Cette maladie est peu connue, mais toucherait 2 aĢ 5% de la population = this condition is not well known, but reputedly affects between 2 and 5% of the population Il est eĢpuiseĢ, je crois, mais cet album est parfait dāun bout aĢ lāautre = itās no longer available, I think, but this album is perfect from start to finish ni = nor, or (see 426) linking elements ā Elle nāa pas perdu pour autant son temps ni son argent = for all that she didnāt waste her time or her money Si vous vous maıĢtrisiez parfaitement, vous ne seriez pas la meĢme femme ni la meĢme actrice? = if you were in complete control of yourself, do you think you wouldnāt be the same woman or the same actress? linking clauses ā Le plaisir vient dans sa vie par instants ā je ne les deĢcide pas, ni je ne les programme pasā = pleasure comes into your life in moments ā I donāt decide them nor do I programme them ā Note that, unlike English, there is no inversion after ni in French. ou = or linking elements ā Internet, les associations dāanciens eĢleĢves ou tout simplement lāannuaire, tous les moyens sont bons pour renouer avec son passeĢ = the Internet, old boy and old girl associations or quite simply the telephone directory are all useful ways of linking up with your past Ces femmes ont accueilli des enfants venus du Vietnam, du Mali ou dāHaıĢti = these women have welcomed into their homes children from Vietnam, Mali or Haiti Rien nāest jamais tout blanc ou tout noir = nothing is ever completely black or white linking clauses ā MeĢme si les gens eĢtaient rassurants ou essayaient de me rassurer, je nāeĢtais pas rassureĢe = even if people were reassuring or tried to reassure me, I wasnāt reassured Ces symptoĢmes sāeffacent spontaneĢment ou peuvent rester invalidants pendant plus de dix ans = these symptoms disappear spontaneously or can remain disabling for over ten years Clauses 453 Clauses Definition of a clause A clause consists of a single word or sequence of words which must contain a finite verb or verbal expression. A finite verb is a verb which shows a person, a tense and a 347 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR mood ā see 1. A clause contains only one finite verb ā consequently, there is one finite verb per clause, and there are as many clauses as there are finite verbs. Clauses consisting of a single word (verb) ā these very often involve commands ā Essayez! = try! ArreĢtez! = stop! Clauses consisting of a sequence of words (verb or verbal expression) ā Asseyez-vous! = sit down! Cet homme veut vous faire maigrir = this man wants to make you lose weight Parce quāil respecte les codes vestimentaires les plus classiques = because he respects the most classic dress codes 454 Clause types Clauses fall into two categories ā main clauses and subordinate clauses. Main clauses A main clause can act as a simple sentence (see below) ā a main clause is not introduced by a subordinating conjunction (see below), as subordinate clauses are ā Les caprices du destin sont le sel de la vie (main clause 1; also = simple sentence). Sans cela, les types brillants ratisseraient les meilleurs boulots et les plus belles femmes (main clause 2; also = simple sentence) = the whims of destiny are the salt of life. Without them, smart guys would scoop up the best jobs and the best-looking women Lāintelligence est un mythe (main clause 1); la compeĢtence est reĢelle (main clause 2; also = compound sentence) = intelligence is a myth; competence is real Subordinate clauses A subordinate clause is dependent upon a subordinating conjunction which may be part of a main clause or of another subordinate clause ā Je me suis mise aĢ me moquer dāun colleĢgue (main clause), que je trouvais trop naze (subordinate clause) = I began to make fun of a colleague whom I found absolutely useless MeĢme si ce nāest pas treĢs eĢleĢgant (subordinate clause 1), jāai cette manie (main clause) qui māoblige aĢ faire toujours le meĢme geste avant de me coucher (subordinate clause 2) = even if it isnāt very elegant, Iāve got this habit that makes me always do the same thing before going to bed Quand une femme en est aĢ vous dire (subordinate clause 1) pourquoi elle vous aime (subordinate clause 2), cāest (main clause) quāelle commence aĢ se le demander (subordinate clause 3) = when a woman reaches the point when she tells you why she loves you, itās because sheās beginning to wonder about it If there is more than one subordinate clause in a sentence, each clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction, and not, as often in English, a conjunction before the first clause only ā 348 456 Causal clauses Faites des enfants, parce quāeĢtre maman rallonge lāespeĢrance de vie et parce que les femmes ayant eu trois enfants ont un risque de deĢceĢs de 10% infeĢrieur aux autres = have children, because being a mother increases life expectancy and (because) women who have had three children have a 10% lower chance of dying than others See comments on quand 465 and si 458. 455 Types of subordinate clauses The following types of subordinate clauses will be examined ā causal clauses, concessive clauses, conditional clauses, consecutive clauses, final clauses, manner clauses, noun clauses, time clauses, relative clauses. 456 Causal clauses Causal clauses express the cause of something and are introduced by comme = as, parce que = because, puisque = since; less common conjunctive expressions are eĢtant donneĢ que = given that, vu que = seeing that. In clauses introduced by these expressions, the verb is always in the indicative mood. comme = as Comme il sāagit de lāacte sexuel, il faut se rendre compte que le baiser reĢussi passe dāabord par lāeĢchange = as itās a question of having sex, you have to realise that a successful kiss involves an exchange parce que = because On ne peut pas se nourrir de la meĢme facĢ§on aĢ 20 et aĢ la cinquantaine ā tout simplement parce que notre meĢtabolisme ralentit = we canāt eat in the same way at 20 as we can in our fifties ā for the simple reason that our metabolism slows down Il ne faut pas se priver de boeuf, parce quāil nāest pas si gras que cĢ§a = you donāt have to deny yourself beef, because itās not as fat as all that Les eĢtudes montrent quāon trouve plus de cancers chez les gros carnivores, parce quāils laissent moins de place aux leĢgumes verts = studies show that cancer is more prevalent among big meat-eaters, because they leave less room for green vegetables puisque = since Puisque le FrancĢ§ais va officiellement amorcer sa saison internationale ce soir, elle espeĢrait eĢtre laĢ aĢ saluer son heĢros = because the Frenchman is going to open his international season officially this evening, she was hoping to be there to greet her hero Peu de gens consideĢrent la voix comme quelque chose dāimportant, puisquāils nāimaginent pas ce quāon peut faire avec = few people consider the voice as something important, since they canāt imagine what you can do with it eĢtant donneĢ que = given that EĢtant donneĢ quāils ralentissent le vieillissement, forcez sur les fruits et leĢgumes = given that they slow down the ageing process, go overboard on fruit and veg 349 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR vu que = seeing that Quelle est la pire drague que vous avez subie? ā Vu que je nāai duĢ me faire draguer que deux fois dans ma vie, il nāy en a jamais eu de pire! = what was the worst pick-up youāve undergone? ā Seeing that Iāve only been picked up a couple of times in my life, there hasnāt ever been a worst one! Vu que je sortais dāune eĢcole catholique, jāeĢtais innocente ā je ne lāai meĢme pas embrasseĢ = seeing that I came from a good Catholic school, I was innocent ā I didnāt even kiss him 457 Concessive clauses Concessive subordinate clauses are introduced by a number of subordinating conjunctions which = although ā quoique, bien que, encore que, malgreĢ que and a number of other expressions equivalent to English words ending in āever (eg however, whoever, whatever): qui que = whoever, quoi que = whatever (pronoun), quel . . . que = whatever (adjective), ouĢ que = wherever, etc; see 148, 153. All these concessive conjunctions, pronouns and adjectives introduce clauses in which the verb is always in the subjunctive mood. bien que = although Bien que vous ayez deĢcideĢ de vous entretenir en faisant du sport, vous nāarrivez pas aĢ trouver cette forme eĢblouissante que vous cherchiez = although you decided to keep fit by doing some sport, you havenāt managed to find that dazzling physique you were looking for Bien quāelle sache que jāai des sous, ma copine nāen profite pas = although she knows Iāve got money, my girlfriend doesnāt take advantage of it encore que = although Encore que vous ayez des soucis juridiques et des contrarieĢteĢs en tout genre, vous aurez un formidable soutien relationnel = although youāve got all sorts of troubles with the law and upsets, youāll have tremendous support malgreĢ que = although MalgreĢ que lāhorizon soit obscurci pour lāinstant, il faut reĢgler vos affaires de coeur et tirer les choses au clair = although the horizon is dark at the moment, you must put your love life in order and sort it out thoroughly quel . . . que = whatever, ouĢ que = wherever, etc Il faut pouvoir vous sentir bien avec lui, quelles que soient les circonstances = you have to be able to feel at ease with him whatever the circumstances Il faut garder aĢ lāesprit que, ouĢ quāil soit, votre partenaire reste toujours votre partenaire = you need to remember that, wherever he is, your partner is always your partner Dāaussi loin que mon avis puisse importer, jāai deĢjaĢ dit que lāimportant nāest pas le commentaire mais lāacte = as far as my opinion may carry any weight, Iāve already said that the important thing is not talking about it but doing it 350 458 Conditional clauses quoi qui/que = whatever Gardez la teĢte froide, quoi quāil arrive = keep cool, whatever happens For other examples of these constructions, see 153. quoique = although Quoique 82% des hommes affirment mettre volontiers la table ou la deĢbarrasser, est-ce que vous ne trouvez pas un leĢger deĢcalage avec la reĢaliteĢ? = although 82% of men state that they are happy to set or clear the table, donāt you find a slight gap with reality? Note the difference, only visible in written French, between quoique = although and quoi que = whatever ā Quoique tu puisses me reĢpondre, je ne te parlerai plus = although you may write back to me, Iāll not talk to you again Quoi que tu puisses me reĢpondre, je pense toujours aĢ toi = whatever you may say in reply to me, I am always thinking of you 458 Conditional clauses Conditional clauses suggest an hypothesis and are introduced mainly by si = if, but also by aĢ condition que = on the condition that, provided that, aĢ moins que = unless, au cas ouĢ = if, dans la mesure ouĢ = in so far as, dans le cas ouĢ = if, pour peu que = if, pourvu que = provided that, que . . . ou = whether . . . or, supposeĢ que = supposing that. In clauses introduced by conjunctions ending in que, the verb is in the subjunctive mood. In clauses introduced by si and expressions ending in ouĢ, the verb is in the indicative mood. aĢ condition que = on the condition that, provided that Le sexe peut ameĢliorer avec les anneĢes, aĢ condition que lāon fasse preuve dāimagination et de teĢnaciteĢ = sex can improve over the years provided that you show imagination and tenacity CĢ§a change de routine et cāest treĢs excitant, aĢ condition que cela ne devienne pas la norme = that changes your routine and itās very exciting, provided that it doesnāt become the norm aĢ moins que = unless CĢ§a va, aĢ moins que votre preĢfeĢrence neā soit la musique classique = thatās OK, unless your preference is for classical music ā Note that an expletive ne may be used in subordinate clauses introduced by aĢ moins que ā see 417. au cas ouĢ = in case Choisissez un loueur qui disposent dāagences partout en Europe, au cas ouĢ vous en auriez besoin = choose a hire company with agencies throughout Europe in case you need one 351 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR dans la mesure ouĢ = in so far as Dans la mesure ouĢ vous voulez mettre vos boutons de manchette en valeur, relevez leĢgeĢrement vos manchettes de costume = in so far as you want to show off your cuff links, pull the cuffs on your suit back slightly pour peu que = if Pour peu que la nature vous ait donneĢ un organe en bonne et due forme, votre voix peut faire des eĢtincelles = if nature has given you a first-class organ, your voice can make sparks fly pourvu que = provided that Jāaime les parfums raffineĢs et discrets, pourvu quāon ne sāen serve pas avec exceĢs = I like refined, discreet perfumes, provided theyāre not used excessively que . . . ou = whether . . . or Que la chute de vos cheveux soit dāorigine hormonale ou heĢreĢditaire, ce nouveau seĢrum en reĢactivera la croissance = whether your hair loss is hormonal or hereditary in origin, this new serum will reactivate its growth Que votre probleĢme soit lieĢ aĢ une incompreĢhension sexuelle ou aĢ un eĢnorme malentendu, seule une discussion peut eĢclaircir la situation = whether your problem is linked to a sexual misunderstanding or to a serious lack of general understanding, only a discussion can shed light on the situation si = if Si lāon nāy fait pas attention, on prend 500 grammes chaque anneĢe = if youāre not careful, you can put on 500 grammes every year Leur mauvaise reĢputation nāest pas justifieĢe si on prend les preĢcautions neĢcessaires = their bad reputation isnāt justified if you take the necessary precautions Si vous laissez voir votre torse viril et poilu, vous passerez pour un individu franchement ringard = if you reveal your virile, hairy chest, youāll be taken for someone really behind the times Pratiquer dans un club reconnu par une feĢdeĢration vous couvre seulement si vous blessez quelquāun = playing in a club recognised by a federation covers you only if you hurt somebody Although si normally = if, it is sometimes to be translated by even if, whereas ā Si cette confiture ne contient pas de sucre classique, elle nāest en revanche pas alleĢgeĢe en calories = even if this jam doesnāt contain orthodox sugar, it isnāt, for all that, light in calories Si la schizophreĢnie ne peut pas eĢtre gueĢrie, ses symptoĢmes peuvent eĢtre atteĢnueĢs = even if schizophrenia canāt be cured, its symptoms can be reduced Si les veĢgeĢtaux crus apportent des vitamines, ils se comportent comme de veĢritables petites raĢpes pour le coĢlon = even if raw vegetables give us vitamins, they act like little graters on our colons 352 459 Consecutive clauses Si 71% dāentre nous affirment se doucher tous les jours, les 3,8% qui ne prennent ni douche ni bain doivent, eux, eĢtre adeptes de la toilette de chat = whereas 71% of us contend that we take a shower every day, the 3.8% who take neither a shower nor a bath must use the catās routine When two or more conditional clauses are dependent upon the same main clause, the second and subsequent clauses may be introduced by que rather than si ā Si je voulais un pain de chocolat et quāil nāy en avait pas, cĢ§a creĢait un moment de panique = if I wanted a bar of chocolate and there werenāt any, that created a momentās panic Si jāai un mauvais jour et que je me retrouve sur une sceĢne devant des milliers de personnes, jāoublie tout = if Iām having a bad day and Iām on stage in front of thousands of people, I forget everything But si can also be used in these circumstances, here for the sake of rhetorical symmetry ā Si je savais comment me servir dāeĢmotions enfouies, si je savais comment les canaliser, cĢ§a me rassurerait = if I knew how to use buried emotions, if I knew how to channel them, that would reassure me As far as tense usage with si is concerned, it should be noted that the future, future perfect, conditional and conditional perfect are never used in the si clause ā the other tenses are regularly used. For si = if, whether introducing indirect questions, see 482. supposeĢ que = supposing that SupposeĢ que vous ayez gagneĢ six points dans notre enqueĢte, cela suggeĢre que certaines zones dāincertitude persistent dans votre esprit = supposing youāve notched up six points in our investigation, that suggests that certain areas of uncertainty persist in your mind SupposeĢ que vous aimiez que vos actions soient beaucoup plus rentables, essayez de faire preuve de patience = supposing youād like your stocks and shares to be more profitable, try to be patient 459 Consecutive clauses Consecutive subordinate clauses mark the consequence of something and are introduced by the following expressions, all of which = so that ā de sorte que, si bien que, de telle facĢ§on que, de telle manieĢre que, de telle sorte que, aĢ tel point que, si . . . que, tant . . . que, tel . . . que, tellement . . . que; dāautant (plus) que = all the more because The verb of the subordinate clause is always in the indicative mood. dāautant (plus) que = all the more because La salle de bains devient un endroit de lutte dans 23% des meĢnages, dāautant plus que 41% des FrancĢ§ais aiment se preĢlasser dans leur bain une fois par semaine = the bathroom is becoming a warground in 23% of households, all the more because 41% of the French like to relax in their bath once a week 353 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Vous grignotez entre les repas, dāautant que vous avez des sautes dāhumeur et cāest votre facĢ§on de les geĢrer = you nibble between meals, all the more because you have mood swings and itās your way of managing them si . . . que = so that Les campagnes antitabac ont eu un si grand succeĢs en Grande-Bretagne que le gouvernement propose de taxer la « malbouffe » = anti-smoking campaigns have been so successful in Great Britain that the government proposes taxing unhealthy foods tant . . . que = so many . . . that Il y a tant de raisons pour lesquelles une premieĢre rencontre peut tourner court quāil serait dommage de ne pas tenter la seconde fois = there are so many reasons why a first meeting may come to a sudden halt that it would be a shame not to try again tel . . . que = so . . . that Votre frustration est telle que, parfois, vous brusquez les choses pour obtenir la satisfaction = you get so frustrated that sometimes you rush things so as to get satisfaction aĢ tel point que = to such an extent that Areva a duĢ restructurer ses entreprises aĢ tel point que la compagnie a fermeĢ dix usines en France = Areva has had to restructure its enterprises to such an extent that it has closed ten factories in France tellement . . . que = so much . . . that Jāai eĢteĢ tellement blesseĢe par des gens que je prenais pour des amis quāaujourdāhui je suis meĢfiante = Iāve been hurt so much by people I thought were friends that nowadays Iām suspicious Elle a eĢteĢ tellement mise en avant aĢ un moment ouĢ se construit sa personnaliteĢ, que cĢ§a ne lui permet pas dāeĢvoluer dāune manieĢre harmonieuse = she has been so exposed at a time when her personality was being formed that it doesnāt allow her to develop in a consistent way Note the word order in the following example, where tellement has a causal and consequential value ā Je me suis abonneĢe lāanneĢe dernieĢre tellement votre magazine me plaıĢt = I subscribed last year because your magazine appealed to me so much 460 Final clauses Final clauses express the reason why something is done and are introduced by such expressions as afin que, pour que, de sorte que, all of which = in order that, so that. In clauses introduced by final conjunctions, the verb is always in the subjunctive mood ā see 148. afin que = in order that, so that Laissez lāentre-coĢte se reposer une minute aĢ lāair afin que les fibres se deĢtendent = allow the steak to rest for one minute to let its texture settle 354 462 Noun clauses pour que = in order that, so that Il suffit quāune eĢtincelle se produise aĢ cet instant preĢcis, pour quāune catastrophe arrive = all it needs is for a spark to be produced at that precise moment in order for a catastrophe to happen Il nāen fallait pas plus pour que les meĢdias demandent lāinterdiction de la vente du boeuf = that was all it took for the media to demand a ban on the sale of beef de sorte que = so that Un homme qui se parfume aĢ longueur de journeĢe, cĢ§a fait sourire ā est-ce quāil sāy adonne de sorte que nous le remarquions? = a man who puts on perfume all day long makes me smile ā does he do it so that we notice him? Note that when de sorte que is followed by the indicative it indicates a consequence ā see 459 ā and when it is followed by the subjunctive it indicates a purpose. 461 Manner clauses Manner clauses indicate how something is done and are introduced by such expressions as ainsi que = as, aussi . . . que = as, comme = how, as, de meĢme que = same as. The verb occurs in the indicative mood. ainsi que = as La compeĢtition des femmes va donc cruellement manquer de saveur, ainsi que les reporters lāavaient preĢvu = so the womenās competition is going to suffer from a cruel lack of flavour, just as the commentators had predicted aussi . . . que = as LaĢ, lāatmospheĢre est aussi leĢgeĢre que les pelotes de laine eĢparpilleĢes sur la table = there the atmosphere is as light as the balls of wool scattered over the table comme = how, as Une femme qui peut sāhabiller comme elle veut se sent plus libre = a woman who can dress how she wants feels freer Ils me traitaient comme si jāeĢtais un dieu vivant = they treated me as if I was a living god Les crooners ameĢricains murmurent dans leur micro comme sāils faisaient lāamour aĢ une femme = American crooners whisper into their mikes, as if theyāre making love to a woman de meĢme que = same as Deux ans de cours de theĢaĢtre ont, dit-elle, transformeĢ sa vie, de meĢme quāils lui ont appris aĢ ne plus craindre le regard des autres = two years at theatre school have, she says, transformed her life, in the same way as they have taught her not to be afraid of the way other people look at her any longer 462 Noun clauses Noun clauses are introduced by que and follow verbs of speech, verbs of emotion, of comprehension, of knowledge. Whether or not que is followed by the indicative or 355 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR subjunctive mood depends upon the type of verb governing it. For those verbs which are followed by the subjunctive, see 149, 150. que + indicative mood ā Quand elle māappelle par mon nom de famille, je sais que jāai duĢ faire une connerie = when she calls me by my last name, I know Iāve done something really stupid Jāai lāimpression que chaque partie de mon corps reĢagit = I get the impression that every part of my body reacts Elle māa reĢpondu quāelle avait reĢveĢ que jāeĢtais mort = she told me sheād dreamt I was dead Elle māa dit que je lui manquais = she told me she missed me que + subjunctive mood On ne peut pas dire que lāarriveĢe du joueur portugais ait beaucoup apporteĢ au club = you canāt say that the arrival of the Portuguese player benefited the club very much Il semble quāil y ait dans ces cursus une vraie deĢrive = it seems that in these programmes there is a tendency to depart from the point Je suis content pour Pedro quāil ait marqueĢ contre Porto = Iām pleased that Pedro scored against Porto Il arrive que le choix de la mort soit un hymne aĢ la vie = it happens that choosing death is an anthem to life 463 Highlighting with cāest Highlighting is the process that allows an element in a clause to be given more prominence than normal. One way of achieving highlighting an element is to introduce it with cāest . . . qui /que. Cāest . . . qui is used when the highlighted element is the subject of the clause; ce sont if the subject is plural; cāest . . . que when it is another part of speech. See also 223. cāest . . . qui Cāest le mauvais brossage des dents qui cause la mauvaise haleine = itās bad tooth-brushing that causes bad breath Tahiti, cāest lāendroit qui offre des plages magnifiques = Tahitiās the place that offers magnificent beaches Ce sont leurs deux plus petits enfants quāils ont ameneĢs avec eux = itās their two youngest children that theyāve brought with them cāest . . . que Cāest avec Dominique quāon va commencer ce rapport = itās with Dominique that weāre going to begin this report Cāest la premieĢre fois quāon va exposer les photos de Claude Berri = itās the first time that Claude Berriās photos will be on show 356 464 Relative clauses Il semble que ce soit aĢ partir de Toulouse que le virus sāest infiltreĢ en France = it seems that itās from Toulouse that the virus has been introduced into France 464 Relative clauses Relative clauses provide more information about their antecedents and are introduced by such pronouns as ā qui = who, which, that (subject) que = whom, which, that (object) dont = whose, of whom, of which de qui = whose, of whom duquel / de laquelle / desquels / desquelles = of which preposition + qui /lequel, etc = preposition + whom preposition + lequel, etc = preposition + which ouĢ =in which, where In these cases the antecedent is a specific noun ā compare ce qui, ce que, ce dont below. qui = who (subject) Une femme qui peut sāhabiller comme elle veut se sent plus libre = a woman who can dress as she wants feels freer Lāautre aspect inteĢressant concerne les deĢbutants, ceux qui signent leur premier contrat professionnel = the other interesting aspect involves beginners, those who are signing their first contract as professionals Les speĢcialistes conseillent aux femmes qui tentent dāavoir un enfant de ne pas deĢpasser un apport en proteĢines de 20% = specialists advise women who are trying to have a child not to exceed a protein intake of 20% Note that the person of the verb matches the person indicated by qui ā Cāest moi qui lāai fait = it was me who did it / I was the one who did it Cāest toi qui lāas fait = youāre the one who did it que = whom (object) CoĢteĢ positif du meĢtrosexuel ā vous vivez avec un homme qui sent bon que vous aimez respirer dans le cou = the positive side of the metrosexual ā you live with a man who smells good and whose neck you like sniffing Il pense aĢ sa femme, aĢ son fils de deux ans quāil ne reverra peut-eĢtre plus = he thought about his wife, his two-year-old son whom he might never see again Les troupes quāil commandait avaient traqueĢ les agents ennemis dans les cavernes et les tunnels = the troops he commanded had tracked down the enemy agents in the caves and tunnels 357 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Preposition + qui En dehors de ceux pour qui la voix est un outil professionnel, peu de gens consideĢrent la voix comme quelque chose dāimportant = apart from those for whom the voice is a professional tool, few people consider it as something important Un strip-tease a un effet direct sur les hommes, pour qui le visuel est la premieĢre source de stimulation = strip-tease has a direct effect on men, for whom the visual is the principal source of sensations qui = which (subject) Les maladies de la reĢtine, qui entraıĢnent la ceĢciteĢ, frappent de 30 000 aĢ 40 000 personnes en France = diseases of the retina, which cause blindness, affect between 30,000 and 40,000 people in France Le forfait hospitalier aĢ la charge des patients, qui couvre le couĢt du repas et de lāheĢbergement, passe aĢ 14 euros = the hospital levy charged to patients, which covers board and lodging, is going up to 14 euros Utilisez cette plaque en fonte qui est eĢquipeĢe de stries qui laisseront sur vos pieĢces de viande les meĢmes marques quāune grille de barbeĢcue = use this griddle with grooves which will leave the same marks on your pieces of meat as a barbecue grill que = which, that (object) Heureusement, on peut avoir un maillot de bain que lāon nāheĢsitera pas aĢ montrer = fortunately you can have a swimsuit you wonāt hesitate to wear in public Comptez 800 euros les dix seĢances, une somme que lāon peut reĢgler en deux ou trois fois = you have to reckon on 800 euros for ten sessions, a sum which you can settle in two or three payments CacheĢ parmi les projecteurs de mon peĢre, jāai meĢme vu tourner des films que je nāaurais pas eu le droit de voir en salle = hidden among my dadās projectors, I even saw films being made that I wouldnāt be allowed to see in a cinema dont = whose, of whom Because dont is the product of the preposition de + pronoun, it is sometimes translated as with which, from which, etc. Word order with dont needs to be noted ā with reference to people ā Une aide sera accordeĢe aĢ ceux dont les revenus ne deĢpassent pas 650 euros par mois = help will be given to those whose income doesnāt exceed 650 euros a month with reference to things ā Nous avons fait appel aĢ la Croix Rouge dont nous trouvions initialement les tarifs trop eĢleveĢs = we appealed to the Red Cross whose charges we initially found too high Votre corps deĢgage des signaux dont ces insectes raffollent = your body gives off signals which these insects are crazy about Cāest lieĢ aĢ la facĢ§on dont nous nous en servons = itās linked to the way we use it Il faut choisir le contrat dont les cotisations sāajustent le mieux aĢ votre profil = you must choose the contract whose payments best suit your status 358 464 Relative clauses Lāensemble correspondait aĢ ce dont je reĢvais ā jāavais retrouveĢ la poitrine de mes 20 ans = the whole thing matched up to what I was dreaming of ā I had rediscovered the bust I had when I was 20 ouĢ = in which, where La salle de bains est devenu un lieu ouĢ les membres de la famille aiment aĢ se retrouver = the bathroom has become a place where family members like to meet Preposition + lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles Attention au deĢlai de carence: cāest le temps pendant lequel vous payez lāassurance sans beĢneĢficier des garanties = beware of the waiting period ā thatās the time during which you pay for the insurance without benefiting from the warranty Sa voix est capable de vibrations auxquelles les groupies ne restent pas insensibles = his voice is capable of vibrations to which the groupies are not insensitive Un match au cours duquel il a montreĢ une capaciteĢ ineĢdite aĢ foudroyer lāadversaire = a match during which he demonstrated a totally new ability to overwhelm his opponent Il y a tant de raisons pour lesquellesā une premieĢre rencontre peut tourner court = there are so many reasons why a first meeting may come to a sudden halt Cāest la raison pour laquelleā je suis persuadeĢ que lāactiviteĢ sportive est excellente pour tout le monde = itās the reason why Iām convinced that sport is excellent for everybody ā Note la raison pour laquelle (rather than la raison pourquoi) = the reason why ce qui, ce que, ce dont, de quoi These do not refer to a single antecedent but to the idea expressed in the previous clause ā ce qui = which 45% des femmes francĢ§aises prennent la pilule, ce qui en fait les premieĢres utilisatrices en Europe = 45% of French women take the pill, which makes them the leading users in Europe Les vacances sont ideĢales pour refuser les contraintes ā ce qui veut dire eĢtre un peu plus eĢgoıĢste = holidays are ideal for rejecting constraint ā which means you can be a little more self-centred Ces cotisations sont deĢductibles des revenus, ce qui permet de payer moins dāimpoĢts = these payments are deductible from your income, which allows you to pay less tax Je ne sais pas ce qui est beau, mais je sais ce que jāaime = I donāt know what is beautiful, but I know what I like ce que = what Jāai duĢ me battre pour faire ce que jāavais envie de faire = I had to fight to do what I wanted to do 359 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR La geĢomeĢtrie variable de notre ventre est lieĢe aĢ ce quāon mange, aĢ ce que lāon boit = the variable geometry of our stomach is linked to what we eat, to what we drink On ne peut pas eĢtre compleĢtement surpris par ce quāon trouve sur soi = you canāt be completely surprised by what you find in yourself Nantes sāest eĢleveĢ aĢ un niveau de jeu inhabituel par rapport aĢ ce quāil a montreĢ jusque-laĢ = Nantes has risen to a level of play which is unusual in comparison with what they have demonstrated until now ce dont = which Se raser une fois par semaire et se balader en tongs et en short toute la journeĢe est un bonheur vraiment eĢvident ā ce dont on ne devrait pas se priver! = shaving once a week and walking about in flip-flops and shorts all day long is a really obvious pleasure ā which no-one should deprive themselves of ! de quoi = the wherewithal, food for thought Cāest dans ce groupe de rats que les chercheurs ont observeĢ les tumeurs les moins deĢveloppeĢes. De quoi nous inciter aĢ privileĢgier les aliments remarqueĢs pour leurs vertus anticancer = itās among this group of rats that researchers have noticed the least developed tumours ā this should inspire us to give top priority to food noted for its anticancer qualities VoilaĢ de quoi vous convaincre quāen matieĢre de sexualiteĢ, la fataliteĢ nāa pas sa place = this should be enough to convince you that in matters of sex, fate has no place 465 Time clauses Time clauses indicate when something occurs. The following conjunctions indicate that the action expressed by the main verb has happened before the action expressed by the verb in the subordinate clause ā avant que = before, jusquāaĢ ce que = until. The mood of the verb in the subordinate clause in these cases is the subjunctive ā avant que = before Avant que les contacts neā se durcissent, Thierry obligeait le gardien aĢ repousser des poings = before the game really hotted up, Thierry forced the keeper to punch the ball away Il avait eĢteĢ invisible sauf lorsquāil fut creĢditeĢ du seul carton jaune du soir avant que Mourinho neā se deĢcide aĢ le sortir quelques minutes plus tard = heād been invisible except when he was awarded the only yellow card of the evening before Mourinho [the manager] decided to take him off a few minutes later ā Note the use of an expletive ne with avant que ā see 417. jusquāaĢ ce que = until JusquāaĢ ce quāil boive, il se conduit parfaitement, mais apreĢs . . . = until he has a drink, he behaves admirably, but afterwards . . . 360 465 Time clauses JusquāaĢ ce quāon atteigne la quarantaine, il nāest pas neĢcessaire de surveiller autant ce quāon mange = until you get to forty, itās not necessary to watch what you eat so much With jusquāau moment ouĢ, jusquāau temps ouĢ = until, the mood of the verb in the subordinate clause is the indicative (ouĢ is never followed by the subjunctive) ā Une femme sur deux prend entre 4 et 6 kilos jusquāau moment ouĢ elle est meĢnopauseĢe = one woman out of two puts on between 4 and 6 kilos until she is menopausal Je me sentais un peu en dehors des choses, jusquāau temps ouĢ jāai eu des enfants = I felt a little left out of things, until I had children Quand = when and lorsque = when indicate that the action expressed by the main verb either occurs after or at the same time as that indicated by the verb in the subordinate clause. The mood of the verb in the subordinate clause in these cases is the indicative. quand = when Une majoriteĢ de couples avouent que cāest surtout quand ils se sentent bien avec lāautre quāils ont envie du sexe = a majority of couples admit that itās especially when they feel good with each other that they want sex Quand je proteste, elle dit que si on avait un enfant, elle nāaurait pas pris de chien = when I protest, she says that if we had a child, she wouldnāt have got a dog Dis-lui que tu aimerais voir son visage quand tu lāembrasses = tell her youād like to see her face when you kiss her lorsque = when Ce massage eĢpaissit lāeĢpiderme, lorsque celui-ci est distendu par une naissance = this massage thickens your skin, when itās distended as a result of giving birth Lorsque le corps subit un effort, il secreĢte de lāadreĢnaline = when the body makes an effort, it secretes adrenalin Lorsque lāentre-coĢte est aĢ votre convenance, ne la servez pas tout de suite = when the steak is how you like it, donāt serve it straightaway When two or more time clauses are dependent upon the same main clause, the second and subsequent clauses may be introduced by que rather than lorsque or quand (compare usage with si ā see 458) ā Quand vous nāavez pas assez mangeĢ et que vous eĢtes stresseĢe, vous vous offrez une barre de chocolat ou un gaĢteau = when you havenāt eaten enough and youāre stressed, you indulge yourself with a bar of chocolate or a cake The following conjunctions indicate that the action expressed by the main verb happens at the same time as the action expressed by the verb in the subordinate clause ā alors que = while, whereas, comme = as, ouĢ = when, pendant que = while, tandis que = whereas, while, en meĢme temps que = at the same time as, tant que = as long as. The mood of the verb in the subordinate clause in these cases is the indicative. 361 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR alors que = while, whereas Alors que les seĢnateurs avaient deĢcideĢ de maintenir les distributeurs automatiques de boissons sucreĢes dans les eĢtablissements scolaires, une commission a recommandeĢ quāils soient bannis = whereas the Senate had decided to retain sweet-drink vending machines in schools, a committee has recommended that they be banned Jāai lāimpression que mon corps gonfle, alors que je ne change pas de reĢgime alimentaire = Iāve got the impression that my body is swelling up, whereas I havenāt changed my eating habits comme = as Comme lāhiver avance, la mortaliteĢ infantile va presque tripler = as winter advances, infant mortality is almost going to increase threefold ouĢ = when Normally ouĢ is a relative pronoun = where, but when combined with a noun of time, it = when ā Il revient sur les anneĢes noires, ouĢ lāon deĢcouvre un homme aĢ lāopposeĢ de lāimage que lāon sāest faite de lui = he goes back over the dark years, when you discover a man opposite to the image you had formed of him PasseĢe la peĢriode de flamme ouĢ chacun est sur le qui-vive en matieĢre de seĢduction = once the time of passion is over when everyone is on the alert as far as seduction is concerned pendant que = while Pendant que vous coupez les fruits secs, plongez les escalopes de dinde dans une casserole dāeau bouillante = while youāre chopping up the dry fruit, immerse the turkey escalopes in a saucepan of boiling water Mon collocataire a fait une soireĢe dans notre appartement pendant que jāeĢtais en boıĢte avec mes potes = my flatmate had a party in our flat while I was in the club with my mates tandis que = whereas, while Le froid pousse les gens aĢ se replier sur eux-meĢmes, tandis que sous la chaleur ils ouvrent leur corps et leur esprit = cold makes people turn in upon themselves, whereas when itās hot, they open up their bodies and minds Laissez-la vous parler tandis que vous eĢtes assis sur la marche = let her speak to you while youāre sitting on the step tant que = as long as Tant que vous avez de lāimagination, toutes les combinaisons sont possibles = for as long as youāve got imagination, all combinations are open to you The following conjunctions indicate that the action expressed by the main verb happens after the action expressed by the verb in the subordinate clause ā 362 466 Declarative clauses apreĢs que = after, aussitoĢt que = as soon as, depuis que = since, deĢs que = as soon as. The mood of the verb in the subordinate clause in these cases is the indicative ā apreĢs que = after ApreĢs que le premier changement fut imposeĢā par la blessure de Rothen, Porto deĢcida de modifier la structure de son eĢquipe = after the first change was imposed by Rothenās injury, Porto decided to modify the structure of its team ā Note the use of the past anterior when the verb in the main clause is past historic ā see 133. Note too that in the case of apreĢs que, the subjunctive is sometimes used ā see 157. Trois semaines apreĢs quāelle māait quitteĢ, jāai trouveĢ une autre petite amie = three weeks after she left me, I found another girlfriend MeĢme apreĢs quāil ait effectueĢ le tournant, il nāa pas regardeĢ derrieĢre lui = even after he had gone round the corner, he didnāt look behind him aussitoĢt que = as soon as AussitoĢt que jāai compris en quoi mes comportements influaient sur les eĢveĢnements, jāai su que cĢ§a ne pourrait quāaller au mieux = as soon as I understood that my behaviour influenced events, I realised that things could only get better depuis que = since Depuis que je travaille aĢ Paris, ma peau devient treĢs grasse = since Iāve been working in Paris, my skin has become very greasy Depuis que vous avez trouveĢ le creĢneau qui vous convient le mieux, vous nāen sortez plus = since youāve found the slot that suits you best, you stick to it deĢs que = as soon as DeĢs que je māapproche de ma femme pour lāaider, elle se faĢche = as soon as I go to help my wife, she gets angry Les moustiques, cāest le cauchemar de lāeĢteĢ, deĢs que le soleil se couche = mosquitoes are a nightmare in summer, as soon as the sun sets 466 Declarative clauses The following elements may appear in a declarative clause ā compulsory ā a verb optional but verging on the compulsory ā a subject; the subject does not appear if it is the same as in an immediately preceding clause at the same level ā Je pratique la moto, fume depuis lāaĢge de 14 ans et ne refuse pas un verre dāalcool = I ride a motorbike, have smoked since I was 14 and donāt say no to a drink Peu grasse, cette partie du saumon fond sous la langue et laisse un parfum de mer deĢlicatement iodeĢ = containing little fat, this section of salmon melts under your tongue and leaves a flavour of the sea with a delicate hint of iodine optional ā an object, direct and/or indirect optional ā a complement of the subject and/or the object 363 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR optional ā one or more adverbs and/or adverbial expressions; the only limit to the number of adverbs and/or adverbial expressions which may occur in a declarative clause is the listenerās or readerās ability to absorb them. Entre-temps, passez les tranches de pain de mie sous le gril du four adverb 1 verb direct object adverb 2 = in the meantime place the slices of bread under the grill LasseĢes de la sangria et du Bordeaux de leurs ancestrales destinations migratoires, complement of the subject plus de 14 000 grues cendreĢes ont choisi, cet hiver, de se mettre . . . au subject verb a adverb 1 verb b champagne sur le lac du Der-Chantecoq = fed up with the sangria and Bordeaux adverb 2 wine of their migratory destinations from time immemorial, over 14,000 common cranes have chosen, this winter, to sample champagne on the Lake of Der-Chantecoq Each of the combinations is illustrated in more detail below. 467 Word order in declarative clauses In what follows a small number of examples are given to illustrate the main word orders that occur in declarative clauses. Sometimes elements not given in the rubric also occur in the examples: the purpose of the examples is to show the principal word orders. Subject + verb Normally the subject precedes the verb ā Jāarrive = Iām coming Les mains tremblent = your hands are trembling Notre eĢquipe a perdu = our team lost Subject + verb + complement of subject The complement of the subject is a noun or adjective which relates to the subject and is usually separated from it by a verb such as devenir = to become, eĢtre = to be, paraıĢtre = to appear, sembler = to seem La peur est une reĢponse saine aĢ une situation de danger = fear is a healthy response to a dangerous situation Vous devenez sage = youāre getting wise Mis aĢ lāeĢcart, il a deĢcideĢ de se deĢfendre = having been put on the sidelines, he decided to fight back Subject + verb + direct object Normally the object follows the verb, unless it is a pronoun, in which case it precedes the verb ā see 210 ā Elle portait une jupe en velours = she wore a velvet skirt 364 467 Word order in declarative clauses Le concombre contient des moleĢcules apaisantes = cucumbers contain calming molecules La somnolence entraıĢne des peĢriodes de micro-sommeil = drowsiness makes you sleep for very short periods Les FrancĢ§ais ont apporteĢ un deĢbut de reĢponse = the French have produced the beginnings of a reply Le foyer DVD moyen en France acheĢte 12 DVD par an = the average DVD-owning household in France buys 12 DVDs a year Subject + verb + prepositional object Les peĢcheurs locaux speĢculent sur dāeĢventuelles fuites radioactives = the local fishermen speculate on possible radioactive leaks Il a beaucoup de talent et le football a besoin de joueurs comme lui = heās got a lot of talent and football needs players like him Complement of subject + subject + verb Simple, le fer lisse ou sculpte les meĢches pour une coiffure sophistiqueĢe = easy to use, the tongs smooth or shape your hair for a sophisticated hair-style PassionneĢs ou novices, tout le monde y trouve son compte graĢce aĢ une programmation dāexcellente qualiteĢ = whether theyāre enthusiasts or novices, everyone will find something that interests them thanks to excellent-quality programming Griffes faceĢtieuses et moustaches philosophes, le Chat, heĢros de BD, exporte sa douce fantaisie aĢ Bordeaux = with its facetious claws and philosophical whiskers, the Cat, now a cartoon hero, brings its gentle fantasy to Bordeaux Subject + verb + direct object + indirect object On a accordeĢ le prix du Forum dāErmua au ministre de la justice = the Forum dāErmua prize has been awarded to the Minister of Justice Cāest le sondage secret qui met du baume au coeur du Premier ministre = itās the secret poll which soothes the Prime Ministerās heart Les accords de Dayton ont mis un terme au conflit le plus meurtrier que lāEurope ait connu depuis 1945 = the Dayton agreements brought to a close the most bloody conflict in Europe since 1945 Subject + verb + adverbial expression Il sāest rarement trouveĢ en position de conclure = he rarely found himself in a position to finish off Votre grand-meĢre profitait de la chicoreĢe au petit deĢjeuner = your grandmother used to have the pleasure of chicory for her breakfast Adverbial expression + subject + verb (+ direct object) AĢ Paris, personne ne le soutient = in Paris, no one supports him 365 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Mercredi 3 deĢcembre, un peu plus dāun million dāexemplaires de « Harry Potter et lāordre du PheĢnix » envahiront la France = on Wednesday 3 December, just over a million copies of āHarry Potter and the order of the Phoenixā will invade France Techniquement, il a eĢteĢ le moins aĢ lāaise des deĢfenseurs = technically, he was the least comfortable of the defenders Multiple adverbial expressions DeĢgustez les mirabelles 1 nature, 2 en clafoutis, 3 sur une tarte ou 4 au fond dāun crumble = enjoy greengages raw, in a clafoutis, in a tart or in a crumble 1 Bref, vous marchez 2 dāun bon pas 3 vers le preĢcipice = in short, youāre walking steadily towards the precipice 1 AĢ la 63e minute, 2 sur un ballon de la droite de Poborsky, il sāinfiltra 3 plein axe = in the 63rd minute, on a ball from Poborskyās right foot, he manouvered himself into the centre 468 Inversion in declarative clauses Normally, as demonstrated above, 467, the subject precedes the verb in declarative clauses. However, occasionally, inversion of the subject and verb takes place ā In main clauses after certain adverbs ā AĢ peine sont les nuits plus longues quāon a envie de se lover dans des draps hypergrands = scarcely have the nights become longer than you want to curl up in ultra-big sheets AĢ peine avez-vous poseĢ lāongle sur laquelle vous avez mis ce produit sur vos leĢvres, que vous avez envie de rendre = scarcely have you put the nail on which youāve put this product on your lips, than you want to throw up Encore faut-il savoir en profiter = you still have to know how to benefit from it Peut-eĢtre suis-je trop pudique pour cela = perhaps Iām too modest for that Peut-eĢtre ne devrais-je pas le dire = perhaps I shouldnāt say so Peut-eĢtre le deĢsir de lāhomme est-il quelque chose qui vous rassure mais aussi qui vous fait peur = perhaps a manās desire for you is something that reassures you but frightens you at the same time In main clauses introduced by an adjective complement of the subject ā Peu nombreux sont les socialistes qui prennent sa deĢfense = the socialists who come to his defence are very few in number Dans les parkings nombreuses sont les femmes qui cherchent leur voiture sous lāoeil narquois de leur compagnon = in car parks many women try to find their cars under the mocking eye of their companion 366 468 Inversion in declarative clauses In main clauses in sentence-initial position, with verbs such as rester = to remain, venir = to come LāentraıĢneur a annonceĢ quāil va quitter Paris. Reste aĢ savoir si le conseil dāadministration acceptera sa deĢcision sans lutter pour le garder = the trainer has announced that heās going to leave Paris. It remains to be seen whether the board of directors will accept his decision without fighting to keep him On stocke plus facilement les graisses au fil du temps. Vient ensuite la peĢriode de preĢmeĢnopause = we stock up fat more easily as time goes by. Then arrives the premenopause On rencontrait ensuite ces pays qui deĢcidaient de sāabstenir sans autre forme de proceĢs. Venaient enfin la France, la Russie qui ajoutaient aĢ leur abstention une « guerrilla » diplomatique = then there were those countries who decided to abstain without any other form of involvement. Finally there were France and Russia who added a diplomatic āskirmishā to their abstention In relative subordinate clauses On ferme le livre ravi par la tournure que prend cette aventure = we shut the book, delighted by the turn the adventure took Comment faire avancer les reĢformes eĢconomiques que proĢne le preĢsident quand la moitieĢ de lāAssembleĢe reĢsiste? = how can they make progress with the economic reforms that the President is advocating when half of the National Assembly is resisting? La SocieĢteĢ des Amis du museĢe national dāArt moderne que preĢside FrancĢ§ois TreĢves feĢte son centenaire = the Society of Friends of the National Museum of Modern Art of which FrancĢ§ois TreĢves is the president is celebrating its centenary Le preĢsident a beaucoup consulteĢ sur les interrogations que souleĢvent les valeurs qui fondent la socieĢteĢ francĢ§aise = the President consulted widely on the questions raised by the values that undergird French society To achieve stylistic effect ā reserving the subject to a prominent position at the end of a sentence in a noun clause ā see 462. Cāest des livres que vient le salut = itās from books that salvation comes En attendant mieux, lāEĢlyseĢe souhaite que soient au moins remanieĢs certains cabinets ministeĢriels = while waiting for something better to turn up, the EĢlyseĢe (the Presidentās official residence) is wanting certain ministerial cabinets to be reshuffled Les analyses diront si le navire, ainsi que lāaffirment les AmeĢricains, est demeureĢ eĢtanche = analyses will tell if the ship, as the Americans insist, remained watertight La loi sera preĢceĢdeĢe de meĢdiations pour que soient respecteĢs « les eĢquilibres qui rassemblent » = the law will be preceded by mediation in order that the ābalances that uniteā are respected 367 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 469 Highlighting Highlighting is the process whereby an element in a clause or sentence is moved from its conventional position to a different position ā usually at the beginning or at the end of the clause ā in order to focus attention upon it. Highlighting may also be achieved by introducing the element that the speaker wishes to focus on by cāest . . . qui / que ā see 223, 463. If the element highlighted is a noun, it is repeated in the form of a pronoun before the verb: normal word order ā Je ne vois pas ces peurs comme neĢgatives = I donāt see these fears as negative direct object in initial position with repetition as pronoun ā Ces peurs, je ne les vois pas comme neĢgatives direct object in final position with repetition as pronoun ā Je ne les vois pas comme neĢgatives, ces peurs subject repeated as stressed pronoun in initial position ā Moi, je ne vois pas ces peurs comme neĢgatives Nous, on ne se plaindra pas du premier roman cocasse dāun auteur de 22 ans = weāre not going to complain about the first amusing novel of a 22-year-old author subject repeated as stressed pronoun in final position ā Je ne vois pas ces peurs comme neĢgatives, moi subject introduced by cāest . . . qui ā Cāest moi qui ne vois pas ces peurs comme neĢgatives = Iām the one who doesnāt see these fears as negative Ce nāest pas moi qui vois ces peurs comme neĢgatives = Iām not the one who sees these fears as negative Cāest lāeĢpoque ouĢ lāhomme politique ignore que le petit eĢcran est aussi parlant = it was the time when politicians didnāt realise that the small screen can also talk Highlighting can also be achieved by delaying the mention of the subject (or other element) ā see 467. Mais, avec le temps, vers ses 70 ans, est neĢ un autre Resnais, leĢger, faceĢtieux = but, with time, as he approached his 70th year, another Resnais was born, light-hearted, facetious Interrogative sentences 470 Interrogative sentences There are two types of interrogative sentences ā 368 472 oui ā non questions: 1 ā inversion 1 questions inviting a oui ā non /yes ā no answer ā Est-ce que cāest vrai quāun bruit fort geĢne davantage quāun bruit faible? = is it right that a loud noise does more harm than a soft noise? Vous avez faim? = are you hungry? AĢ part lāodeur de certains hommes, y a-t-il des odeurs qui vous deĢgouĢtent? = apart from the smell of certain men, are there any smells that turn you off completely? 2 questions inviting more information, introduced by a question word ā Quelle est votre plage preĢfeĢreĢe? = which is your favourite beach? Quāest-ce qui vous reĢpugne chez une femme? = what puts you off in a woman? Pourquoi le rideau de douche se colle-t-elle au corps? = why does a shower curtain stick to your body? oui ā non questions 471 oui ā non questions Ouiānon ā yesāno questions are āclosedā questions in the sense that there can only be a yes- or a no-answer. No question word requiring a more discursive answer is present ā see below. Question 1 can only be answered by oui or non (unless itās je ne sais pas!), whereas question 2 expects a longer, detailed answer ā 1 Ces sites, est-ce quāils servent aĢ quelque chose? = are these sites any use? 2 Ces sites, aĢ quoi servent-ils? = whatās the use of these sites? These questions fall into a number of categories. 472 oui ā non questions ā 1: those involving inversion of the subject and the verb The following situations occur: When the subject is a noun, it is placed in first position followed by the verb and an unstressed subject pronoun referring back to the subject ā Ces produits sont-ils sans danger? = are these products safe? Les Parisiens, ont-ils vraiment battu les champions dāEurope? = did Paris-Saint-Germain really beat the European champions? La perruque, est-elle bonne pour remplacer les boucles qui ne bougent plus? = is a wig any good for replacing curls that no longer move? When the subject is an unstressed pronoun, it is placed after the verb ā Savez-vous quāun couple sur trois ne fait plus lāamour? = did you know that one couple out of three no longer makes love? 369 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Ne regardez-vous pas quelquefois le mur en pensant aĢ autre chose? = donāt you sometimes look at the wall thinking about something else? Faut-il se priver de boeuf? = should we give up eating beef? A ton aĢge, est-ce bien raisonnable de se remettre au disco? = at your age is it a good idea to go back disco dancing? When the inverted pronoun begins with a vowel ā il or elle, ils or elles ā it is always preceded by a /t/ in pronunciation. If one of the plural pronouns is involved, it is the final t of the verb ending that is sounded ā Osent-ils aborder ces sujets avec leurs parents? = do they dare bring up these subjects with their parents? Sont-ils satisfaits des reĢponses que vous donnez? = are they satisfied with the answers you give? Vos livres ne risquent-ils pas de confirmer les preĢjugeĢs que les gens ont sur les gays? = donāt your books run the risk of confirming the prejudices people have about gays? If one of the singular pronouns is involved, the /t/ comes either from the verb ending itself ā Est-il sage de ne laver votre linge que quand il ne vous reste plus rien de propre? = is it sensible only to wash your clothes when youāve nothing clean left? Est-il possible dāeĢtre doux et puissant aĢ la fois? = is it possible to be strong and gentle at one and the same time? or, if the verb does not end in t, a t is inserted between the verb ending and the pronoun ā Y a-t-il un principe de base? = is there a basic principle? Y a-t-il des risques que nous nous fassions arreĢter par la police? = is there the danger that we might get ourselves arrested by the police? A-t-il oseĢ refuser de vous eĢpouser apreĢs tout cĢ§a? = did he dare refuse to marry you after all that? A-t-elle toujours deĢcideĢ de porter ce chemisier en pois? = has she still decided to wear that spotted blouse? Existe-t-il une question caracteĢristique? = is there a typical question? But you also find ā Jāaimerais beaucoup me faire tatouer ā mais existe-il une contre-indication pour certains endroits du corps? = Iād love to be tattooed ā but are there certain parts of the body that are counter-indicated? As far as the first person singular pronoun, je, is concerned, it is frequently inverted with modal verbs and eĢtre, but not with non-modal ones ā Serai-je dans le coup si je colore mes leĢvres et mes ongles dāun bel orange vif? = will I be really with it if I colour my lips and nails bright orange? 370 474 oui ā non questions: 3 ā intonation Puis-je annoncer ce que je veux faire? = may I announce what I want to do? Dois-je reprendre une activiteĢ physique pour deĢvelopper encore ma masse musculaire? = have I got to resume some physical activity to develop my muscle mass more? The use of nāest-ce pas Nāest-ce pas is the French tag question that can be attached to any statement to turn it into a question ā it is the equivalent of English canāt I, do you, donāt you, etc ā Lāaffaire est dans le sac, nāest-ce pas? = itās in the bag, isnāt it? Elle peut deviner vos penseĢes, nāest-ce pas? = she can guess your thoughts, canāt she? Vous avez besoin dāune voiture pour le weekend, nāest-ce pas? = you need a car for the weekend, donāt you? Il ne faut pas trop en mettre, nāest-ce pas? = you mustnāt put too much on, must you? Sometimes questions using inversion of subject and verb offer an alternative rather than a oui ā non /yes ā no answer ā Faut-il faire sa couleur avant ou apreĢs la permanente? = should I add the hair colour before or after the perm? Faut-il ou non rentrer le rabat de la poche de mon blazer? = should I turn the flap of my blazer pocket in or not? 473 oui ā non questions ā 2: those involving est-ce que + direct order of the subject and verb Est-ce que la douleur a disparu deux heures apreĢs la prise? = did the pain disappear two hours after taking the pill? Est-ce que vous avez eu des expeĢriences peĢnibles dans votre adolescence? = have you had unpleasant experiences during your teenage years? Est-ce que vous nāeĢcartez pas les jambes lorsquāil fait chaud? = donāt you sit with your legs apart when itās hot? Vous gagnez dix fois moins que lui. Est-ce que vous estimez que vous eĢtes dix fois moins bon que Roger Federer? = you earn ten times less than him. Do you consider that youāre ten times worse than Roger Federer? Vous cultivez votre image dāhomme marieĢ et de peĢre de famille. Est-ce que cĢ§a suffit aĢ refroidir les admiratrices ou est-ce quāon vous drague malgreĢ tout? = you cultivate your image as a married man, with children. Is that enough to cool the ardour of your female admirers or do they go after you in spite of everything? 474 oui ā non questions ā 3: those involving intonation only The rising intonation associated with the other types of interrogative sentences can be used with the direct order to indicate that a question is being asked and that a statement is not intended. This is extremely common in spoken French ā La fumeĢe ne vous deĢrange pas? = is the smoke disturbing you? Cāest passionnant? = is it exciting? 371 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Vous nāavez jamais eu peur de sombrer dans la deĢpression? = have you ever been afraid of becoming depressed? Vous avez des probleĢmes avec vos voisins? = do you have problems with your neighbours? Votre femme vous laisse de lāargent de poche chaque mois? = does your wife give you some pocket money every month? Vous avez des souvenirs sexy de votre expeĢrience de serveuse? = have you got some sexy memories of your experience as a waitress? In the following examples, highlighting is used as well as intonation ā La plage, vous y allez souvent? = do you often go to the beach? Votre permis, vous lāavez eu du premier coup? = did you get your licence at the first attempt? Et votre fils, il conduit, lui? = and does your son drive? In the following example, the question is conveyed through a very polite formula ā Si Madame veut bien gouĢter? = would Madam care to taste it? 475 Elliptical oui ā non questions In speech it is common for the question to be elliptical ā that is to say, for there to be no verb and for the person being addressed to supply missing details from the context in which the question is uttered ā Pas mal, non? = not bad, eh? Une marque brune sur la tempe ou le dos de la main? = youāve got a brown spot on your temple or the back of your hand? Connaissez-vous ses limites ? Et les voĢtres? = do you know her limits? And your own? Bourgogne ou Bordeaux ? = Burgundy or Bordeaux ? Celui-ci? = this one? Questions introduced by question words 476 Questions introduced by question words This type of question is sometimes known as a k-question, because most of the question words in French include a /k/ sound in their pronunciation ā in addition to those beginning with /k/ ā the qui, que, quel, quand series, plus combien, comment ā there is also pourquoi where the /k/ sound occurs mid-word. The exception to this principle is ouĢ. The position of k-words and the structure of interrogative sentences containing a kword are extremely flexible. Similar possibilities to those with oui ā non questions ā and 372 477 Question words ā pronouns more ā are available here. In the following examples, it is important to note the position of the subject in relation to the verb and the k-word ā if the subject is a pronoun, it will either be inverted as in 1 below or occur in the direct order as in the case of 2 and 3 below; if it is a noun rather than a pronoun, it can precede or follow the k-word and be echoed by a subject pronoun, which then is used as above. However, this does not apply to que = what (object), in which case the subject follows the verb ā see below ā nor to the quel series ā see 477, 478. 1 Placing the k-word first and inverting the subject and verb Depuis quand nāavez-vous pas pleureĢ au cineĢma? = since when didnāt you cry at the pictures? Quelle est votre plage preĢfeĢreĢe dans le monde? = which is your favourite beach in the world? If a noun rather than a pronoun is the subject, the noun precedes or follows the k-word and a subject pronoun echoing the noun is used in the inverted position ā ļ£¼ Comment la monotonie sāinstalle-t-elle ļ£“ ļ£“ ļ£½ dans un couple? = how does boredom set La monotonie, comment sāinstalle-t-elle ļ£“ in in a couple? ļ£“ ļ£¾ dans un couple? Pourquoi le teĢleĢphone sāaveĢre-t-il un moyen ideĢal pour les confidences? = why does the telephone turn out to be the ideal way of passing on secrets? 2 Placing the k-word first and using est-ce que after it with direct word order Quāest-ce que vous trouvez sensuel chez elle? = what do you find sexy in her? Comment est-ce que je peux faire pour avoir des rapports normaux? = how can I work it so that I can have normal relationships? 3 Using rising intonation Vous avez combien de points sur votre permis ? = how many points have you got on your licence? CĢ§a veut dire quoi « sans savon »? = what does āsoap-freeā mean? 4 Elliptical questions with a k-word Quoi de neuf pour vos dents? ā whatās new for your teeth? It should be noted that the order of unstressed pronouns and the use of ne . . . pas is not affected by the inversion of the subject and verb. 477 Question words ā pronouns qui = who (subject), and = who(m) (object) subject Qui en prend la deĢcision? = who takes the decision for it? Qui vous a dit cela? = who told you that? 373 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Qui sont les hommes les plus sexy pour vous? = who are the sexiest men in your book? Qui se met entre vous au lit ā votre meĢre, votre patron, votre ex? = who puts themselves between you in bed ā your mother, your boss or your ex? object Qui avez-vous chargeĢ de trouver une proprieĢteĢ convenable? = who have you delegated to find a suitable property? Qui voulez-vous inviter aĢ dıĢner ce soir? = who do you want to invite to dinner this evening? Qui = who(m) after a preposition; as explained above, inversion occurs if a subject pronoun is used; if a noun rather than a pronoun is the subject, the noun can follow or precede the k-word ā in the latter case, a subject pronoun echoing the noun is used in the inverted order ā AĢ qui dois-je māadresser pour des renseignements? = who should I refer to for information? Avec qui partez-vous en vacances cet eĢteĢ? = who are you going on holiday with this summer? AĢ qui appartient ce bruĢle-parfum? = who does that oil-burner belong to? Ce bruĢle-parfum, aĢ qui appartient-il? De qui vient ce message? = who is this message from? Ce message, de qui vient-il? quāest-ce qui = what (subject) Quāest-ce qui me pousse aĢ eĢcrire dans la presse des choses concernant ma personne? = what pushes me to write things about myself in the press? Quāest-ce qui vous deĢgouĢte le plus? = what turns you off the most? Quāest-ce qui vous a seĢduite dans le roĢle de Judith? = what was there in the part of Judith that seduced you? que = what (object) followed by inversion of the subject and the verb, whether pronoun or noun ā Que me conseillez-vous? = what do you advise me to do? Que reste-t-il de votre vie de sportif? = whatās left of your life as a sportsman? Quāy a-t-il de vous dans ce personnage? = what is there of you in this character? Aujourdāhui tout se passe bien. Mais quāen sera-t-il demain? = today everythingās all right. But what will it be like tomorrow? Que couvre lāassurance scolaire? = what does school insurance cover? DeĢlinquants sexuels ā que peut faire la meĢdecine? = sex offenders ā what can medicine do? 374 477 Question words ā pronouns quāest-ce que = what (object) followed by the direct order, subject preceding the verb; if a noun rather than a pronoun is the subject, the noun precedes the k-word and a subject pronoun echoing the noun is used in the direct order ā Quāest-ce que tu attends pour lui dire que tu lāaimes? = what are you waiting for to tell her you love her? Quāest-ce quāon risque en lāadmettant? = what do you risk by coming clean? Les voisins, quāest-ce quāils vont dire? = what are the neighbours going to say? Votre passeport, quāest-ce que vous avez fait avec? = what have you done with your passport? quoi = what quoi is the stressed form of que and is used when separated from its normal position immediately next to the verb (or separated from it by an unstressed pronoun) or when preceded by a preposition ā Quoi de plus feĢminin quāun joli deĢcolleteĢ avec une peau lisse et sans deĢfaut? = what can be more feminine than a pretty low neck-line with a smooth, clear skin? La veĢriteĢ, cāest quoi? = what is truth? Pour toi, le moyen de lutter contre la homophobie, ce serait quoi? = what in your opinion would be the way to fight against homophobia? ApreĢs avoir fait lāamour, mon partenaire est pris dāune seĢrie dāeĢternuements ā cette reĢaction, aĢ quoi est-elle due? = after making love, my partner has a sneezing fit ā what is this reaction due to? En quoi consiste au juste le traitement? = whatās the treatment like exactly? combien = how many Combien de couples sont-ils concerneĢs par les difficulteĢs sexuelles? = how many couples experience sexual problems? Combien de temps est-ce que cĢ§a prend? = how long does that take? Combien de fois dois-je te dire que je ne veux pas sortir avec toi? = how many times do I have to tell you I donāt want to go out with you? Thierry Henry, combien de buts a-t-il marqueĢs cette saison? = how many goals has Thierry Henry scored this season? Vous voulez perdre combien? = how much weight do you want to lose? lequel series The lequel series of interrogative pronouns invites the hearer to choose between a specified group of objects or items, unlike the quel series ā see below ā which offers a completely open choice. Like the quel series, the lequel series agrees in number and 375 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR gender with the noun it qualifies. Note that this series consists of pronouns and not adjectives; consequently the pronoun is followed by de when it is linked to a noun ā Lequel de ces pulls preĢfeĢres-tu? = which of these pullovers do you prefer? Laquelle des stars de tennis feĢminines va gagner aĢ Roland-Garros cet eĢteĢ = which female tennis star is going to win Roland-Garros this summer? Le magasin a une grande gamme de deĢodorants ā lequel dois-je prendre? = the shopās got a large range of deodorants ā which one should I take? 478 Question words ā adjectives The quel series of adjectives agrees in number and gender with the noun it qualifies. Quel type de mateĢriel devrait-on choisir pour transformer son salon en stade olympique? = what sort of equipment should you choose to convert your living room into an Olympic stadium? Quels produits me conseillez-vous pour māasseĢcher? = what sorts of products do you advise to dry me out? Quelle est la diffeĢrence entre le « bon » et le « mauvais » cholesteĢrol? = what is the difference between āgoodā and ābadā cholesterol? Quelle est votre relation avec vos parents? = whatās your relationship with your parents like? Quelle agence choisir? = what agency should we choose? From the following two examples, the difference between quel and qui can be deduced ā 1 Qui est lāanimatrice teĢleĢ la plus sexy? = who is the sexiest TV presenter? 2 Quelle est lāanimatrice teĢleĢ la plus sexy? = which one is the sexiest TV presenter? For question 1 the choice is completely free; for question 2 a list follows the question from which the reader is invited to select his/her preference. 479 Question words ā adverbs comment = how ā often used with an infinitive ā Comment puis-je faire comprendre aĢ ma femme que je voudrais lāaider dans la cuisine? = how can I make my wife understand that Iād like to help her in the kitchen? Comment deĢfiniriez-vous la miseĢre sexuelle? = how would you define sexual misery? Comment y arriver? = how can we manage that? Comment venir aĢ bout de la maladie de Verneuil qui me fait souffrir dāinfections cutaneĢes reĢpeĢteĢes? = how can I overcome Verneuilās disease which keeps making me have one skin infection after another? Comment lui faire comprendre que je voudrais moi aussi participer? = how can I make her understand that Iād like to join in as well? 376 480 Elliptical questions ā no question word Comment faire renaıĢtre le deĢsir dans notre couple et traiter les difficulteĢs de mon ami? = how can we rekindle some passion in our relationship and treat my boyfriendās problems? ouĢ = where OuĢ eĢtes-vous alleĢ en vacances lāanneĢe dernieĢre? = where did you go on holiday last year? OuĢ en eĢtes-vous avec la santeĢ de vos dents? = where have you got to with your dental health? OuĢ peut-on trouver du fluor? = where can you find fluoride? DāouĢ est-ce que cĢ§a vient que tout le monde veut faire lāamour dans un avion? = where has the idea come from that everyone wants to make love in a plane? pourquoi Pourquoi les femmes entrent-elles toujours dans les deĢtails quand elles nous racontent leur journeĢe et ne savent pas, comme nous, aller aĢ lāessentiel? = why do women always go into great detail when they tell us how their day has been and not cut to the chase like us? Pourquoi faut-il eĢviter les bains trop chauds? = why should you avoid over-hot baths? Pourquoi a-t-elle sans arreĢt le vertige? = why is she always dizzy? Pourquoi tout cĢ§a? = whatās all that about? Pourquoi ne pas profiter de tous les horaires pour le faire? = why not take advantage of all hours of the day and night to do it? quand Quand faut-il inspirer et expirer en musculation? = when do you have to breathe in and breathe out when youāre doing your muscle-building exercises? Quand avez-vous senti que vous eĢtes devenu un homme? = when did you feel that youād become a man? Quand avez-vous deĢcouvert que votre meilleure amie vous trompait? = when did you find out that your best friend was cheating on you? 480 Elliptical questions without a question word but suggesting one Occasionally elliptical questions without a k-word seem to indicate that one is implied. Aujourdāhui tout roule avec votre partenaire. Et demain? = today everything is running smoothly with your partner ā but what about tomorrow? Cette maladie toucherait 2 aĢ 5% de la population. Les symptoĢmes? Insomnies, migraines et douleurs musculaires = this illness reputedly affects between 2 and 5% of the population. What are its symptoms? Insomnia, migraines and muscular pains 377 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR 481 Indirect questions Indirect questions result from the reporting in indirect speech of direct questions. 1 Oui ā non questions become noun clauses introduced by si = if, whether in indirect speech. Tense changes take place as required. direct question ā Est-ce que vous eĢtes couvert contre les risques majeurs sans payer cher des garanties inutiles? = are you covered against major risks without paying a lot of money for useless guarantees? indirect question ā Faites ce test pour savoir si vous eĢtes bien couvert contre les risques majeurs sans payer cher des garanties inutiles = take this test to know if you are well covered against major risks without paying a lot of money for useless guarantees direct question ā Est-ce quāelle ne traıĢne pas quelque part? = is she hanging about somewhere? indirect question ā Jāai fait le tour de tous les magasins pour voir si elle ne traıĢnait pas quelque part = Iāve been round all the shops to find out if she was hanging about somewhere Elle voulait savoir sāil fallait controĢler le temps que son fils passe aĢ lāordinateur = she wanted to know if she should control the amount of time her son spent on the computer 2 K-word questions become noun clauses introduced by the k-word or, in the case of the interrogative pronouns quāest-ce qui = what (subject) and que = what (object), by ce qui and ce que ā direct question ā Quels points communs est-ce quāon peut trouver entre lāhomme aĢ notre bras et notre sac aĢ main ou nos escarpins? = what points can we find in common between the man on our arm and our handbag or shoes? indirect question ā Lāhomme aĢ notre bras est tout pour nous sauf un accessoire, et on ne voit vraiment pas quels points communs lui trouver avec notre sac aĢ main ou nos escarpins = the man on our arm is everything to us except an accessory, and we canāt really see what points we can find in common between him and our handbag or shoes direct question ā Demain, de quoi sera-t-il fait? = what will tomorrow be like? indirect question ā On ne sait pas de quoi demain sera fait = we donāt know what tomorrow will be like direct question ā 378 482 Rhetorical questions Quāest-ce qui pourrait vous procurer un plaisir comparable? = what could give you a comparable amount of pleasure? indirect question ā Demandez-vous ce qui pourrait vous procurer un plaisir comparable = ask yourself what could give you a comparable amount of pleasure. Il a demandeĢ aĢ son meĢdecin comment il pouvait se deĢbarrasser de cette habitude geĢnante = he asked his doctor how he could get rid of this embarrassing habit Cette anecdote deĢmontre bien aĢ quel point notre organisme peut avoir des caprices aux conseĢquences dramatiques = this anecdote illustrates well to what extent our body may have whims that may have dramatic consequences Lorsquāon lui demande quelle ville elle preĢfeĢre, elle reĢpond sans heĢsiter: « Londres, parce que jāai gagneĢ Wimbledon » = when sheās asked which town she prefers, she replies without hesitating: āLondon, because I won Wimbledonā Il māa dit quāil sortait avec une de ses copines ce soir, mais je ne sais pas laquelle = he told me he was going out with one of his girlfriends this evening, but I donāt know which one Des millions dāeĢtres humains reĢvent dāune vie eĢternelle, et sāil pleut le dimanche apreĢs-midi, ils ne savent pas quoi faire = millions of human beings dream of eternal life, and if it rains Sunday afternoon, they donāt know what to do Ma copine ne me dit jamais quāelle māaime, sauf un jour dans une brasserie ā je ne sais pas ce qui lui a pris ce jour-laĢ = my girlfriend never says she loves me, except one day, in a bar ā I donāt know what possessed her that day In the following example there are two indirect questions, one oui ā non and the other introduced by a k-word ā direct question 1 Est-ce que vous savez . . .? direct question 2 Quāest-ce quāune FrancĢ§aise deĢpense sur ses produits de beauteĢ? Il māa demandeĢ si je savais ce que, en moyenne, chaque FrancĢ§aise deĢpense par an pour ses produits de beauteĢ = he asked me if I knew what on average every French woman spends per year on beauty products In the following example there is an indirect question within a direct question ā Est-ce que les scientifiques arriveront jamais aĢ deĢcouvrir comment on peut controĢler les pellicules, les pets, les rots? = will scientists ever succeed in discovering how we can control dandruff, farting and belching? 482 Rhetorical questions Rhetorical questions sit on the borderline between interrogatives and exclamatives ā see 483. They ask questions to which no answer is required ā usually because the person asking the question already knows it! ā and express an emotion typically expressed by an exclamative. 379 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR In the following example, the person asking the questions knows how many tests s/he has had ā itās the number of tests that provokes the question/exclamation ā Combien dāexamens meĢdicaux ai-je passeĢ pour deĢcouvrir que jāeĢtais en parfaite santeĢ! = how many medical tests have I had to find out I was in perfect health! Quāest-ce que jāai duĢ supporter pour parvenir aĢ cette eĢtape de ma carrieĢre! = what havenāt I had to put up with to reach this stage in my career! Exclamative sentences 483 Exclamative sentences Exclamative sentences express surprise, anger, disgust, amusement and other strong emotions. Five types of construction are available: 1 With comme or que. In exclamative sentences formed this way, comme or que is simply placed at the head of the sentence followed by the direct order ā Que ma femme est belle! = how beautiful my wife is! Quāil est difficile dāaccepter que lāintelligence est un mythe et que cāest la compeĢtence qui est reĢelle = how difficult it is to accept that intelligence is a myth and that itās ability thatās real Comme je trouve ennuyeux de faire de la gym! = how boring I find it to go to the gym! Comme il est important de garder son sang-froid! = how important it is to preserve your self-control! Quāest-ce que may be used like comme and que in informal French ā Quāest-ce quāil est fou! = how daft he is! Quāest-ce quāil est bon de prendre une douche pour se deĢstresser! = how good it is to have a shower to relieve your stress! 2 With quel qualifying a noun, agreeing in number and gender; quel + singular noun normally = what a in English (but see the last example) ā Quel dommage! = what a shame! Quel pantalon affreux! = what a ghastly pair of trousers! Quelles dents blanches! = what white teeth! Quelle ironie! = what irony! 3 With que de + noun; que de = what a lot of Que de monde! = what a lot of people! Que de magasins sensationnels! = what a lot of fantastic shops! 380 484 Punctuation 4 With que + subjunctive ā this construction has close affinities with the imperative, where it is treated in more detail ā see 122. Il me manquait une chose ā un but, et quand jāai marqueĢ mon premier but pour le club, le preĢsident est venu me dire ā Que ce soit le premier dāune longue seĢrie! = one thing was missing ā a goal, and when I scored my first goal for the club, the chairman came to see me and said ā May it be the first in a long line! Bref, quāon prenne le temps de bien faire les choses = in short, please take time to do things well 5 With exclamative intonation ā our speech is often dotted with exclamations consisting of single words or short phrases ā DeĢsastre! ā les poils sur le mollet = disaster! ā hairy calves Horreur! ā les pieds qui empestent = itās the pits! ā pongy feet Atomique Ivanisovic! = Ivanisovic the rocket! Merde! = blast and damnation! Fini! Enfin! = finished! At last! Punctuation 484 Punctuation For most punctuation marks ā full stop, comma, question mark, exclamation mark, hyphen/dash, semi-colon, suspension marks ā the rules of use are much the same in French as in English. Differences occur to a greater or less extent as far as capital letters, the colon and comma and inverted commas are concerned. 1 Capital letters Adjectives denoting nationality and names of languages begin with a lower-case letter in French but not in English ā un footballeur espagnol = a Spanish footballer le public anglais = the English public un plat provencĢ§al = a ProvencĢ§al dish une vedette ameĢricaine = an American star le francĢ§ais = the French (language) le danois = the Danish (language) However, nouns denoting a person of a certain nationality begin with a capital letter ā une FrancĢ§aise = a French woman un Espagnol = a Spaniard 381 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR Names of countries ā those consisting of more than one word usually have a capital letter for each significant word ā les Pays-Bas = the Netherlands les EĢtats-Unis = the United States la CoreĢe du Nord / du Sud = North/South Korea Professional names and official titles ā here the French practice is not to use capital letters ā although usage is not always consistent. In the case of names of ministers, the name of the actual ministry is presented with a capital letter. le preĢsident = the President la reine dāAngleterre = the queen of England le ministre de lāEducation = the Minister of Education la ministre de la Justice = the Minister of Justice le professeur de francĢ§ais = the Professor of French But le Premier ministre = the Prime Minister is normally accompanied by a capital letter ā but examples also occur where it is not! Book titles ā whereas the English custom is to capitalise each significant word in the name or title, in French it is usually only the very first word that is capitalised, or if the first word is a determiner, the first significant word as well ā Les Bouts de bois de Dieu (Ousmane SembeĢne) La ReĢvolte des anges (Enzo Cormann) MeĢmoires dāune sale gosse (CeĢdric Erard) However, sometimes only the first word is capitalised ā AĢ la recherche du temps perdu (Marcel Proust) Names of French organisations ā it is usually only the first significant word that is capitalised in French ā but here again there may be variation ā lāInstitut francĢ§ais dāopinion publique la SocieĢteĢ nationale des chemins de fer francĢ§ais le Conseil supeĢrieur de la magistrature le Parti socialiste lāUnion pour la deĢmocratie francĢ§aise Names of international organisations ā here each significant word is given a capital letter, especially if the name is not translated into French ā le Foreign Office la Malta Maritime Authority 382 484 Punctuation lāOrganisation des Nations Unies (but lāOnu when the initial letters are treated as an acronym) 2 Colons and commas Observation would seem to indicate that these punctuation marks are more frequently used in French than in English. The comma, for example, is regularly used to separate an initial adverb or adverbial expression from the following part of speech, whereas this is not always the case in English ā Cette anneĢe, nous avons duĢ convoquer dāurgence nos vendangeurs le 28 aouĢt = this year we had to summon our grape-pickers urgently on 28 August Professionnellement, une belle opportuniteĢ peut faire naıĢtre des projets plus ambitieux = professionally a golden opportunity may lead on to more ambitious projects Quant aĢ lāameĢlioration de la qualiteĢ de la vie, aucune eĢtude scientifique nāest disponible = as far as improvement in the quality of life is concerned, no scientific study is available The colon is especially common in journalism to highlight what precedes it and to lend a dramatic tone to a passage and/or to explain what precedes it. Often in English a dash is used instead. Cāest lāheure de la collation: jus de fruits et biscuit = lunchtime ā fruit juice and a biscuit Objectif: une silhouette de reĢve! = the object ā the silhouette of your dreams! Les marques ne lancent pas ces promesses au hasard: elles sont valideĢes par des recherches = the manufacturers donāt throw these promises around at random ā theyāre validated by research Personnes aĢgeĢes: gare aux chutes = warning to elderly folk ā be careful not to fall Preuve indiscutable selon eux: les appuis meĢdiatiques = indisputable proof they say ā support from the media 3 Inverted commas The French convention concerning the use of inverted commas is very different from the English one. Inverted commas ā les guillemets ā tend to be less common and less systematically used in French than in English. Quotations included in text are enclosed in guillemets ā « Il nāy a pas de place pour les hommes dāune trentaine dāanneĢes » = āthereās no room for thirtysomething menā « Je repars la teĢte haute » = āIām leaving with my head held highā This particularly applies to quotations and also to short passages of speech. In the case of extended dialogue, the usage is more variable, with dashes being used to indicate 383 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR change of speaker rather than a new set of guillemets. The entire dialogue is enclosed in guillemets, but within them dashes are used for each speaker ā « Comment expliquez-vous la nette domination du Stade de France au cours de la finale? ā On a pris le dessus sur Perpignan dans tous les secteurs du jeu. On a eu une telle maıĢtrise du jeu que le spectacle a eĢteĢ gaĢcheĢ. ā Avez-vous des souvenirs particuliers de la saison? ā Le plus grand plaisir est la victoire contre Toulouse aĢ Toulouse. ā Envisagez-vous de revenir en France un jour? ā Pour lāinstant, il nāest pas question que je me relance dans le rugby. Mais je me sens aĢ moitieĢ francĢ§ais et mon reĢve cāest de revenir travailler en France. » = āHow do you account for the clear domination of the Stade de France in the final?ā āWe got the upper hand over Perpignan in all aspects of the game. We had such control of the play that it spoilt the spectacle.ā āHave you got any special memories of the season?ā āThe greatest pleasure was the win over Toulouse at Toulouse.ā āDo you think you might come back to France one day?ā āAt the moment, thereās no question of taking up rugby again. But I feel half French and itās my dream to come back and work in France.ā Exercises 1 Reliez ces phrases en une seule, en les reĢorganisant et en utilisant une ou plus dāune conjonction de subordination ā souvent il y aura plusieurs solutions ā Exemple: Ce systeĢme de surveillance eĢlectronique, fixeĢ au poignet, est de la taille dāune montre de plongeĢe. Il est relieĢ par ondes magneĢtiques aĢ la prison. Ce systeĢme de surveillance eĢlectronique, fixeĢ au poignet, qui est de la taille dāune montre de plongeĢe, est relieĢ par ondes magneĢtiques aĢ la prison. a Votre physionomie vous pose des probleĢmes? Aidez la nature en adoptant judicieusement nos produits de beauteĢ. b Jāai quitteĢ mon mari. Mes amis ne comprenaient pas. Pour eux nous formions un couple ideĢal. c Il y a des diffeĢrences entre la sexualiteĢ masculine et la sexualiteĢ feĢminine. Lāhomme fait lāamour aĢ lāexteĢrieur de son corps. La femme le fait aĢ lāinteĢrieur. d Avec mon mari, jāavais lāamour et la stabiliteĢ. De lāautre, je deĢcouvrais la passion. e CĢ§a māest eĢgal que ce soit des meubles ou des fringues. Je me balade sur tous les sites Internet aĢ la recherche de la meilleure affaire. 384 Exercises f Cet homme ne veut rien laisser eĢchapper de lui-meĢme et ne tutoie pas. Ses amis ont ignoreĢ son remariage ceĢleĢbreĢ aĢ Paris. Est-ce quāil meĢne une deuxieĢme vie tortueuse et noire? g Je ne crois pas aĢ une grande manipulation de la droite. Cela nāempeĢche pas des initiatives individuelles et quelques coups tordus via les flics et les magistrats. h En un sieĢcle la France sāest reĢchauffeĢe de 0,9 degreĢs C. Ceci est davantage duĢ aĢ un releĢvement des tempeĢratures minimales quāaĢ celui des tempeĢratures maximales. 2 La mise en relief ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en utilisant cāest . . . que/qui pour mettre en relief la section qui nāest pas en italique. Exemple: Le bourgogne posseĢde un bouquet subtil qui exhale des parfums de cheĢvrefeuille et des senteurs de tilleul. Ce sont des parfums de cheĢvrefeuille et des senteurs de tilleul quāexhale le bouquet subtil que posseĢde le bourgogne. a Les 4 000 pilotes ont dit oui par reĢfeĢrendum aĢ un accord salarial pour les deux prochaines anneĢes. b Lāancien deĢputeĢ maire a eĢteĢ condamneĢ aĢ un an de prison et aĢ la privation pour deux ans de ses droits civiques et civils. c La plupart des femmes seĢpareĢes ont souvent une bonne raison de ne pas fleĢchir: leurs enfants. d Tout peut arriver aĢ condition dāeĢtre un peu attentive aĢ ce qui se passe autour de vous. e Vous devez vous exposer au soleil avec modeĢration, mais jamais entre 11 et 14 heures, toujours progressivement, et mettre une creĢme. f Le seul vice qui māinquieĢte vraiment est ma paresse. g La situation ne pourra se normaliser avant deux ans au moins. 3 Utilisez une autre strateĢgie pour mettre en relief les sections qui ne sont pas en italique dans les phrases suivantes ā a Jāai aussi rencontreĢ des filles idiotes, mais je ne vais pas donner de noms. b Rien nāest pire que la drague en meute. c Va-t-on un jour leĢgaliser lāeuthanasie en France? d Jāattire les lions en diffusant par haut-parleur un enregistrement dāune bagarre autour dāune proie. 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les propositions interrogatives suivantes en remplissant le blanc du mot interrogatif qui convient le mieux ā a Cāest bientoĢt les soldes. . . . sont mes droits? b . . . les femmes nāaiment-elles pas quāon lise des magazines de charme? c Jāai un surplus de peau deĢtendue et disgracieuse. . . . puis-je māen deĢbarrasser? d Dois-je utiliser un produit avant-rasage ou raser directement aĢ meĢme la peau? . . . en pensez-vous? 385 A STUDENT GUIDE TO FRENCH GRAMMAR e Un beau-peĢre peut-il prendre la place dāun vrai peĢre absent? . . . attitude doit-il adopter? f . . . sont vos chances de trouver un mec dans lāanneĢe? g Alors, les gars, . . . vous ferait plaisir? h . . . a marqueĢ le dernier but? i . . . y a-t-il de vous dans les personnages que vous jouez? j . . . est-ce que vous allez nous rendre visite? 386 Key to exercises Chapter 1 1 Formation des verbes indicatif le preĢsent cours, crains, cueille, dois, eĢcris, suis, lis, sais, viens, veux allez, avez, commencez, finissez, mangez, partez, pouvez, prenez, voyez, valez lāimparfait avais, eĢtais, faisais, finissais, mangeais, perdais, recevais, riais, valais, vendais, allaient, commencĢ§aient, conduisaient, couraient, devaient, jetaient, portaient, recevaient, savaient, voulaient le futur acheĢtera, ira, boira, courra, sera, pourra, saura, viendra, verra, voudra irons, commencerons, devrons, enverrons, jetterons, meĢnerons, mourrons, partirons, tiendrons, vendrons le passeĢ simple alla, but, crut, cueillit, fut, porta, finit, put, sut, voulut euĢtes, conduisıĢtes, couruĢtes, duĢtes, eĢcrivıĢtes, fıĢtes, luĢtes, menaĢtes, mıĢtes, veĢcuĢtes subjonctif le preĢsent ait, dise, soit, fasse, finisse, jette, porte, sache, vaille, veuille alliez, buviez, deviez, soyez, fassiez, mangiez, mettiez, puissiez, vendiez, vouliez lāimparfait allaĢt, euĢt, buĢt, commencĢ§aĢt, fuĢt, fıĢt, finıĢt, menaĢt, suĢt, vouluĢt achetassions, courussions, dussions, fussions, fissions, partissions, portassions, pussions, vendissions, voulussions 2 Les auxiliaires aller ā eĢtre, arriver ā eĢtre, sāasseoir ā eĢtre, dire ā avoir, falloir ā avoir, mourir ā eĢtre, naıĢtre ā eĢtre, porter ā avoir, pouvoir ā avoir, recevoir ā avoir, venir ā eĢtre 387 Key to exercises 3 Les verbes pronominaux il sāassied ā vous vous asseyez, il se lave ā vous vous lavez, il se leĢve ā vous vous levez, il se plaint ā vous vous plaignez, il se souvient ā vous vous souvenez elle sāen est alleĢe ā vous vous en eĢtes alleĢs, elle sāest assise ā vous vous eĢtes assis, elle sāest berceĢe ā vous vous eĢtes berceĢs, elle sāest laveĢe ā vous vous eĢtes laveĢs, elle sāest leveĢe ā vous vous eĢtes leveĢs, elle sāest meĢfieĢe ā vous vous eĢtes meĢfieĢs, elle sāest plainte ā vous vous eĢtes plaints, elle sāest porteĢe ā vous vous eĢtes porteĢs, elle sāest rappeleĢ ā vous vous eĢtes rappeleĢ, elle sāest souvenue ā vous vous eĢtes souvenus 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en transposant les verbes actifs en leur eĢquivalent passif ā a Le tableau eĢlectronique interactif peut eĢtre utiliseĢ comme un tableau normal ā la craie est remplaceĢe par le stylet. Des infos prises directement sur internet peuvent eĢgalement y eĢtre projeteĢes; sur internet cartes, photos, graphiques peuvent eĢtre trouveĢs; les cours peuvent eĢtre illustreĢs facilement. b Vous ne pouvez eĢtre satisfait(e) que par une solution associant robustesse et maıĢtrise totale de votre consommation. c Vous eĢtes accompagneĢ(e/s/es) par ce conseiller aĢ chaque eĢtape de votre projet. d La cleĢmentine confite sera trouveĢe chez les confiseurs. Chapter 2 1 Les impeĢratifs ā reĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en donnant les formes de lāimpeĢratif qui conviennent ā a Nāoubliez pas de fermer le reĢcipient avant de mouliner son contenu. b Le look gothique est aĢ la page. Sachez toutefois quāil faut en user avec modeĢration. c Avec un blouson en cuir, risquez les grosses ceintures clouteĢes ou aĢ boucle en argent. d Vous avez des probleĢmes de pellicules et pas de shampooing adeĢquat? Prenez deux aspirines effervescentes, dissolvez-les dans un verre dāeau et frottez le cuir chevelu avec la preĢparation obtenue. e AllongeĢ sur le dos, la main droite derrieĢre la teĢte, eĢtendez votre jambe droite aĢ la verticale et fleĢchissez celle de gauche, le pied au sol. En expirant, approchez votre main gauche de votre cheville droite. Faites cinq seĢries de 15 reĢpeĢtitions. f Evitez de poser la question brutalement. g Concentrez-vous, calmez votre coeur: le stress se calme aĢ son tour et disparaıĢt. h Saisonnez de sel, poivre et quatre-eĢpices. MeĢlangez. Incorporez les morceaux de foie gras. Couvrez. Faites cuire 1h 30 au bain-marie dans le four. Laisser refroidir. ReĢservez 48h au reĢfrigeĢrateur. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez le texte suivant en style indirect, en changeant les temps du verbe, les pronoms, etc 388 Key to exercises PlaneĢte Foot a demandeĢ aĢ Thierry quels sentiments lui avaient traverseĢ lāesprit lorsque lāarbitre avait donneĢ le coup de sifflet final de la dernieĢre journeĢe du championnat anglais. Thierry Henry a reĢpondu en disant que terminer un championnat invaincu eĢtait vraiment formidable. Mais, sur le coup, il ne sāen eĢtait pas rendu compte. Il a dit quāil savait que lāarbitre avait siffleĢ, mais son eĢquipe eĢtait champions depuis presque un mois et, cinq jours apreĢs, il savait que lāeĢquipe jouerait le BreĢsil au Stade de France. Il nāavait pas reĢellement eu le temps dāen profiter. Il a avoueĢ quāil ne lāappreĢciait pas vraiment et quāil fallait passer aĢ autre chose. 3 Subjonctif ou indicatif? ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en donnant la forme du verbe qui convient ā a Il faut bien que votre cheĢri se deĢtende de temps en temps. b Je veux tāembrasser avant quāon (ne) soit de retour aĢ Calais. c La premieĢre fois que je lāai vu, cāeĢtait en classe de seconde. d Je veux quāelle sāen sorte vite. e Cāest le cinquieĢme de ce type quāelle connaıĢt. f Pour que le sommeil soit reĢellement reĢparateur, mettez votre esprit et votre corps en veille. g Utilisez plusieurs cotons en vous deĢmaquillant jusquāaĢ ce que vous ayez enleveĢ toute trace de votre maquillage. h Dans certaines seĢries les filles nāheĢsitent pas aĢ se bagarrer, que ce soient les forces du mal ou les vampires. i Il faut pondeĢrer deux criteĢres majeurs: la proportion de blessures enregistreĢes par sport en fonction du nombre des pratiquants et la graviteĢ de celles-ci, quel que soit le niveau de pratique. j En cas de surchauffe, un dispositif de coupure thermique eĢvite que le robot (ne) parte en fumeĢe. k Dommage que tu ne sois pas laĢ. l Si votre chapeau est vert clair avec des deĢtails graphiques, la fille que vous draguez pensera que vous avez de lāhumour. m La seule chose quāil sache de son peĢre cāest quāil a probablement eĢtudieĢ ici. n GarcĢ§ons et filles ont des relations homosexuelles aĢ cet aĢge sans que ce soit deĢfinitif. 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en donnant la forme du verbe modal qui convient ā a Ils comprennent vite que pour reĢussir ils doivent fabriquer leurs propres produits. b La compagnie nāaurait pas pu reĢussir ses campagnes de publiciteĢ, sans ses produits phares. c Quel pourrait eĢtre lāobjet dāune nouvelle loi? d Il devait / a duĢ eĢviter dāinsulter ses colleĢgues. e Paris et Berlin ne voulaient pas / nāont pas voulu eĢdulcorer un projet qui donne aĢ chaque EĢtat membre un nombre de voix plus en rapport avec son poids deĢmographique. f Le handball francĢ§ais peut bien compter 220 000 licencieĢs dans tous les coins du territoire. 389 Key to exercises g Si ce traitement ne suffit pas, le dermatologue pourra vous prescrire des meĢdicaments adapteĢs. h Pour un soutien de poitrine optimal, deux mesures doivent eĢtre prises en compte, celle du tour de buste (le chiffre) et celle des bonnets (la lettre). i Des en-cas aux desserts les plus fins, le robot de cuisine sait tout faire. j Si lāinsolation est grave, elle peut neĢcessiter une hospitalisation, et la victime devra eĢtre aĢ jeun. k Il est seul aĢ pouvoir atteindre sa cible de facĢ§on seĢlective. l Si je lāavais rencontreĢe, jāaurais pu lāaimer, mais pas māentendre avec elle. m On se rassure comme on peut. n En Coupe dāEurope on ne doit pas ceĢder lāavantage aĢ lāadversaire. o On ne devrait pas accepter cet eĢloge funeĢbre de la presse ā lāavenir appartient aĢ la teĢleĢvision digitale: la presse eĢcrite est finie. Chapter 3 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en donnant les formes du verbe qui conviennent ā a Naissance de la haine dans le couple « Je deĢpeĢrissais en son absence. Je me vidais de mon sens. Il supportait mal. En fait, je voulais eĢtre lui. Mais il a changeĢ les reĢgles du jeu; lāintranquilliteĢ me rendait haineuse. » « Elle māentraıĢnait dans cette intensiteĢ et sāeĢtait lasseĢe. Jāavais la haine» reconnaıĢt Franck, « Je me sentais manipuleĢ et perdu. » « Si jāavais 20 ans, je le quitterais avec un plan de reconqueĢte; mais aĢ mon aĢge, je sais que le temps passeĢ sera perdu pour son deĢsir. Je pourrais me flinguer parce que tout sera joueĢ et que je suis lasse. » b Mon patron et moi Ce lundi-laĢ, je causais aĢ PeĢneĢlope preĢs de la machine aĢ cafeĢ. Mon patron est passeĢ devant nous et māa lanceĢ, sans meĢme nous regarder: « Je peux te voir, sāil te plaıĢt? », le «sāil te plaıĢt » qui finit un ton au-dessus du « Je peux te voir . . . », un « sāil te plaıĢt » qui veut dire: « Si cĢ§a te plaıĢt pas, cāest pareil. » Jāai jeteĢ mon gobelet et jāai obeĢi docile comme un chien. Je sentais dans mon dos le regard de PeĢneĢlope planteĢe devant le distributeur dāexpressos. Cāest en suivant le patron dans le couloir que jāai su ce que jāavais aĢ faire. Jāai dit: « HerveĢ! », avec le « veĢ » de HerveĢ un ton au-dessus. Il sāest retourneĢ et je lui ai sauteĢ aĢ la gorge en plantant mes incisives dans son cou trop gras. Il est mort en gigotant comme un ver, dans le sang quāil avait toujours eu tieĢde. c Le Land Rover Si par essence toutes les automobiles sont concĢ§ues pour le voyage, certaines en sont devenues des icoĢnes. Cāest le cas du Land Rover dont la simple apparition eĢvoque la jungle la plus profonde, les sables du deĢsert. 390 Key to exercises Le « land » est une leĢgende vivante. Il a eĢteĢ creĢeĢ en 1947 et aĢ lāorigine fut construit avec une carrosserie aluminium qui avait eĢteĢ reĢcupeĢreĢe sur les carlingues des avions de chasse. Depuis ce temps-laĢ, il a poursuivi sa carrieĢre sans que rien ne semble pouvoir lāarreĢter. Quoi quāen disent certains, cette automobile reste un extraordinaire moyen de transport. d Jāaime le mec quāil ne faut pas Tu ne convoiteras point. « Les filles sont jalouses et envieuses meĢme entre elles » plaisante Victor GeĢrard. Elles veulent toujours ce quāont leurs copines. MeĢme leur mec. Alors quand Anne, votre meilleure amie, vous a annonceĢ toute fieĢre quāenfin elle avait mis ses mains sur Matthieu . . . Hier encore, vous ne lāaviez meĢme pas remarqueĢ, mais aujourdāhui il a tout de suite beaucoup plus dāinteĢreĢt. Avec le temps, les regards se font de plus en plus appuyeĢs entre vous et lui. Il faut se rendre aĢ lāeĢvidence: vous craquez pour ce beau brun! e Jāai gueĢri de mon heĢpatite C Le virus a disparu, mais il fallait toutefois continuer les injections hebdomadaires dāinterfeĢron. Je māeĢtais renseigneĢe via Internet. Je savais que lāinterfeĢron est une substance naturelle produite par les cellules chargeĢes de deĢfendre lāorganisme. Cela me rassurait lors des injections, que je faisais moi-meĢme. Je me sentais de plus en plus fatigueĢe mais je me suis accrocheĢe. Lāenthousiasme de mon heĢpatologue me portait. Mais jāai deĢcideĢ de chercher de lāaide ailleurs et je me suis fait prescrire des seĢances de kineĢsitheĢrapie, qui māont reĢconforteĢe. Jāai aussi fait appel aĢ un acupuncteur dans lāideĢe de mieux faire circuler les eĢnergies ā cela māa aideĢe aĢ soulager mes douleurs musculaires. Chapter 5 1 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en remplissant les blancs avec lāarticle qui convient ā a Nous offrons une opportuniteĢ unique de contribuer aĢ la croissance dāune socieĢteĢ de renommeĢe internationale active dans le monde artistique. Une ambiance de travail jeune et informelle dans une petite eĢquipe soudeĢe. b LāaveĢnement des programmes dāeĢchange interuniversitaires de type Erasmus ou lāextension des stages professionnels aĢ lāeĢtranger ont eĢgalement motiveĢ le secteur jusquāici assez traditionnel et relativement couĢteux, des eĢchanges internationaux des jeunes. c Un billet dāavion de dernieĢre minute aĢ un prix deĢfiant toute concurrence? VoilaĢ qui est tentant, mais peut-eĢtre dangereux si la preĢcipitation nous fait oublier les preĢcautions aĢ prendre. Chaque anneĢe des milliers de gens sāenvolent pour des pays ouĢ seĢvit le paludisme, mais plus dāun tiers entre eux ne sont pas correctement proteĢgeĢs contre cette maladie. d Compositeur phare de la musique vocale italienne baroque, Alessandro Scarlatti sāest illustreĢ aussi bien dans lāopeĢra que dans le genre religieux de lāoratorio. La musique y explose aĢ tout moment 391 Key to exercises dāune joie lumineuse, toujours originale, meĢlant magnifiquement les voix aĢ une eĢcriture instrumentale scintillante. e La vigne rouge et lāalgue marine ameĢliorent la fermeteĢ et lāeĢlasticiteĢ de la peau, tandis que lāhuile essentielle de lavande acceĢleĢre la peĢneĢtration des composants et active la micro-circulation. On a gardeĢ le meilleur pour la fin: la texture est un reĢgal. Parfaitement invisible, elle est moelleuse, fondante et onctueuse. Elle disparaıĢt en un clin dāoeil dans lāeĢpiderme sans laisser de trace et file au coeur des cellules. f Si quelquāun, vous, moi ou nāimporte qui, veut tester la suĢreteĢ des aeĢroports, il le fera sans angoisse sāil sait quāaĢ tout moment il peut dire: « Stop, ceci est un jeu! » En revanche, lāattitude de vrais terroristes reĢellement deĢsireux de commettre un attentat les trahira et permettra aux personnels de suĢreteĢ de les identifier. g Pour faire parler un cadavre dāabeille dont la mort brutale, en compagnie de 22 millions de ses congeĢneĢres, vient de plonger les campagnes francĢ§aises dans une poleĢmique violente sur lāutilisation de deux pesticides, il suffit de pratiquer une autopsie. h Le bac en poche ou les examens de fac reĢussis, une nouvelle eĢpreuve attend les eĢtudiants: la chasse au logement. Cāest le marcheĢ qui fixe les reĢgles et surtout les prix. Or, les petites surfaces, cibles naturelles des eĢtudiants, sont celles dont le rencheĢrissement est le plus important. i Tout le monde peut avoir une maison, quatre murs, un toit. Mais une proprieĢteĢ, une demeure ā Bien entendu, une proprieĢteĢ, aĢ la base, nāest rien dāautre quāune maison. Mais cāest, dans lāimaginaire immobilier, bien autre chose: de lāancien, du grand, du noble, du beau, du prestige. « Je vous invite aĢ ma proprieĢteĢ » cĢ§a a tout de meĢme une toute autre allure que « on se fait un barbecue aĢ la maison ». j Je trouve que le maquillage me reĢveĢle plus quāil ne me cache. Cāest donc une facĢ§on de māexhiber. Je me suis beaucoup inspireĢ du maıĢtre de ceĢreĢmonies du film Cabaret. Cāest aĢ la fois le transformiste et le vampire, le monsieur Loyal, mais quelquāun de festif. Jāaime bien ce balancement entre le bien, cāest-aĢ-dire la feĢte, et le mal. Jāaime bien lāambiguıĢteĢ, y compris sexuelle. k Votre point faible: le manque de perseĢveĢrance. Vous ne prenez pas de deĢcision, ou alors pas de facĢ§on durable: vous eĢtes incapable dāeffort, pas plus motiveĢe par le succeĢs que par lāeĢchec. Il nāy a que la nouveauteĢ, lāideĢe du plaisir pour vous stimuler. l Un beau jour, devant le miroir, on se prend aĢ relever le coin de ses yeux, aĢ tirer sur ses pommettes, et lāon se dit quāon aurait lāair moins fatigueĢe, plus gaie comme cĢ§a. On oublie, et puis on apprend quāune telle a eu un lifting mais que « cĢ§a se voit », alors que pour telle autre « on ne voit rien ». On lit les magazines, on examine les « avant / apreĢs », on note des noms. On ne sait jamais. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en donnant les formes des adjectifs et participes passeĢs qui conviennent ā a Il a beau jouer le super ministre, animeĢ par de geĢniales et nouvelles ideĢes, ce sont les vieilles recettes libeĢrales quāil nous asseĢne. 392 Key to exercises b Ce printemps aussi incertain que venteux nāaura pas faciliteĢ la taĢche des jardiniers. Mais il faut maintenant sortir certaines plantes de laĢ ouĢ elles ont eĢteĢ remiseĢes pendant la mauvaise saison. Si ces plantes ont eĢteĢ laisseĢes intactes, juste deĢbarrasseĢes de leurs feuilles gaĢcheĢes, elles poussent deĢjaĢ, elles aussi vilaines comme tout, blanches comme des endives ou vert paĢle, plus proches du tilleul que de lāeĢpinard. c Une dernieĢre condition, aĢ premieĢre vue surprenante, est neĢcessaire aĢ la reĢussite dāune e-formation: lāaccompagnement dāun formateur bien reĢel. Avec des taux dāabandon assez eĢleveĢs cette preĢsence peut sāaveĢrer essentielle. MeĢme aĢ lāheure de la formation aĢ distance, rien ne remplacera une preĢsence humaine. d On trouve dans la collection des sweaters rehausseĢs dāune lettre ou dāun chiffre, des pantalons militaires amples ou des joggings combineĢs aĢ des tops athleĢtiques et des maillots de corps ou des vestes zippeĢes, marieĢes aĢ une minijupe. e Les designers belges commencent aĢ se tailler une solide reĢputation sur la sceĢne internationale. Originales, bien penseĢes, voire carreĢment visionnaires, leurs creĢations seĢduisent un public de plus en plus large. f Ils sont trois sur leur ıĢle parisienne. La meĢre qui se bat contre un cancer. Cette lutte est la raison de vivre de sa fille. Puis il y a un jeune homme affable, qui a su se rendre indispensable en rendant leĢgers les moments insupportables de la maladie. g Les cassis utiliseĢs pour cette creĢme de cassis sont les noirs de Bourgogne, cueillis dans la CoĢte-dāOr. Cette creĢme est dāune rare authenticiteĢ. Ses parfums frais, son fruiteĢ onctueux, sa bouche ample et geĢneĢreuse et ses aroĢmes pleins en font une liqueur dāexception. h Vous souffrez des symptoĢmes dāun eĢtat proche de lāeffondrement: lāhorrible sensation dāeĢtre lourde et flasque, engourdie et tendue aĢ la fois, contracteĢe au niveau des verteĢbres, de la nuque jusquāaux reins. Il est temps de remettre un peu dāhuile dans les rouages! i AĢ lāoccasion du nouvel an, un de mes potes avait organiseĢ une grosse fiesta chez lui. Il y avait de lāalcool aĢ gogo, du foie gras aĢ en veux-tu en voilaĢ, et des filles splendides aux quatre coins de la maison. Bref, tout eĢtait parfait. Le seul probleĢme: cāeĢtait moi! A minuit moins cinq, jāai eu une crise dāangoisse et je suis alleĢ māenfermer dans les chiottes. Je ne voulais pas me plier aĢ ce rituel ridicule dāembrassades. j « Je suis deĢcĢ§ue, dit Sandrine Casar, car je me sentais bien en jambes, mais jāeĢtais trop isoleĢe face aux Brioches, qui avaient un comportement bizarre. Je nāai pas compris leur facĢ§on de courir, leurs choix tactiques, et je ne suis pas la seule. Elles-meĢmes donnaient parfois lāimpression de ne pas comprendre ce quāelles faisaient. Dans de telles circonstances, elles ont duĢ eĢtre treĢs satisfaites du reĢsultat.» k On trouvera une grande baie, treĢs belle, bordeĢe par une reĢserve naturelle, baptiseĢe le parc national de Los Halises, que lāon visite en bateau, deĢcouvrant oiseaux multicolores, perroquets et tortues dans une veĢgeĢtation de mangroves tropicale. 393 Key to exercises Chapter 6 1 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en changeant tout ce qui a rapport aux pronoms personnels comme il vous est indiqueĢ ā tu > vous a Ce qui sāest passeĢ pour votre amie aurait pu arriver nāimporte quand. Vous nāavez pas contraint votre amie, vous lāavez simplement encourageĢe. Vous pouvez eĢtre fieĢre dāeĢtre aĢ ses coĢteĢs et de la soutenir. b Cette anneĢe, vous organisez le reĢveillon du jour de lāan chez vous et vous avez envie de profiter de la feĢte sans passer votre temps aĢ faire des aller-retours entre la table et la cuisine. Alors, adoptez la formule buffet. Vous pourrez ainsi preĢparer vos plats aĢ lāavance et la soireĢe sera deĢtendue pour vous. vous > tu c Te voici aĢ preĢsent dans un climat de grande sensibiliteĢ, et ta vie relationnelle et intime sera la plus toucheĢe. Ton rythme de vie risque dāeĢtre bouleverseĢ apreĢs une rencontre, et certains contacts pourraient jouer un roĢle important dans lāaboutissement de tes projets. Dāheureuses perspectives sāoffrent aĢ toi. d Tu vas te deĢpenser sans compter, en relevant de nombreux deĢfis. Tes deĢmarches sont meneĢes avec une deĢtermination quāon ne te connaıĢt pas, et tu prends des deĢcisions importantes en ce qui concerne tes parents ou tes amis. Tu orientes ainsi ta vie sociale et affective conformeĢment aĢ tes aspirations. je > elle et puis je > il e Elle a lāimpression que son identiteĢ a eĢteĢ remise en question. Elle nāarrive plus aĢ faire de projets, sa vie est comme suspendue. Cāest terrible car elle nāest pas de nature deĢpressive, elle aime la vie, elle a un compagnon formidable, elle est treĢs attacheĢe aĢ ses animaux. Elle se sent terriblement seule face aĢ ce probleĢme. Il a lāimpression que son identiteĢ a eĢteĢ remise en question. Il nāarrive plus aĢ faire de projets, sa vie est comme suspendue. Cāest terrible car il nāest pas de nature deĢpressive, il aime la vie, il a un compagnon formidable, il est treĢs attacheĢ aĢ ses animaux. Il se sent terriblement seul face aĢ ce probleĢme. vous > elle f Elle a eu la main un peu lourde sur la pince aĢ eĢpiler. ReĢsultat, ses sourcils sont beaucoup trop fins, son regard nāest plus aussi envouĢtant et son visage a perdu en caracteĢre. En attendant que les poils repoussent, elle doit se mettre aĢ ses pinceaux. Pour redessiner et eĢtoffer tout cĢ§a, elle doit utiliser un crayon. Elle doit choisir toujours une teinte proche de la couleur de ses cheveux, pas trop sombre, pour ne pas durcir son regard. je > il g Il gagne treĢs bien sa vie, alors cāest normal quāil paye des impoĢts et que cĢ§a profite aux autres. Et plus tard aĢ ses enfants. Il aurait pu partir aĢ 394 Key to exercises lāeĢtranger comme beaucoup de sportifs, mais il a toujours dit que sāil avait deĢcideĢ de payer des impoĢts en France, cāest parce que sa famille et lui ont une qualiteĢ de vie quāil ne trouverait pas ailleurs. elles > nous h Il ne voulait pas savoir ce que nous avons fait, ouĢ nous eĢtions ni de quoi nous avions parleĢ. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en remplacĢ§ant on par dāautres pronoms ou en utilisant dāautres strateĢgies de remplacement ā a Un teint qui atteint la perfection? Toutes les femmes en reĢvent. b Pourquoi ne pas faire les corveĢes avec une copine: vous vous sentez moins seule et vous vous en amusez. Tout de suite vous eĢtes moins tendue. c AĢ peine eĢtes-vous de retour des vacances que vous avez deĢjaĢ lāimpression dāavoir perdu le beĢneĢfice quāelles avaient apporteĢ ou pire de nāeĢtre jamais parti/partie. d Pour cet examen, le speĢcialiste voit apparaıĢtre lāimage du squelette sur lāeĢcran. Sur le tableau de lāeĢcran il repeĢre diffeĢrentes courbes de couleur. Ainsi il peut analyser diffeĢrentes parties du squelette quāil sait plus fragiles que dāautres. Or vous voyez, etc. e Pour une femme, se sentir belle et seĢduisante lorsquāelle est ronde, cāest la mission de Taillisime qui propose des modeĢles jusquāau 58. Adieu la lingerie tristoune et vieillotte quand vous avez la chance dāavoir un deĢcolleteĢ geĢneĢreux! 3 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en remplissant les blancs du pronom qui convient ā pronom deĢmonstratif, possessif, personnel ou relatif. Notez que quelquefois il y a plus dāun blanc aĢ remplir ā a Il faut connaıĢtre ses eĢmotions, pour mieux en tenir compte. b Le bon cadeau est un autre langage que lāinconscient percĢ§oit comme positif, et qui peut amener celle qui recĢ§oit aĢ tomber amoureuse. c Elle porte un gros carton sur lequel est colleĢe une longue plume rose. d Dans le film, il sāagit de deux jeunes filles, comme le titre lāindique. e Quelquefois ceux qui se trompent sur nos gouĢts y trouvent un inteĢreĢt. f La fatigue est la manifestation dāun blocage qui empeĢche lāeĢnergie de circuler. Bonne nouvelle, celle-ci ne demande quāaĢ eĢtre deĢbloqueĢe. g Listez une dizaine de petites joies. Chaque jour piochez dans la liste pour vous en offrir trois. h Mes deĢsirs eĢvoluent avec le temps, je les laisse venir. Jāy crois aĢ fond et jāimagine des plans pour les reĢaliser. i Tu connais AmeĢlie ā quand on a des fesses comme les siennes, on eĢvite le cuir rouge! j On attendait avec une infinie curiositeĢ le livre ouĢ il allait raconter une autre de ses passions: lāAfrique. k MeĢme sans les muscles, tu peux y arriver. l Rien ne vous empeĢche de prendre une vraie collation quelques heures apreĢs le reĢveil: celle-ci vous eĢvitera le coup de barre de fin de matineĢe. 395 Key to exercises m Il me dit « Inutile de me faire un cadeau, tāavoir aĢ mes coĢteĢs est deĢjaĢ le plus beau des preĢsents imaginables. » Je ne sais jamais quoi lui offrir. n Les gentils font partie de cette cateĢgorie-laĢ, celle qui nāutilisera jamais vos faiblesses pour en tirer profit, celle qui ne vous enviera jamais votre magnifique petit copain ou vos succeĢs. o Il faut choisir une tonaliteĢ qui se superpose le plus exactement possible aĢ la voĢtre. p Il est issu dāune famille de petits entrepreneurs de baĢtiments. Lui-meĢme a exerceĢ toutes sortes de petits boulots. q Jāai commenceĢ aĢ travailler sur des eĢglises et des discotheĢques gonflables, quāon māa demandeĢs de creĢer. r 2,92 milliards dāeuros, cāest la somme deĢpenseĢe en un an par les Britanniques pour lāachat de cocaıĢne, dont la consommation a augmenteĢ de plus de 200% ces trois dernieĢres anneĢes. s Le preĢsident a eĢteĢ consulteĢ sur la reĢforme du SeĢnat que souhaitent bon nombre des seĢnateurs. t La victoire de la jeune Belge nāa rien aĢ voir avec le style des AmeĢricaines. LaĢ ouĢ celles-ci affichent des parents envahissants et peu sympathiques, Justine eĢvoque la figure eĢmouvante dāune meĢre disparue alors quāelle avait 13 ans. u Cāest un accessoire que les femmes acheĢtent pour le plaisir ā le leur mais aussi celui de leur partenaire. v Pensez aĢ vous lancer dans un programme dāactiviteĢs physiques. PreĢfeĢrez celles de plein air. w On va māoffrir des cadeaux. CĢ§a, jāy avais deĢjaĢ penseĢ, mais cāest bon de se le reĢpeĢter. x Ce sont des personnes avec qui jāavais sympathiseĢes dans mon ancien travail qui māont signaleĢ un poste aĢ prendre. y Toute perte est irreĢparable. Et le monde dans lequel lāenfant aurait duĢ vivre nāest plus le meĢme monde. z Jāai vu BeĢatrice au « Bon MarcheĢ »: une vendeuse māa dit quāelle lui a vendu un string. aa Son peĢre se heurte aĢ ce qui aurait pu eĢtre, aĢ ce qui aurait duĢ eĢtre, aĢ ce qui nāest pas et ne sera jamais. bb Cette situation peut teĢmoigner dāun probleĢme au niveau des relations personnelles. Celles-ci peuvent eĢtre difficiles ou inexistantes. cc Elle a duĢ deĢmonter la douche en bois construite sur son toit, dont la preĢsence geĢnait le voisinage. dd Quant aux cadeaux, le tien ā je te le donnerai plus tard, quand on sera en teĢte aĢ teĢte. ee 25 raisons dāaimer NoeĢl auxquelles vous nāauriez pas penseĢ. Chapter 7 1 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant les articles qui conviennent ā a Pour savoir si on a des jambes de reĢve, repeĢrez dans la glace un creux entre les cuisses, un autre au-dessus du genou et le dernier au niveau 396 Key to exercises b c d e f g h i j k l des chevilles. Sāil en manque un ou deux, il faut deĢclencher le plan Orsec! Chez lāhomme le cerveau est responsable de toutes les faculteĢs cognitives et du controĢle des eĢmotions et des instincts. Toutes les informations provenant du monde exteĢrieur y sont recĢ§ues et traiteĢes, les comportements organiseĢs, les raisonnements eĢlaboreĢs et les actions deĢcideĢes. Sa fonction essentielle est de nous permettre dāapporter des reĢponses originales aux probleĢmes poseĢs par notre environnement. Cāest avec lui que nous sommes capables de faire des choix, bons ou mauvais. ApreĢs les veĢtements jetables, maintenant les frasques mangeables. LāideĢe arrive du royaume des pommes chips. Une styliste anglaise a preĢpareĢ la premieĢre robe aĢ frites, avec chapeau assorti. Cāest dāun gouĢt exquis! Les mirabelles ā elles doivent eĢtre doreĢes avec des taches de rousseur, et exhaler un parfum leĢger. Leur peau, souple sous le doigt, est recouverte dāune fine pellicule qui les proteĢge du desseĢchement. Lorsquāune crise se produit ou un scandale est deĢvoileĢ, la premieĢre reĢaction de nombreux personnages publics de nos jours est de jaillir en un torrent de remords. La nouvelle Peugeot 407 inteĢgre des produits innovants qui reĢpondent aux exigences de seĢcuriteĢ, confort et environnement. En particulier le nouveau systeĢme dāessuie-glace qui permet dāoptimiser la surface et la qualiteĢ de lāessuyage. Quatorze patients hospitaliseĢs au CHU ont trouveĢ la mort au terme de pratiques dāeuthanasie directe ou indirecte. Telle est la conclusion dāune expertise meĢdicale citeĢe dans la presse reĢgionale. Le gouvernement espagnol a deĢcideĢ de rapporter dāau moins un an lāentreĢe en vigueur, preĢvue pour le 25 mai, dāune loi visant aĢ ouvrir le transport ferroviaire aĢ la concurrence. Cette loi avait eĢteĢ condamneĢe par plusieurs reĢgions autonomes du pays et par les cheminots des chemins de fer espagnols. La nuit, pendant quāune bonne partie de la population ronfle tranquillement, un demi-million dāauditeurs, de tous les aĢges et tous les milieux sociaux, restent colleĢs aĢ leur poste de radio. Les rosiers sont de plus en plus souvent proposeĢs en pot. Tentant, mais est-ce bien raisonnable? Non, sāil sāagit de rosiers malingres mis en pot au dernier moment ou encore de rosiers produits industriellement dans la tourbe pure. Mais sāil sāagit de rosiers mis en pot depuis lāhiver, dans des conteneurs profonds remplis dāun terreau contenant de lāargile, pas dāheĢsitation. Votre point faible: un manque de perseĢveĢrance. Vous ne prenez pas de deĢcision, ou alors pas de facĢ§on durable; vous eĢtes incapable dāeffort, pas plus motiveĢe par le succeĢs que par lāeĢchec. Il nāy a que la nouveauteĢ, lāideĢe du plaisir pour vous stimuler. La bonne alimentation ā des sucres lents (paĢtes, pommes de terre) qui apportent de lāeĢnergie tout au long de la dure journeĢe, et non des sucres rapides ā paĢtisseries, bonbons ā qui donnent un coup de fouet 397 Key to exercises immeĢdiat, mais induisent un coup de pompe dans les heures qui suivent. m Yacco propose une nouvelle gamme de 14 lubrifiants moteurs. Conduite urbaine, trajet autoroutier, compeĢtition: tous les besoins sont pris en compte par ces huiles qui reĢpondent aux nouvelles exigences ā reĢduction des eĢmissions polluantes, reĢduction de la consommation de carburant, espacement des vidanges, lutte contre lāusure, etc. n Si lāon se reĢfeĢre au langage des couleurs, le jaune stimule la meĢmoire et lāattention, le bleu calme les esprits, le vert apporte lāeĢquilibre et le rouge stimule les sens. 2 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant le deĢterminant possessif ou lāarticle qui convient ā a Pompe avec leveĢ de jambe. En position de pompe classique, les mains sont dans lāalignement des eĢpaules, mais un peu plus espaceĢes que la largeur de ces dernieĢres. Descendez le corps en fleĢchissant les bras et en levant une jambe aussi haut que possible sans plier le genou. Quand le torse est preĢs du sol, gardez la pose quelques secondes, puis tendez les bras pour revenir aĢ la position de deĢpart. Changez de jambe. c Mon corps est couvert de taches blanches ā jāai des taches blanches sur le corps, le visage, les cheveux, et mes poils sont eĢgalement affecteĢs. Je suis obseĢdeĢe par mon corps et surtout mon visage. b Pour utiliser le flexi-ball, un gros ballon en plastique souple, posez le ventre sur le flexi-ball, les mains au sol, bras tendus. Les jambes sont jointes et tendues. En faisant pression avec les hanches, levez les jambes le plus haut possible. Gardez la position 5 secondes. 3 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant le deĢterminant deĢmonstratif qui convient a Ce mois-ci, on examine la machine aĢ laver le linge. b Il sāagit de faire plaisir aĢ toute la famille. Celui-ci se nourrirait exclusivement de paĢtes et de riz, cet autre rechigne face aĢ une assiette de courgettes, et ce dernier ne toleĢre pas les leĢgumes. c Une circulaire ministeĢrielle preĢcisait que le poids dāun cartable dāeĢcolier ne devrait pas exceĢder de 10% celui de lāenfant. Cette norme nāest toujours pas respecteĢe. d Disposez de lāherbe tondue en lāeĢparpillant autour des leĢgumes. En 15 jours, ce paillis disparaıĢt. e Sans lāaide de cette creĢme, jāaurais certainement mis plus de temps aĢ me deĢbarrasser de tous ces kilos. f Seul point commun entre ces enfants psychiquement atteints: ces cocktails hormonaux pris par les meĢres! DāouĢ lāideĢe dāun lien possible entre ces psychoses et lāempreinte hormonale au stade foetal. 4 ReĢeĢcrivez les passages suivants en ajoutant le deĢterminant possessif qui convient ā a Les huiles diffeĢrent par leur teneur en vitamine E, leur reĢsistance aĢ la chaleur et, bien suĢr, leur gouĢt. b Il est urgent que nous redonnions aĢ nos enfants le gouĢt de lāeau. c Dire que Golovin joua aĢ son meilleur niveau serait exageĢreĢ. d Entre ces deux compeĢtitions, jāaurai le temps de changer mes patins et de corriger mes programmes. e Comment qualifieriez-vous votre sexualiteĢ actuelle? 398 Key to exercises f Lāapparence est fondamentale pour une femme qui veut reĢussir dans notre socieĢteĢ. Je suis donc treĢs attentive aĢ maintenir mon image sur mon lieu de travail. g On tient aĢ te feĢliciter de ton bon sens et tes reĢponses toujours percutantes. h Ce qui peut eĢtre inteĢressant pour nous, cāest quāil apporte plus de profondeur aĢ notre jeu. Chapter 8 1 Les preĢpositions qui relient ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en ajoutant dans le blane, si cāest neĢcessaire, la preĢposition qui convient ā a Jāaimerais avoir des conseils pour māaider aĢ eĢradiquer ce probleĢme. b Parfois un enfant hausse le ton parce quāon ne le laisse pas suffisamment sāexprimer. c AgeĢe de 22 ans, je suis atteinte dāune maladie du systeĢme nerveux. d Jāaimerais que quelquāun me dise les effets secondaires aĢ craindre. e Cela arrive, mais il sāagit de cas treĢs rares. f Lorsque je dois faire un gros saut dans le veĢlo acrobatique, je cherche dāabord aĢ maıĢtriser le stress dans ma teĢte ā cela māaide aĢ le passer. g Il a beau eĢtre la plus grande star francĢ§aise ā il fait toujours de treĢs gros efforts pour plaire aĢ ses admiratrices. h Les voleurs et politiciens ripoux ont toujours beĢneĢficieĢ dāune certaine consideĢration de la part du public. i Cāest une mode qui plaıĢt aux jeunes filles comme aux femmes plus aĢgeĢes. j Comment est-ce que vous pouvez aider votre enfant aĢ vaincre le beĢgaiement ā reformuler les mots apreĢs lui de facĢ§on correcte, sans lui demander de les reĢpeĢter. Vous devez vous amuser aĢ faire ensemble des bruits avec la bouche. k Il ne manque jamais de raconter ses conqueĢtes. l Ces lentilles sont faciles aĢ poser et aĢ enlever. m On se promet de reprendre une activiteĢ physique, histoire de garder la forme, de sāaeĢrer et de sāoccuper de soi. n Pour seĢduire, une femme peut passer beaucoup de temps aĢ sāappreĢter. o JāeĢprouve un besoin terrible de dormir apreĢs le deĢjeuner. p On māexpliquait que je ne risquais pas de devenir steĢrile. q Les beĢneĢfices des lavages du nez ne sont plus aĢ deĢmontrer. r Est-ce quāil a tendance aĢ augmenter le son de la teĢleĢvision? s Cette reĢaction permet aĢ ceux qui sont doteĢs dāune peau deĢlicate de reĢsister aĢ la bruĢlure du soleil. t Leur usage convient treĢs bien aux jeunes filles, car ils sāadaptent aĢ leur style de vie. u Jāai impression que les coussins ont besoin dāeĢtre secoueĢs et tapoteĢs, et je ne me prive pas de le faire. 399 Key to exercises v Je ne māadonne aĢ ce vice compulsif avec nāimporte quoi ā jāai une preĢfeĢrence pour les tickets de cineĢma! w Si vous avez avaleĢ seulement une quantiteĢ infime dāessence, du lait ou un verre dāeau suffira aĢ le diluer. x Tu devrais eĢviter de prendre lāavion si vous avez un rhume. y Vous en sortez plutoĢt bien, compte tenu de vos petites mauvaises habitudes. z Finalement, mes parents se sont deĢbarrasseĢs de moi. 2 Les preĢpositions qui forment les locutions preĢpositives ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en ajoutant la preĢposition qui convient ā a La natation peut se pratiquer aĢ allure modeĢreĢe, sans douleur ni essouflement meĢme si lāon reprend apreĢs une peĢriode dāinactiviteĢ. b Jāai pris trois comprimeĢs par jour, une prise de sang par semaine au deĢbut et puis une par mois par la suite. c Nous avons domineĢ pendant la majeure partie du match, sur le terrain de Milan. d Vous avez le choix entre deux formules. La premieĢre assure votre enfant seulement lorsque lāaccident survient pendant les activiteĢs organiseĢes par lāeĢtablissement ou sur le chemin de lāeĢcole. Elle est obligatoire pour les voyages organiseĢs. e ApreĢs leur second beĢbeĢ, nombre de femmes ne retrouvent pas leur ventre « dāavant », malgreĢ la gym. f Entre la salle de fitness et dāautres clubs, les propositions ne manquent pas. On choisit selon ses besoins. g Les salarieĢs ont droit aĢ quatre jours de congeĢ lorsquāils se marient, trois jours pour la naissance ou lāadoption dāun enfant, un pour le mariage dāun enfant, deux jours pour le deĢceĢs du conjoint et un jour pour le deĢceĢs du peĢre ou de la meĢre. h Je consideĢre que je vis aĢ peu preĢs normalement, en deĢpit des contraintes dues au traitement. i Dans une situation comme celle-ci, une partie des soins vous sera rembourseĢe. j Quant aĢ lāesprit, il voyage lui aussi pendant votre randonneĢe ā on part sous tension, mais on rentre apaiseĢ, serein. k Chez les tout-petits, les produits alcooliseĢs sont aĢ proscrire. Une meĢme quantiteĢ de produit appliqueĢe chez un beĢbeĢ aboutit aĢ des concentrations jusquāaĢ cinq fois supeĢrieures en raison de son faible poids. l Le chignon existe depuis la nuit des temps. m Elle portait une veste en jean surpiqueĢ de dentelle sur un jupon en coton. n Il est conseilleĢ dāagir preĢcocement aĢ partir de lāaĢge de 3 ans. o Une directive europeĢenne applicable en France depuis le deĢbut de lāanneĢe a renforceĢ les normes de qualiteĢ de lāeau. p Quant aĢ la douleur postopeĢratoire, elle varie entre 2 et 4 sur une eĢchelle de 10. q Jāaime passer devant le miroir de la salle de bains. r Cāest en pantalon de coton noir et en tee-shirt quāelle est arriveĢe. 400 Key to exercises s t u v w x y z LāopeĢration sous anestheĢsie geĢneĢrale dure environ deux heures. Les coiffeurs sāy reĢsignent avec bonheur.. Les Parisiens, graĢce aĢ deux buts spectaculaires ont battu Porto. Lors dāun controĢle sanguin, jāai deĢcouvert que je souffrais dāune anomalie physique. Il figure parmi les meilleurs super-leĢgers mais il fait figure dāinconnu en France. La compeĢtence sans le plaisir, le talent sans la joie ne servent aĢ rien. Souvent pour lāacheteur compulsif, lāachat se fait dans la honte et dans une grande solitude. 76% des hommes se tournent vers leur partenaire pour chercher soutien dans une situation difficile. Chapter 9 Traduisez en francĢ§ais les passages qui suivent en anglais ā a La solitude nāest pas une tare ou une fataliteĢ, mais un passage obligeĢ, dont on sort souvent plus conscient, plus sensible, plus humain. b Je pense que la raison pour laquelle je suis devenu eĢcrivain est en grande partie lieĢe aĢ mon peĢre, aĢ mes sentiments envers lui. c La culture du fast-food a totalement changeĢ notre facĢ§on de nous nourrir et, plus grave encore, les quantiteĢs avaleĢes. d On vit dans une socieĢteĢ treĢs compeĢtitive ouĢ lāon baĢtit sa propre estime de soi en se comparant sans cesse aux autres. e Les symptoĢmes de la crise catholique en France sont si bien connus quāil est aĢ peine besoin de les aligner: en un demi-sieĢcle, la pratique reĢgulieĢre sāest effondreĢe, se divisant par quatre pour stagner autour du 10%; le nombre de preĢtres ordonneĢs chaque anneĢe est aujourdāhui le dixieĢme de ce quāil eĢtait dans les anneĢes 50; les mouvements dāaction catholiques ne sont plus que lāombre dāeux-meĢmes. f A lāheure actuelle, personne nāest en mesure de savoir si Lille eĢgalera Saint-Etienne et Marseille en deĢcrochant un quatrieĢme titre national conseĢcutif, ni quel sera son destin en Ligue des champions. g Laissez cuire 15 min. aĢ feu doux, puis versez le bouillon et la creĢme, laissez cuire encore 15 min. aĢ feu moyen. Retirez le thym et mixez le tout avec la creĢme restante. Ajoutez un peu de bouillon si cāest trop eĢpais. h Souvent utiliseĢes pour chasser le stress, les huiles essentielles peuvent aussi eĢtre employeĢes, selon leurs vertus, pour apaiser lāeĢpiderme ou lutter contre les rides. i Lāeye-liner, noir ou brun treĢs fonceĢ, est travailleĢ de manieĢre classique sur la paupieĢre supeĢrieure, en partant du centre pour eĢtirer le trait au-delaĢ du coin externe de lāoeil. Une fois que le maquillage est parfaitement sec, on effectue un traceĢ dāeye-liner identique, leĢgeĢrement plus court, aĢ la lisieĢre des cils du bas. j Les patchs reĢalisent un vrai tour de passe-passe! On les applique localement, comme une creĢme, mais ils agissent sur lāensemble de lāorganisme, comme un comprimeĢ. Lāastuce consiste aĢ enfermer le 401 Key to exercises produit actif sous un petit adheĢsif, qui lui permet de diffuser aĢ travers la peau afin de rejoindre la circulation sanguine. k Sur un mur de la pureĢe de brocolis eĢtaleĢe tel un enduit. Au pied du mur deux coĢnes de carottes. Avec le temps, le mur et les coĢnes adopteront des couleurs changeantes sous lāeffet de la deĢcomposition ā cĢ§a cāest lāart contemporain! l Classiquement, on preĢte aux garcĢ§ons dāappartenir au « sexe fort » et aux filles au « sexe faible ». Cette distinction refleĢte peut-eĢtre une reĢaliteĢ musculaire. Mais lorsquāon sāinteĢresse aĢ la globaliteĢ de lāexistence, cāest eĢvidemment lāinverse. Dans lāensemble, les femmes reĢsistent mieux aux maladies. Elles mangent plus sainement. Elle sont plus prudentes en voiture et sāentretuent moins spontaneĢment. En conseĢquence de quoi, elles vivent plus longtemps. Chapter 10 Traduisez en francĢ§ais la section en anglais des phrases suivantes. a Jāai consulteĢ plusieurs meĢdecins, mais aucun traitement ne me soulage. b 78% des FrancĢ§ais ne comprendraient pas que les enseignants boycottent les examens. c Nous passons nos soireĢes aĢ ne faire que parler. d Les familles nāheĢsitent plus aĢ insulter les enseignants. e Rien ne vous empeĢche de commencer la randonneĢe devant chez vous, en toute saison. f Je ne peux plus bouger mon corps, ni parler, ni meĢme respirer. g La douleur ne sāest reĢveilleĢe que plusieurs semaines plus tard. h Faut-il se priver de boeuf? ā Ah! non, car, tout dāabord la viande nāa jamais eĢteĢ aussi sanitairement correct et surtout parce que le boeuf nāest pas si gras que cĢ§a. i Aucun passant ne peut soupcĢ§onner que lāun des plus grands sex symbols du cineĢma se cache derrieĢre ces verres fumeĢs. j Personne ne connaıĢt non plus ses intentions. k On ne peut, lorsquāon est attacheĢ aĢ la cause palestinienne, sāempeĢcher de reprendre timidement espoir. l Je vis dans un centre antidouleurs qui me prescrit de la morphine, mais je nāai plus dāespoir. Je ne peux plus travailler. m Mes probleĢmes ne cessent de monter. n Il nāy a rien de plus simple pour proteĢger sa santeĢ. o En moins de temps quāil nāen faut pour le dire, la peau eĢpaissit. p Signez une reconnaissance de dette, ainsi personne ne pourra vous accuser dāexploiter la situation. q Dans la plupart des familles du temps de notre arrieĢre-grand-meĢre, on ne se lavait que le dimanche. r Si au second rendez-vous, je ne tāembrasse pas, alors cela signifie que je ne le ferai jamais. s Aujourdāhui on sait quāil nāy a pas de parfaite santeĢ sans une bonne hygieĢne. t Il y a une ligne blanche que les FrancĢ§ais ne veulent pas franchir. 402 Key to exercises u Elle nāembrasse jamais sur la bouche ni ne passe la nuit avec sa proie. v Cāest le tabou aĢ ne pas transgresser. w FreĢquemment la question nāest meĢme pas eĢvoqueĢe. x Il faut eĢviter de se moquer de lui, ne pas lui demander de parler moins vite. y Il est plus tard que vous ne pensez. z Il nāest jamais aussi aĢ lāaise que lorsquāil renoue avec ses racines provinciales. aa Le suicide ne semble gueĢre faire de doute. bb Je ne māen suis jamais rendu compte. cc Pour ceux qui nāont ni reĢdigeĢ de testament ni proceĢdeĢ aĢ une donation, le Code civil sāoccupe de tout. dd Les dispositions prises par testament ne sont jamais deĢfinitives: elles peuvent eĢtre changeĢes aĢ tout moment. ee Cette mega-star ne peut pas aller acheter son pain tranquillement, ni ses cigarettes. ff Il a reĢussi et nāa plus grandāchose aĢ prouver. gg Sa tenue de foot, deĢchireĢe, crotteĢe, nāen pouvait plus. hh Ce type de relation sexuelle nāimplique aucune conseĢquence, aucun engagement. ii Ces artisans nāont nul besoin dāartifice ni de structure pour accomplir leurs buts. jj Personne ne pourra dire quāelle ne soit pas attentive aux autres. kk Ne dites pas: « JāarreĢte de manger nāimporte comment ». Il faut eĢviter le tout ou rien. ll AĢ moins que le president nāintervienne, la situation continuera aĢ empirer. Chapter 11 EĢcrivez en mots les chiffres qui ne sont pas en italique dans les phrases suivantes ā a Le nombre de beĢtes malades est passeĢ, en France, de deux cent soixante-quatorze en 2001 aĢ cent trente-sept en 2003 pour un cheptel de 11 millions de teĢtes. b Quatre virgule cinquante-huit millions ā cāest, en Inde, le nombre de personnes infecteĢes par le virus du sida. c Tous les FrancĢ§ais peuvent maintenant consulter les fiches biographiques de plus dāun million trois cent vingt-cinq mille soldats morts pour la France pendant la guerre de ā14ā18. d Entre deux cent vingt-neuf mille et deux cent soixante-neuf mille FrancĢ§ais sont victimes chaque anneĢe dāune infection alimentaire. e Guy Lux, quatre-vingt-trois ans, et Georges Coulonges, quatre-vingts ans, sont morts cette semaine. f Plus de cent mille baladeurs devraient se vendre cette anneĢe, soit une hausse de deux cent cinquante pour cent en un an. 403 Key to exercises Chapter 12 1 Reliez ces phrases en une seule, en les reĢorganisant et en utilisant une conjonction de subordination ā a Si votre physionomie vous pose des probleĢmes, aidez la nature en adoptant judicieusement nos produits de beauteĢ. b Mes amis ne comprenaient pas pourquoi jāai quitteĢ mon mari, parce que, pour eux, nous formions un couple ideĢal. c Ce qui diffeĢrencie la sexualiteĢ masculine et la sexualiteĢ feĢminine, cāest que lāhomme fait lāamour aĢ lāexteĢrieur de son corps, alors que la femme le fait aĢ lāinteĢrieur. d Avec mon mari, jāavais lāamour et la stabiliteĢ, tandis que de lāautre, je deĢcouvrais la passion. e Que ce soit des meubles ou des fringues, je me balade sur tous les sites Internet aĢ la recherche de la meilleure affaire. f Cet homme qui ne veut rien laisser eĢchapper de lui-meĢme et qui ne tutoie pas, dont ses amis ont ignoreĢ son remariage ceĢleĢbreĢ aĢ Paris, est-ce quāil meĢne une deuxieĢme vie tortueuse et noire? g Je ne crois pas aĢ une grande manipulation de la droite, ce qui nāempeĢche pas des initiatives individuelles et quelques coups tordus via les flics et les magistrats. h Si en un sieĢcle la France sāest reĢchauffeĢe de 0,9 degreĢs C, cāest davantage duĢ aĢ un releĢvement des tempeĢratures minimales quāaĢ celui des tempeĢratures maximales. 2 La mise en relief ReĢeĢcrivez les phrases suivantes en utilisant cāest . . . que/qui pour mettre en relief la section qui nāest pas en italique. a Cāest aĢ un accord salarial pour les deux prochaines anneĢes que les 4 000 pilotes ont dit oui par reĢfeĢrendum. b Cāest aĢ un an de prison et aĢ la privation pour deux ans de ses droits civiques et civils que lāancien deĢputeĢ maire a eĢteĢ condamneĢ. c Cāest aĢ cause de leurs enfants que la plupart des femmes seĢpareĢes ont souvent une bonne raison de ne pas fleĢchir. d Cāest aĢ condition dāeĢtre un peu attentive aĢ ce qui se passe autour de vous que tout peut arriver. e Cāest entre 11 et 14 heures que vous ne devez jamais vous exposer au soleil, autrement il faut le faire avec modeĢration, toujours progressivement, et il faut mettre une creĢme. f Cāest ma paresse qui est le seul vice qui māinquieĢte vraiment. g Ce sera deux ans au moins avant que la situation ne se normalise. 3 Utilisez une autre strateĢgie pour mettre en relief les sections qui ne sont pas en italique dans les phrases suivantes ā a Je les ai aussi rencontreĢes, des filles idiotes, mais je ne vais pas donner de noms. b La drague en meute, rien nāest pire que cĢ§a. c Lāeuthanasie, va-t-on un jour la leĢgaliser en France? d Les lions, je les attire en diffusant par haut-parleur un enregistrement dāune bagarre autour dāune proie. 404 Key to exercises 4 Les propositions interrogatives ReĢeĢcrivez les propositions interrogatives suivantes en remplissant le blanc du mot interrogatif qui convient le mieux ā a Cāest bientoĢt les soldes. Quels sont mes droits? b Pourquoi les femmes nāaiment-elles pas quāon lise des magazines de charme? c Jāai un surplus de peau deĢtendue et disgracieuse. Comment puis-je māen deĢbarrasser? d Dois-je utiliser un produit avant-rasage ou raser directement aĢ meĢme la peau? Quāen pensez-vous? e Un beau-peĢre peut-il prendre la place dāun vrai peĢre absent? Quelle attitude doit-il adopter? f Quelles sont vos chances de trouver un mec dans lāanneĢe? g Alors, les gars, quāest-ce qui vous ferait plaisir? h Qui a marqueĢ le dernier but? i Quāy a-t-il de vous dans les personnages que vous jouez? j Quand est-ce que vous allez nous rendre visite? 405 Bibliography For standard French grammar ā Batchelor, R. and Offord, M., Using French: a Guide to Contemporary French Usage. 3rd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Colin, J.-P., DifficulteĢs du francĢ§ais. Paris: Le Robert, 1993. Grevisse, M., Le Bon usage: grammaire francĢ§aise. 13th edition by A. Goosse. Paris and Louvain la Neuve: Duculot, 1993. Hawkins, R. and Towell, R., French Grammar and Usage. 2nd edition. London: Arnold, 2001. Judge, A. and Healey, F., A Reference Grammar of Modern French. London: Arnold, 1983. LāHuillier, M., Advanced French Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Nott, D., French Grammar Explained. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1993. Price, G., A Comprehensive French Grammar. 5th edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003. For low register French grammar ā Ball, R., Colloquial French Grammar: a Practical Guide. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. 406 Index The numbers in the index refer to sections rather than to pages. aĢ 256, 274, 275, 279ā287, 302ā310, 390, 391 aĢ + infinitive 310 aĢ dix kilomeĢtres 400 aĢ droite/aĢ gauche 400 aĢ linking adjective to infinitive 279, 280 aĢ linking noun to infinitive 281, 282 aĢ linking verb to infinitive 283ā285 aĢ linking verb to noun 286, 287 aĢ Paris 400 au printemps 402 expressing a compound idea 309 expressing measurement 308 indicating place 304 indicating manner 306 indicating time 305 to mark responsibility 307 verbs with aĢ + noun and de + infinitive 298, 299 with place names 393 sāabaisser 283 abattre 228, 229 sāabeĢtir 283 abolir 176 aboutir 176 aboyer 176 abreĢger 176 sāabrutir 283 absolument 405 absoudre 60, 165, 176, 295 sāabstenir 176, 292 abstract nouns 188 abuser 294 academic subjects gender of names of 181 aĢ cause de 274, 311 accabler 295 acceĢder 176 acceĢleĢrer 176 accepter 156, 292 sāaccommoder 294 sāaccompagner 294 accomplir 176 accoucher 294 sāaccoutumer 283 accueillir 176 accuser 282, 295 āace 181 acharnement 281 sāacharner 283 acheter 18, 48, 56, 59, 92, 167, 171, 176 achever 176, 292 āacle 180 aĢ condition de 275, 312 aĢ condition que 148, 458 aĢ coĢteĢ de 274, 313 acqueĢrir 176 active voice 110 actuellement 402 āade 181 aĢ dessein 398 adheĢrer 176 adjectives 180, 193ā205 agreement 197, 225 change of meaning according to position 203 comparison 199ā201 comparative and superlative of inequality 199 comparative of equality 199 use of ne/le in comparisons 200 demonstrative ā see demonstrative adjectives gender 193ā195 feminine formed by adding āe 193 feminine same as masculine 193 identical masculine and feminine forms 193 radical adjustment 193 linked to adjective by de 298, 299 linked to infinitive by aĢ 279, 280 multiple adjectives 205 number 196 + ās 196 + āx 196 compound 196 position of adjectives 200 following the noun 200 preceding the noun 200 stylistic variation 200 variable position 200, 204 possessive ā see possessive adjectives used as adverbs 314 admettre 156, 176 sāadonner 283 adorer 276 adoucir 176 adverbial expressions 394 adverbial phrases 394 adverbs 394ā414 adverbs as connectors 394, 396, 413, 414 adverbs of affirmation and negation 394, 410, 411 adverbs of degree 394, 396, 405ā407 adverbs of manner 394, 396, 398, 399 with similes 398 adverbs of place 394, 400, 401 adverbs of time 394, 397, 402, 403 comparative and superlative forms of adverbs 409 formation of adverbs 395 407 Index adverbs (cont.) adjectives used as adverbs 395 adverbs with no corresponding adjective 39 by adding āment 395 with dāune manieĢre / dāune facĢ§on / dāun air 395 interrogative adverbs 394, 412 position of adverbs 397 multiple adverbs in a sentence 397 with an adjective 397 with an adverb 397 with a verb 397 with more than one meaning 396 aeroplanes gender of names of 180 affaiblir 176 affermir 176 affirmer 150 (sā)affliger 176, 292 sāaffoler 283 affranchir 176 afin de 274, 314 afin que 148, 460 aĢ force de 274, 315 agacer 176 āage 180 agir 176 sāagir 294 sāagit, il 164, 294 aĢ grande vitesse 398 agrandir 176 agreement of adjectives 197 agreement of adjectives and past participles with on 225 agreement of past participle with preceding direct object 214 āai 180 aide 184 (sā)aider 283, 294 āaie 181 āail 180, 189 āaille 181 ailleurs 400 aimer 149, 164, 276 aimer mieux 276 āaine 181 ainsi 396, 398, 413 air 184, 290 dāun air 395 aisance 281 āaison 181 āal 189 aĢ la fois 398 sāalimenter 294 aller 13, 17, 21, 44, 49, 63, 67, 69, 73, 75, 76, 95, 93, 100, 118, 166, 167, 171, 176, 276 used to express future time 136 allonger 176 alors 396, 402, 413 alors que 465 (sā)alourdir 176, 294 alteĢrer 176 amaigrir 176 408 amener 176, 276, 283 aĢ moins de 343, 389 aĢ moins que 148, 458 sāamuser 283 āance 181 ancien 203 annoncer 176 aĢ partir de 274, 317 aĢ peine 405, 469 (sā)apercevoir 176, 294 aĢ peu preĢs 405 apparaıĢtre 59, 176 appartenir 176, 298 il appartient 298 appeler 18, 48, 56, 59, 92, 167, 171, 176, 283 applaudir 176 sāappliquer 283 apposition 254 apprendre 176, 283 sāappreĢter 283 (sā)approcher 294, 295 appuyer 176 apreĢs 274, 317, 402 aĢ preĢsent 402 apreĢs que 133, 157, 465 apte 279 aptitude 281 ardeur 281 sāarmer 274 arracher 295 (sā)arreĢter 292 arrive, il 150, 164, 298 arriver 63, 276, 283, 298 articles 248ā264 ā see also definite article, indefinite article, partitive article, zero article differences between French and English usages 251ā257 article in French vs none in English 251ā253: with abstract nouns 251; with names of countries 252; with names of languages 253; with nouns describing classes of items 251; with various sets of nouns ā seasons, substances, products, illnesses 253 definite article in French vs different usage in English 255; to indicate quantities, prices 255; with lists 255; with parts of the body 255; with titles 256 no article in French vs article in English 254; apposition 254; to indicate personās profession / status 254; with par = per 254; with quel as exclamative 254 forms 249 position 250 repetition 261 tout + article 250 aspirer 283 assaillir 176 (sā)asseoir 56, 61, 86, 102, 104, 170, 174, 176 assez 259, 405, 406, 408 en avoir assez 235 assis 279 assister 286 assurer 295 Index aĢ supposeĢ que 148 āat 180 aĢ tort 398 aĢ travers de 273, 319 sāattacher 283 sāattaquer 286 atteindre 176 attendant que, en 148 (sā)attendre 149, 176, 286, 292 attendre, sans 398 attention, faire 233 attentivement 398 āau 189 au bout de 274, 320 au cas ouĢ 458 au contraire 413 au cours de 273, 321 aucun 415 ne . . . aucun 415 au-dedans 400 au-dehors 400 au-delaĢ de 274, 322 au-dessous 400 au-dessous de 274, 323 au-dessus 400 au-dessus de 273, 324 aujourdāhui 402 au lieu de 274, 325 au loin 400 au moins 405, 413 auparavant 402 aupreĢs de 274, 326 aussi 396, 405, 413 aussi in comparison of equality 199, 409 aussi . . . que 461 aussitoĢt 402 aussitoĢt que 133, 465 autant 259, 405, 408 autant plus que, dā 459 autorisation 290 autoriser 283 autour 400 autour de 274, 327 au travers de 274 autrefois 402 autrement dit 413 auxiliary verbs 8, 63ā65 avancer 176 avant 273, 328 avant que 133, 148, 465 avec 273, 329, 391 avec enthousiasme 398 avenir 176 avertir 176, 295 avide 288 aviditeĢ 281 aviser 295 avoir 8, 42, 44, 54, 57, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 70, 72, 87, 90, 98, 100, 101, 102, 119, 170, 174, 176, 283 avoir beau 276 avoir besoin 294 avoir (le) droit 301 avoir envie 149, 294 avoir honte 294 avoir peur 149, 294 avoir recours 233 bal 184 balancer 176 balle 184 bannir 176 bar 184 barre 184 bas 204 battre 33, 56, 59, 82, 95, 169, 173, 175, 176 beau/bel 195 beaucoup 242, 259, 405, 408, 409 beĢgayer 176 beĢnir 176 besoin 290 avoir besoin 294 bien adverb 398, 405, 408, 409 bien entendu 410 bien faire 292 bien pronoun 242, 259 bien que 148, 457 bien suĢr 411 bientoĢt 402 bizarrement 413 blaĢmer 292 blanchir 176 blaspheĢmer 176 boats gender of names of 180 boire 37, 56, 58, 84, 169, 173, 176 bon 203, 280 bon, il est 150 bondir 176 se borner 283 bouger 176 bout de, au 274, 320 brave 203 bref 204 broyer 176 bruire 165 bruĢler 292 brunir 176 brusquement 398 cĢ§a 238 cacheter 176 capable 288 capaciteĢ 290 capital 184 capitale 184 capital letters 484 car 452 cardinal numbers 432ā438, 442 approximate numbers 437 cent 435 fractions and decimals 438 gender of names of 180 mille 435 million 435 409 Index cardinal numbers (cont.) pronunciation of cinq, six, huit, neuf, dix, cent 435 use of et and hyphens in compound numbers 433, 434 use of figures to express cardinal numbers 436 with titles 442 cars gender of names of 181 cas ouĢ, au 458 causal clauses 455, 456 cause, en connaissance de 398 cause de, aĢ 274, 311 ce/cet . . . -ci 265, 266 ce/cet . . . -laĢ 265, 266 ceci 239 ce demonstrative adjective 247, 265, 266 ceĢder 176 ce dont 464 cela 239 ceĢleĢbrer 176 celle 237, 238 celle-ci 237, 238 celle-laĢ 237, 238 celui 237, 238 celui-ci 237, 238 celui-laĢ 237, 238 ce neuter pronoun 200, 219, 220 ce or il ? 221 to translate English it with infinitive 221 to translate English it with adjective + clause 221 to translate English it with another part of speech 222 to translate English it with adjective 221 cent 433 centaine 437 cependant 413 ce que 464, 481 ce qui 464, 481 certain, il nāest pas 150 certain adjective 203, 288 certainement 411 certain pronoun 242 certes 411 ces 247, 265, 266 ces . . . -ci 265 ces . . . -laĢ 265, 266 cesser 292 cāest-aĢ-dire 413 cāest to highlight 223, 279, 463 cet 247, 265, 266 cette 247, 265, 266 cette . . . -ci 265, 266 cette . . . -laĢ 265, 266 ceux 237, 238 ceux-ci 237, 238 ceux-laĢ 237, 238 chacun 245, 246 chaıĢne 184 champagne 184 chance 290 410 il nāy a aucune chance, il y a de grandes chances 150 chanceler 176 changer 176, 294 chaque 272 (se) charger 176, 292, 294, 295 charmant 204 cheeses gender of names of 180 cheĢne 184 cher 203 chercher 283 cheĢrir 176 chez 274, 330, 400 choir 165 choisir 176, 292 choqueĢ, eĢtre 149 chose 184 -ci 237, 238 ci-dessous 400 ci-dessus 400 ci-joint 198 clauses 453ā469 clauses consisting of sequence of words 453 clauses consisting of single word 453 clause types 454 main clauses 454 subordinate clauses 454: causal clauses 455, 456; concessive clauses 455, 457 ; conditional clauses 455, 458; consecutive clauses 455, 459; final clauses 455, 460; manner clauses 455, 461; noun clauses 455, 462 definition 453 clore 165 coeur, de tout son 398 col 192 colle 192 colons 484 colours gender of names of 180 combattre 176 combien 259, 412, 476, 477 commander 149, 298 commas 484 inverted commas 484 comme 456, 461, 465 comme intoducing similes 398 exclamative sentence with comme 483 commencer 20, 44, 56, 75, 76, 92, 167, 171, 176, 283, 301 comment 412, 476, 480 commercer 176 commettre 176 comparer 301 comparison of adjectives 199, 200 ā see also adjectives comparison of adverbs 409 complement of subject and inversion 469 compleĢtement 405 compleĢter 176 complex sentences 448, 450 complimenter 295 comploter 292 Index compound-complex sentences 447, 451 compound nouns 187 adjective + noun / noun adjective 187, 190 adverb / preposition + noun 187, 190 noun + noun 187, 190 noun + prepositional phrase 187, 190 phrase 187, 190 verb + noun / verb + verb 187, 190 compound sentences 447, 449 compound tenses of pronominal verbs 104ā106, 108 of simple verbs 62ā73 comprendre 156, 176 compris 198, 274, 331 y compris 198, 331 compromettre 176 compter 276 conceĢder 176 concessive clauses 455, 457 concevoir 156, 176 conclure 32, 84, 169, 173, 176 condamner 283 conditional clauses 455, 458 conditional perfect tense 72, 139, 141, 158 in reported speech 139 used to express uncertainty 139 to refer to events that might have taken place 139 conditional tense 45ā55, 138, 140 in main clause of sentence with conditional clause 138 in reported speech 138 used to express uncertainty 138 condition de, aĢ 273, 312 condition que, aĢ 148, 458 conduire 35, 56, 60, 83, 95, 169, 173, 176, 283 se confier 286 confirmer 276 confondre 176 confus 288 conjugation 10 conjunctions, coordinating 452 car 452 et 452 mais 452 ni 452 ou 452 conjunctions, subordinating 454 conjunctive expressions requiring subjunctive 148 connaissance de cause, en 398 connaıĢtre 176 conqueĢrir 176 se consacrer 283 consecutive clauses 455, 459 conseiller 298 consentir 149, 176, 283, 286 consideĢrer 176 consister 283 consoler 292 conspirer 283 construire 176 se consumer 283 content 288 eĢtre 149 contenter 292 continuer 283, 292, 301 contraindre 176, 283, 285 contre 274, 332, 391 contredire 176 contrefaire 176 contribuer 222 convaincre 176, 292 convenir 238, 294 convertir 176 convier 283 coordinating conjunctions 452 car 452 et 452 mais 452 ni 452 ou 452 corrompre 176 coĢteĢ ā dāun coĢteĢ . . . de lāautre coĢteĢ 413 coĢteĢ de, aĢ 274, 313 coĢteĢ de, du 274, 352 coucheĢ 279 coudoyer 176 count nouns 188 countries names of + zero article 252 prepositions + names of 393 with capital letters 484 cour 184 courir 13, 25, 52, 59, 80, 94, 99, 100, 118, 168, 172, 176, 276 cours 184 au cours de 274, 321 court adjective 184, 204 court noun 184 couvrir 176 craindre 37, 56, 60, 83, 149, 169, 173, 176, 292 crainte de, de 274, 346 crainte que, de 148, 149 creĢpe 184 crever 176 critique 184 croire 34, 56, 59, 84, 95, 150, 169, 173, 176, 277, 286, 301 croıĢtre 59 cueillir 26, 51, 56, 59, 78, 94, 168, 172, 176 cuire 176 curieux 288 il est curieux 151 cyniquement 398 dāabord 402 daigner 276 dāailleurs 400, 413 danger, il y a 200 dans 274, 333, 390, 391, 400 with place names 393 dāapreĢs 274, 391 dates 441 days 441 months 441 periods of time 441 years 441 411 Index dāautant plus que 459 days 441 gender of names of 180 de article 256 des ā de before adjective before noun 259 with negative expressions 260, 416 with quantifiers 249 de preposition 274, 275, 285, 288ā301, 334ā345, 390, 391 de before second noun after verb 296, 297 de linking adjective to infinitive 288, 289 de linking noun to infinitive 290, 291 de linking verb to infinitive 292, 293 expressing cause 341 expressing function, material 339 expressing idea of containing, measurement 337 expressing manner 342 expressing place, origin 336 expressing time 340 forming expressions 345 indicating possession 335 introducing an infinitive 344 introducing attribute of noun or pronoun 343 verbs with aĢ + noun and de + infinitive 298, 299 with expression of quantity 338 with place names 393 deĢbarrasser 295 deĢbattre 176 debout 279, 398 deĢcevoir 176 deĢcharger 176 deĢchoir 165 deĢcideĢ 279 (se) deĢcider 283, 292 declarative clauses 466 elements of a declarative clause 466 word order in declarative clause 466 declarative sentences 444, 448 deĢclarer 277 deĢconseiller 298 deĢcourager 176 deĢcouvrir 176 de crainte de 274, 346 de crainte que 148, 149 deĢcrire 176 deĢdaigner 292 dedans 400 deĢdicacer 176 deĢduire 176 de facĢ§on aĢ 273, 247 de facĢ§on aĢ ce que / que 148 deĢfaillir 176 deĢfaire 176 defective verbs 165 deĢfendre 150, 176, 298 deĢfense used as alternative to imperative 122 se deĢfier 294 deĢfinir 176 definite article 247, 248, 249 + aĢ / de ā au / du 249 412 differences between French and English usages 251ā257 article in French vs none in English 251ā253: with abstract nouns 251; with names of countries 252; with names of days of the week 253; with names of languages 253; with nouns describing classes of items 251; with various sets of nouns ā seasons, substances, products, illnesses 253 definite article in French vs different usage in English 255; to indicate quantities, prices 255; with lists 257; with parts of the body 255; with titles 256 elision 249 deĢgager 176 deĢgeler 176 deĢgouĢter 295 dehors 400 deĢjaĢ 402 de la 248, 249 de la part de 274 deĢlibeĢrer 176 deĢlivrer 295 de loin 405 demain 402 demander 149, 283, 292, 298, 301 de manieĢre aĢ 274, 347 de manieĢre aĢ ce que / que 148 de meĢme que 461 deĢmeĢnager 176 deĢmesureĢment 405 demeurer 63 demi 193, 438 deĢmissionner 294 deĢmolir 176 deĢnoncer 176 demonstrative adjectives 247, 265, 266 demonstrative determiners 265, 266 forms 265 demonstrative pronouns 237ā239 departments, prepositions + names of 393 se deĢpeĢcher 292 deĢpeindre 176 deĢpendre 176, 294 deĢpenser de lāargent 283 de peur de 274, 346 de peur que 148, 149 deĢplacer 176 deĢplaire 176, 286 depuis 140, 142, 274, 348, 402 depuis que 465 de quoi 464 deĢranger 176 dernier 155, 200, 253 derrieĢre 274, 349, 400 des 248, 249 deĢs 274, 350 deĢs lors 402 descendre 63, 67, 69, 71, 73, 90, 176, 276 deĢsespeĢrer 176, 292 deĢsir 290 deĢsirer 149, 276 deĢsireux 288 Index deĢsobeĢir 176, 286 deĢsoleĢ 388 eĢtre 149 deĢsormais 402 de sorte que 148, 460 deĢs que 133, 465 desseĢcher 176 dessein, aĢ 398 dessous 404 deĢtendre 176 deĢtermination 281 deĢtermineĢ 279 (se) deĢterminer 283 determiners 247ā272 demonstrative determiners 265, 266 ā see also demonstrative adjectives / determiners indefinite determiners 272 possessive determiners 267ā271 ā see also possessive adjectives / determiners deĢtester 292 deĢtourner 295 de toute facĢ§on / manieĢre 413 de tout son coeur 398 deĢtruire 176 devancer 176 devant 274, 351 devenir 176 devoir 42, 55, 56, 61, 87, 97, 160, 170, 174, 176, 276 se deĢvouer 283 diffeĢrent 203 difficulteĢ 281 digeĢrer 176 dire 37, 56, 60, 83, 95, 118, 150, 169, 173, 176, 276, 292, 298, 301 direct questions 470ā480 ā see also questions diriger 176 disparaıĢtre 176 dispenser 292, 295 disposeĢ 279 (se) disposer 283, 294 dissuader 292 dissoudre 165, 176 divers 203 (se) divertir 176, 283 dizaine 437 dommage, cāest / il est 150 donneĢ, eĢtant 198, 283 donner 8,14 dont 464 dont, ce 464 dormir 25, 71, 168, 172, 176 double 204 double compound past tense 134 doucement 398 doute, il nāy pas de 150 sans aucun doute 411 sans doute 411 (se) douter 150, 292, 294 douteux, il est 150 douzaine 437 droit 290 avoir (le) droit 301 tout droit 398 du 248, 249 duĢ 279 du coĢteĢ de 274, 352 du haut de 274, 353 du moins 413 durant 274, 354 āeĢ 180 āeau 180, 189 eĢblouir 176 eĢcarter 295 eĢchanger 176 (sā)eĢchapper 286, 294, 301 āeĢche 181 eĢclaircir 176 eĢcouter 276 eĢcrire 36, 56, 60, 83, 95, 118, 169, 173, 176 āeĢde 180 āeĢe 181 efficacement 398 sāefforcer 292 eĢgayer 176 āeĢge 180 āeil 180 āeine 181 eĢlargir 176 eĢlever 176 eĢlire 176 elision of definite article 249 of personal pronouns 209 elle 208 elles 208 elles-meĢmes 208 ellipsis elliptical oui ā non questions 475 elliptical question with a question word 476 elliptical questions without question word but suggesting one 480 eĢloigner 295 (sā)embellir 176, 294 embeĢtant, eĢtre 149 āeĢme 180 sāeĢmerveiller 294 eĢmettre 176 emmener 176, 276 sāemparer 294 (sā)empeĢcher 150, 292 (sā)employer 176, 283 sāempresser 292 en aller de meĢme 235 en avoir assez 235 en avoir marre 235, 292 en bas 400 āence 181 enclin 279 en conseĢquence 413 encore 259, 402, 403, 405, 469 encore que 148, 457 encourager 176, 283 en-dehors de 274, 361 en deĢpit de 274, 362 413 Index en dessous 400 endommager 176 en effet 413 sāeĢnerver 283 en face de 274 en fait 413 enfin 402 enfoncer 176 (sā)engager 176, 283 en geĢneĢral 413 sāenhardir 283 en haut 400 enlacer 176 enlaidir 176 enlever 176, 295 (sā)ennuyer 176, 283, 294, 301 eĢnoncer 176 eĢnorme 204 eĢnormeĢment 405 en preposition 256, 274, 355ā360, 390, 391 en ce moment 402 en connaissance de cause 398 en feĢvrier 402 en hiver 402 expressing position 356 expressing time 357 in fixed expressions 360 with clothing 358 with names of languages and countries 359 with place names 393 en pronoun 211, 234, 235 = English possessive determiner 235 equivalent of de + noun 235 in verbal expressions 235 = some, any 235 enrager 292 en retard 402, 403 en revanche 413 (sā)enrichir 176, 294 enseigner 283 ensemble 398 en somme 413 ensuite 402 entendre 176, 278 sāenteĢter 283 enthousiasme, avec 398 entieĢrement 405 sāentourer 294 (sā)entraıĢner 283 entre 274, 363, 391 entrelacer 176 entreprendre 176, 292 entrer 63, 276 entretenir 176 entrevoir 176 eĢnumeĢrer 176 envahir 176 sāenvelopper 294 envers 274, 364 envie 290 avoir 149, 294 envier 292 environ 274, 365, 437, 440 414 envisager 156, 176, 292 en vouloir 235 envoyer 49, 167, 171, 176, 278 eĢpeler 176 eĢponger 176 sāeĢpuiser 283 āeĢque 181 eĢquivaloir 283 āer 180 eĢre 184 eĢriger 176 erreur, par 398 āeĢs 180 āeĢse 181 espeĢrer 19, 48, 56, 92, 167, 171, 176, 276 (sā)essayer 176, 283, 292 essentiel, il est 150 sāessoufler 283 essuyer 176 est-ce que with oui ā non questions 473 with question word questions 476 estimer 276 et 452 āet 180 eĢtablir 176 eĢtant donneĢ 198, 456 eĢteindre 176 eĢtinceler 176 eĢtonneĢ 288 sāeĢtonner 149, 292 eĢtre 8, 37, 44, 53, 56, 60, 62ā65, 66, 68, 70, 72, 84, 90, 96, 100, 101, 102, 119, 169, 173, 176 agreement in compound tenses 64, 65, 105, 166 eĢtre choqueĢ 149 eĢtre content 149 eĢtre deĢsoleĢ 149 eĢtre embeĢtant 149 eĢtre faĢcheĢ 149 eĢtre heureux 149 eĢtre honteux 149 eĢtreindre 176 eĢtre meĢcontent 149 eĢtre ravi 149 eĢtre satisfait 149 eĢtre surpris 149 eĢtre triste 149 āeu 189 āeuil 180 āeuse 181 eux 208 eux-meĢmes 208 sāeĢvader 294 āeĢve 181 eĢvidemment 411, 413 eĢviter 150, 292 exageĢrer 176 exceĢder 176 excellent 204 excepteĢ 198, 274, 366 exclamative sentences 444, 448, 483 with comme, que or quāest-ce que 483 with intonation 483 Index with que + subjunctive 483 with que de 483 with quel 483 exclure 176 (sā)excuser 292, 294, 295 exempter 295 exhorter 283 exiger 176 expletive ne 417 expliquer 156 expreĢs 398 expressions of avoiding, chance, denial, evaluation, forbidding, (im)possibility, improbability, necessity, uncertainty requiring subjunctive 150 expressions of emotion requiring subjunctive ā agreement, anger, anticipation, anxiety, command, desire, fear, permission, pleasure, request, sadness, surprise 149 face aĢ 274, 367 faĢcheĢ, eĢtre 149 facile 279 faciliteĢ 281 facĢ§on, dāune 394 facĢ§on aĢ, de 274, 347 facĢ§on aĢ ce que/que, de 148 faiblir 176 faillir 176, 276, 286 faire 37, 53, 56, 60, 83, 96, 118, 169, 173, 176, 278, 301 faire, bien 292 faire attention 233 faire semblant 292 fait 184 le fait que 152 falloir 42, 55, 56, 61, 87, 150, 160, 164, 170, 174, 176, 276 il sāen faut de peu 150 se fatiguer 283 faux, il est 164 feindre 176, 292 (se) feĢliciter 150, 292, 295 fendre 176 fermeĢ 279 fermement 398 feĢte 184 fier adjective 288 se fier 286 final clauses 455, 460 finale 184 finir 13, 14, 24, 44, 50, 56, 59, 67, 68, 71, 73, 78, 90, 94, 99, 100, 102, 118, 168, 172, 176, 292, 301 se flatter 292 foie 184 fois 184, 442 aĢ la fois 398 fondeĢ 279 force de, aĢ 174, 315 forcer 176, 285 forces, en utilisant toutes ses 398 fort 204 fou / fol 195 franchement 413 franchir 176 frapper 295 freĢmir 176 freĢquemment 402 frire 165 froncer 176 fruit gender of names of 181 fuir 176 futur 204 future perfect tense 70, 71, 137, 141 future tense 45ā55, 135, 136, 141 to refer to future events 135 used as alternative to imperative 122, 135 gaiement 398 garantir 176 garde 184 prendre garde 292 se garder 292 garnir 176 geindre 176 geler 176 geĢmir 176 gender 178, 193ā195 awkward cases of gender identity 182 gender of academic subjects 181 aeroplanes and boats 180 American states 183 animals 186 British counties 183 cars 181 cheeses and wines 180 colours 180 compound nouns 187 countries 183 French departments 183 French regions 183 fruit and vegetables 181 human agents 180, 181; languages 183 metals and minerals 180 months 180 names of days of week 180 of adjectives 193ā195 invariable adjectives 194 variable masculine form 195 of nouns 178 people 186 rivers 183 seasons 180 towns 183 trees and shrubs 180 weights and measures 180 patterns for feminine gender 181 patterns for masculine gender 180 gens 185 graĢce aĢ 274, 368 āgramme 180 grand 203 grande vitesse, aĢ 398 grandir 176 415 Index greĢ, savoir 298 greffe 184 grimacer 176 grincer 176 gronder 292 grossir 176 gueĢre, ne . . . 422, 430 gueĢrir 176 guillemets 484 habile 279 habileteĢ 281 (s)āhabituer 233, 283 haıĢr 59, 176 haleter 176 harceler 176 hasarder 283 se haĢter 292 haut 203 haut de, du 274, 393 heĢsitant pas, en nā 398 heĢsitation 281 heĢsiter 283 heureusement 398, 413 heureux 288 eĢtre 149 hier 402 highlighting 223, 463, 469, 474 homonyms 184 honte 290 avoir honte 294 honteux, eĢtre 149 hors de 274, 369 human agents gender of names of 180, 181 hurler 292 āi 180 ici 400 āie 181 āier 180 āieĢre 181 il 200 and ce 219 ce or il ? 221 to translate English it with adjective + 221, 288 to translate English it with adjective + clause 221 to translate English it with another part of speech 222 to translate English it with infinitive + 221 illnesses names of + zero article 253 ils 200 il y a 140, 142, 164 (sā)imaginer 276 immeĢdiatement 402 immenseĢment 405 immerger 176 impatient 288 impeĢratif, il est 150 imperative mood 6, 115ā123 416 alternatives to the imperative 122 forming the imperative 117ā119 meaning 121 with negation 416 position of personal pronouns 212 restricted forms 116 imperative sentences 444, 448 imperfect indicative tense 43, 44, 129, 142 to express duration of time 129 to express period of time 129 to express repeated or habitual action 129 used to describe set of circumstances 129 imperfect subjunctive tense 99, 100 impersonal expressions 164 impersonal verbs 164 implorer 292 important, il est 150 importe, peu 150 imposer 298 impossibiliteĢ 290 impossible, il est 150, 164 improbable, il est 150 impuissance 281 inadmissible, il est 150 incapable 288 incapaciteĢ 290 incineĢrer 176 inciter 283 incliner 283 inclure 176 indefinite article 247, 248, 249, 250 des ā de before adjective before noun 259 de with negative expressions 260 de with quantifiers 259 indefinite determiners 272 indefinite expressions requiring subjunctive 152 indefinite pronouns 245, 246 indicative mood 6, 124ā143, 167ā170 sāindigner 149, 292, 294 indirect questions 481 treatment of oui ā non questions 481 treatment of question word questions 481 use of si 481 āine 181 ineĢvitable, il est 150 infeĢrer 176 infinitive 1, 4, 11, 180 aĢ + infinitive 310 de + infinitive 344 linked to adjective by aĢ 279, 280 linked to infinitive by de 288, 289 linked to noun by aĢ 281, 282 linked to noun by de 290, 291 linked to verb by aĢ 283ā285 linked to verb by de 292, 293 position of pronouns 213 used as alternative to imperative 122 with negation 416 infliger 176 informer 295 āing 180 innombrable 204 (sā)inquieĢter 176, 292, 294 Index inscrire 176 insistance 352 insister 149, 283, 301 sāinspirer 294 instruire 176 intelligemment 398 interceĢder 176 interdire 150, 176, 292, 298 inteĢreĢt 281 il y a inteĢreĢt 150 (sā)inteĢresser 283 inteĢreĢt 281 interfeĢrer 176 interpreĢter 176 interrogatives 470ā482 direct questions 470ā480 indirect questions 481 interrogative sentences 444, 448, 470 oui ā non questions 470ā475 ā see also oui ā non questions questions introduced by question word 470, 476ā482 with negation 416 interrompre 176 intervenir 176 intonation with exclamative sentences 483 with oui ā non questions 473 with question word questions 476 intransitive verbs 63 introduire 176 inversion in declarative clauses 469 after certain adverbs 469 after initial complement of subject 469 for stylistic purposes 469 in relative clauses 469 with oui ā non questions 472 with question word questions 476 with rester and venir 469 inverted commas 484 inviter 283 invraisemblable, il est 150 sāirriter 283 āise 181 islands names of + zero article 252 prepositions + names of 393 āisme 180 it anticipatory English it not translated 230 jaillir 176 jamais 402, 415, 430 ne . . . jamais 423 with imperative 423 with infinitive 423 without ne 423 with sans 423 plus jamais 430 jaunir 176 je 200 jeter 18, 44, 92, 118, 167, 171, 176 jeune 203 joindre 83, 176 joliment 398 jouer 301, 390 jouir 27, 176, 294 juger 2176, 294, 301 jurer 292 jusquāaĢ 274, 370 jusquāaĢ ce que 148, 465 juste, il est 150 juste adjective 440 juste adverb 405 la definite article 248, 249 la personal pronoun 200 laĢ 237, 238, 400 lacer 176 laisser 278 lancer 176 languages gender of names of 180 names of + zero article 253 laquelle 464 leĢcher 176 le definite article 248, 249 + aĢ / de ā au / du 249 leĢger 203 le in comparisons 200 le personal pronoun 208, 211 referring to previously expressed concept 229 le long de 247, 371 lent 279 lequel interrogative pronoun 477 relative pronoun 464 lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles 464 les definite article 248, 249 les personal pronoun 208, 211 leur personal pronoun 208, 211 leur possessive adjective 267, 271 leur possessive pronoun 240, 241 se lever 103, 104 libeĢrer 176, 295 libre 288 librement 398 lieu de, au 247, 325 se limiter 283 lire 35, 56, 59, 84, 169, 173, 176 livre 184 loger 176 loin 400 long 202, 204 long de, le 247, 371 longtemps 402 lors de 247, 372 lorsque 133, 465 louer 292 lui 208, 211 luire 176 ma 247, 267, 268 magnifique 204 maigrir 176 maintenant 402 maintenir 176 417 Index maire 184 mais 452 majeure partie 244 majoriteĢ 242 major sentences 445, 447ā451 mal 398, 409 malgreĢ 274, 373 malgreĢ que 148, 457 malheureusement 413 malmener 176 manche 184 manieĢre, dāune 394 manieĢre aĢ, de 274, 347 manieĢre aĢ ce que / que, de 148 manger 20, 44, 56, 75, 76, 92, 118, 167, 171, 176 manner clauses 455, 461 manoeuvre 184 manquer 274, 286, 292, 294, 301 marre, en avoir 235, 292 marrer 294 mass nouns 188 maudire 176 mauvais, plus 199 me 208, 211, 228 meĢchant 203 meĢconnaıĢtre 176 meĢcontent 288 eĢtre 149 meĢdire 176, 294 meĢditer 292 se meĢfier 294 meilleur 199 meĢlanger 176 se meĢler 286, 292, 301 meĢme 203, 405 de meĢme que 461 meĢmoire 184 menacer 176, 292, 295 mener 19, 48, 56, 92, 167, 171, 176, 276 āment 180 mentir 176 mer 184 merci 184, 411 meĢre 184 meĢriter 292 mes 247, 267, 271 mesure ouĢ, dans la 458 metals gender of names of 180 āmeĢtre 180 (se) mettre 33, 83, 169, 173, 176, 283 mi 193 mien 240, 241 mieux 409 mille 433 millier 437 million 433 minerals gender of names of 180 minor sentences 445, 446 a phrase 446 a single word 446 a subordinate clause 446 418 minoriteĢ 242 modal verbs 159ā163, 276 mode 184 modeste 204 moi 208 moindre 199 moins de, aĢ 274, 316 moins in comparison 199, 201, 209, 390, 405, 409 moins in superlative 151, 409 moins pronoun 242 moins que, aĢ 148, 458 mollement 298 mon 247, 267, 271 before feminine noun beginning with vowel 267 monter 63, 276 months 441 gender of names of 180 mood 1, 6, 115ā158, 167ā174 se moquer 294 mordre 176 mort 184 mou / mol 195 mourir 28, 52, 56, 59, 63, 67, 69, 71, 73, 80, 168, 172, 176 mouvoir 56 moyens, les 290 munir 176 nager 176 naıĢtre 60, 63, 176 naturel, il est 150 naturellement 413 neĢanmoins 413 ne as negative particle 415ā426, 429, 430 expletive ne 417 ne alone 417 with cesser 417 with nāavoir de cesse 417 with nāimporte qui / quoi 417 with pouvoir 417 with si ce nāest 417 ne . . . pas 416 omission of ne 431 neĢcessaire, il est 150 neĢcessiteĢ 290 negation 465ā431 expletive ne 417 multiple negators 430 ne alone 417 with cesser 417 with nāavoir de cesse 417 with nāimporte qui / quoi 417 with pouvoir 417 with si ce nāest 417 ne . . . aucun 420 ne . . . gueĢre 422, 430 ne . . . jamais 423, 430 ā see also ne . . . jamais ne . . . nul 421 ne . . . pas 416 separated from verb by adverb 416 with imperative 416 with indefinite article 416 with infinitive 416 Index with interrogative 416 with present participle 416 with verb 415, 416 ne . . . (pas) . . . ni . . . ni 426 ne . . . personne 418, 430 ne . . . plus 424, 430 ā see also ne . . . plus ne . . . que 425, 430 ne . . . rien 419, 430 ā see also ne . . . rien non 428 omission of ne 431 pas alone 427 . . . pas non plus 429 plus jamais 430 neĢgliger 176, 292 ne . . . gueĢre 422 neiger 176 ne in comparisons 200 ne . . . jamais 423 with imperative 423 with infinitive 423 without ne 423 with sans 423 nāen plus pouvoir 233, 424 ne . . . nul 421 ne . . . pas 416 separated from verb by adverb 416 with imperative 416 with indefinite article 416 with infinitive 416 with interrogative 416 with present participle 416 with verb 415, 416 ne . . . (pas) . . . ni . . . ni 426 with ne . . . aucun 426 with ne . . . plus 426 without a verb 426 ne . . . personne 418 ne . . . plus 424 with infinitive 424 ne . . . que 148, 425 ne . . . que + pas 425 ne . . . rien 419 rien as noun 419 rien de 419 rien que 419 nāest-ce pas 472 nettoyer 176 ni 452 nier 150, 276 nāimporte comment 245, 246 nāimporte lequel 245, 246 nāimporte ouĢ 245, 246 nāimporte qui 245, 246 ni . . . ni, ne . . . (pas) 426 with ne . . . aucun 426 with ne . . . plus 426 without a verb 426 noircir 176 nombre 242 non 411, 428 mais non 428 nonchalamment 398 non pas que 148 non plus, pas 429 non que 148 normal, il est 150 nos 247, 267, 271 notre 247, 267, 271 noĢtre 240, 241 noun clauses 455, 462 nouns 177ā192 abstract nouns 188 collective nouns 188 compound nouns 187 ā see also compound nouns count nouns 188 forming plural of nouns 189 gender of nouns 178ā187 irregular plurals 189 linked to infinitive by aĢ 281, 282 linked to verb by aĢ 286, 287 mass nouns 188 noun as complement of subject or object 177 noun as indirect object 177 noun as prepositional expression 177 noun as subject 177 nouns and number 188ā192 plural of compound nouns 190 plural of foreign nouns 189 nous 208, 211, 228 nouveau / nouvel 195 noyer 176 nu 193 nuire 176, 286 nul, ne . . . 421 number 186ā192, 196 adjectives 196 ā see also adjectives contrast between singular and plural usage in French 192 different usages of number in English and French 191 nouns 188ā192 ā see also nouns numbers cardinal numbers 432ā438, 442 ā see also cardinal numbers approximate numbers 437 fractions and decimals 438 pronunciation of cinq, six, huit, neuf, dix, cent 435 use of figures to express cardinal numbers 436 with titles 442 ordinal numbers 402, 432, 439, 440, 444 with fois 444 with Parisian districts 444 numerals 432ā444 āo 180 obeĢir 176, 286 obligation 290 obliger 285 sāobstiner 283 obtenir 176 occasion 290 sāoccuper 283, 292, 294, 301 āoeu 189 oeuvre 185 419 Index sāoffenser 294 (sā)offrir 176, 283, 292 āoi 180 āoir 180 omettre 176, 292 on 200, 224 its various values 224 on and agreement 197, 225 on and its other forms 226 on and possessive adjective 268 used to avoid passive 114, 224 opeĢrer 176 opportuniteĢ, il y a 150 or 413 ordinal numbers 402, 432, 439 ordonner 149, 292, 298 sāorner 294 oser 276 oĢter 295 ou 197, 452 āou 180, 189 ouĢ 412, 464, 465, 476, 479 ouĢ que 152 oublier 292 sāoublier 283 oui 411 mais oui 411 oui ā non questions 470ā476 elliptical oui ā non questions 475 treatment of oui ā non questions in indirect questions 481 with est-ce que 473 with intonation 473 with inversion of subject and verb 472 with nāest-ce pas 472 with ātā with pronouns 472 ouıĢr 165 ouĢ que 152 āour 180 ouvertement 298 ouvrir 59, 67, 71, 73, 118, 168, 172, 176 page 184 paire 184 paĢlir 176 par 274, 275, 374, 390, 391 par erreur 398 parachever 176 paradoxal, il est 150 paraıĢt, il 164 paraıĢtre 176, 276 parce que 456 par conseĢquent 413 par contre 413 parcourir 176 par-dessous 274, 375, 400 par-dessus 274, 376 pardonner 286, 292, 298 (se) parer 286, 294 parfois 402 parler 292 parmi 274, 377 par suite de 274, 378 420 part ā dāune part . . . de lāautre part 413 partager 176 part de, de la 274 parti 184 participer 286 participles 56ā61 past participles 58ā61 agreement with preceding direct object 214 present participles 56, 57 with negation 416 particulieĢrement 405 partie 184 partir 12, 13, 14, 25, 44, 56, 59, 63, 67, 69, 71, 73, 78, 90, 168, 172, 176, 276, 294 partitive article 247, 248 de with negative expressions 260, 416 partout 400 parvenir 176, 283 pas, ne . . . 416 pas alone 427 passer 63 se passer 294 passer son temps 283 passive voice 106, 110ā114 avoiding the passive voice 114, 224 formation of passive voice 112 past anterior 88ā90, 133 used in time clauses 133 past historic 74ā87, 130 used in formal circumstances 130 used in written French 130 past tenses 128ā134 pauvre 203 payer 176 peau 184 peĢcher 176 peindre 176 peine, aĢ 405, 469 peine, ce nāest pas la 150 pendant 274, 379, 390 pendant que 465 pendre 176 pendule 184 peĢneĢtrer 176 penser 150, 233, 276, 286, 294, 301 percer 176 percevoir 176 perdre 31, 82, 169, 173, 176 perdre son temps 283 peĢre 184 perfect indicative tense 66, 67, 131 used to refer to time in past 131 perfect subjunctive tense 101, 102, 146, 147, 158 periods of time 441 peĢrir 176 permettre 149, 176, 292, 298 permission 290 perpeĢtrer 176 perseĢveĢrer 283 persistence 281 persister 283 person 1, 5 personal pronouns 206ā236 Index ce and il 219 with reference to persons 219 elision 209 first person 208, 215, 227 stressed 231ā233 forms 208 objects 227 position 210, 211 position with imperative 212 position with infinitive 213 position with voici, voilaĢ 213 second person 208, 216, 227 stressed 231ā233 stressed pronouns 231ā233 third person 208, 217, 227 differences between French and English usages 218 stressed 231ā233 personne 415, 430 ne . . . personne 418 persuader 292, 295, 298 peser 176 petit, plus 199 peu 242, 259, 405, 409 peu, un 259, 405 peu importe 150 peu probable, il est 150 peu que, pour 148, 458 peur 290 avoir 149, 294 peur de, de 274, 346 peur que, de 148, 149 peut, il se 150 peut-eĢtre 161, 411, 469 phrase as minor sentence 446 physique 184 pile 440 pincer 176 se piquer 292 pire 199 pis 398, 409 placer 176 (se) plaindre 103, 104, 149, 176, 292 (se) plaire 176, 283, 286 plaisir 290 pleuvoir 42, 55, 56, 61, 87, 170, 174, 176 se plier 283 plonger 176 ployer 176 plupart 242, 244 pluperfect indicative tense 68, 69, 132 used to express event of period which has taken place before another in the past 132 pluperfect subjunctive tense 101, 102 plus, ne . . . 424, 430 plus jamais 430 with infinitive 424 plus, . . . pas non 429 plus grande partie 244 plus in comparisons 199, 201, 259, 390, 405, 409 plus in superlative 151, 199, 409 plus pronoun 242 plus que, dāautant 459 plutoĢt 398, 405, 413 poeĢle 184 poids 184 point, ne . . . 416 point que, aĢ tel 459 pois 184 poix 184 polir 176 politique 184 porter 14, 16, 44, 47, 56, 59, 67, 69, 71, 73, 76, 90, 91, 99, 100, 118, 167, 171 possessive adjectives 247, 265, 267ā271 with parts of the body 255 possessive determiners 267ā271 forms 217 possessive pronouns 240, 241 forms 240 possible, il est 150, 164 poste 184 pot 184 pour 274, 380, 390 pour peu que 148, 458 pour que 148, 460 pourquoi 412, 476, 479 poursuivre 176 pourtant 413 pourvoir 176 pourvu que 148, 458 pousser 283 pouvoir 12, 42, 44, 55, 56, 61, 67, 69, 71, 73, 87, 90, 98, 100, 150, 161, 170, 174, 176, 276 nāen pouvoir plus 235 preĢceĢdemment 402 preĢcipitamment 398 preĢcis 440 preĢdire 176 preĢfeĢrable, il est 150 preĢfeĢrer 149, 176 premier 155 premieĢrement 402 (se) prendre 37, 56, 60, 67, 71, 73, 83, 169, 173, 176, 283, 301 prendre garde 292 prendre part 286 prendre plaisir 283 preĢpareĢ 279 se preĢparer 283 prepositional alternation 391 prepositional expressions 302ā393 prepositions 273ā393 effect of varying prepositions 390 interlocking of English and French prepositions 392 prepositions and place names 393 prepositions which link 275ā301 verbs with variable prepositional usage 300, 301 zero preposition 276ā278 preĢs 400 prescrire 176 preĢs de 274, 381 preĢsent 203 421 Index present indicative tense 15ā42, 125ā128, 142 of āer verbs 16ā21 to express continuous time 126 to express future time 127, 136 to express habitual time 125 to express past time 127 to express universal time 125 used to describe events happening at the present moment 125 present subjunctive tense 91ā98, 146, 147 presque 405, 406 (se) presser 292 preĢt 279 preĢtendre 176, 276 preĢter 298 preĢvenir 176, 295 prier 292 principal 204 probable, il est 164 probable, il est peu 150, 164 probablement 411 prochain 200, 253 prochainement 402 products, names of + zero article 253 produire 176 profiter 294 projeter 176, 292 prolonger 176 promener 176 promettre 176, 292 prompt 279 pronominal verbs 55, 103ā109 agreement of past participles 105, 108 compound tenses 104ā106, 108 forming the imperative 120 used to avoid passive voice 114 variable values 106 prononcer 176 pronouns 206ā246 demonstrative pronouns 237ā239 ā see also demonstrative pronouns impersonal pronoun on 114 ā see also on indefinite pronouns 242, 245, 246 object pronouns and imperative 123 personal pronouns 207ā236 ā see also personal pronouns possessive pronouns 240, 241 ā see also possessive pronouns quantifying pronouns 242 reflexive pronoun 106ā108, 228 (se) proposer 292 propre 203, 279 proscrire 176 proteĢger 176 puis 413 puisque 456 punctuation 484 capital letters 484 with book titles 484 with names of countries 484 with names of nationality 484 with names of organisations 484 with professional names and official titles 484 422 colons and commas 484 inverted commas / guillemets 484 punir 176 pur 203 quand 133, 412, 453, 465, 476, 479 quand meĢme 413 quant aĢ 274, 382 quantifiers 259 quantifying pronouns 242, 243 quantiteĢ 242 quart 438 que in exclamative sentences 483 que interrogative pronoun 476, 477, 481 que relative pronoun 464 que = which 464 que = whom 464 que subordinating conjunction 462 introducing clause requiring subjunctive 152 replacing si 458 que, ce 464, 482 que, ne . . ., 425, 430 que de 483 quel 254, 476, 478 in exclamative sentences 483 quel . . . que 153, 457 quelque 153 quelquefois 402 quelque que 153 que . . . ou 148, 458 quāest-ce que 477, 481 exclamative sentences with quāest-ce que 463 quāest-ce qui 477 question, il est 164 questions 470ā482 direct questions 470ā480 elliptical questions without question word but suggesting one 480 indirect questions 481 oui ā non questions 470ā475 questions introduced by question word 470, 476ā482 treatment of question word in indirect questions 481 with ellipsis 476 with est-ce que 476 with intonation 476 with inversion 476 rhetorical questions 482 question words 476ā479 qui, ce 464, 481 qui interrogative pronoun 476, 477 qui after preposition 477 qui object 477 qui subject 477 quinzaine 437 qui que 152, 245 qui relative pronoun 464 qui after preposition 464 qui subject = which 464 qui subject = who 464 quoi, de 464 quoi interrogative pronoun 477 Index quoi que 152, 457 quoique 148, 457 quoi qui 152, 457 racheter 176 rafraıĢchir 176 rage 290 rager 176 raison 290 rajeunir 176 rallonger 176 ramener 176 ranger 176 rapide 204 (se) rappeler 176, 276 rare, il est 150 ravi 288 ravir 176 rayer 176 reĢcemment 402 recevoir 40, 44, 55, 56, 61, 67, 69, 71, 73, 87, 90, 97, 99, 100, 102, 118, 170, 174, 176 recommander 292 reconnaissant 288 reconnaıĢtre 176, 276 recours, avoir 233 recouvrir 176 recueillir 176 reĢdiger 176 redouter 149, 292 reĢduire 176 reĢfeĢrer 176 reĢfleĢchir 176 refleĢter 176 reflexive pronouns 106ā108 (se) refuser 149, 283, 292 regarder 278 regions prepositions + names of 393 regret 281 regretter 149, 292 reĢiteĢrer 176 rejeter 176 se reĢjouir 149, 176, 283, 292 relative clauses 453, 464, 468 following superlative requiring subjunctive 151 reluire 176 remeĢdier 286 remercier 292, 295 remplacer 176 remplir 176 renoncer 176, 283, 286 renouveler 176 rentrer 63, 276 renvoyer 176 reĢpandre 176 reĢpartir 176 se repentir 176, 292 reĢpeĢter 176 reĢpondre 31, 82, 169, 173, 176, 286, 294, 301 reprendre 176 reprocher 298 reproduire 176 reĢpugnance 281 reĢpugner 283, 286 requeĢrir 176 reĢserve que, sous 148 se reĢsigner 283 reĢsister 286 reĢsolu 279 (se) reĢsoudre 176, 283, 292 responsable 288 ressembler 286 ressentir 176 rester 63, 469 retard 281 en retard 402, 403 (se) retenir 176, 292 retourner 54, 276 reĢunir 176 reĢussir 176, 283 (se) reĢveĢler 176, 276 revenir 176, 276 reĢver 233, 292 rhetorical questions 482 richement 398 rien, ne . . . 419, 430 rien as noun 419 rien de 419 rien que 419 rire 32, 83, 169, 173, 176, 294 risqueĢ 290 (se) risquer 150, 283, 292 rompre 32, 56, 59, 82, 95, 169, 173, 176 rougir 176, 292 sa 267 saillir 176 saisir 176, 294 sale 203 salir 176 sans 274, 383 sans attendre 398 sans aucun doute 411 sans doute 410 sans que 148 satisfaire 176 satisfait 288 eĢtre 149 sauf 274, 384 savoir 42, 55, 57, 61, 87, 98, 119, 162, 170, 174, 176, 276 savoir greĢ 298 āscope 180 se 208, 211, 228 seasons gender of names of 180 names of + zero article 253 seĢcher 176 secourir 176 seĢduire 176 sel 184 selle 184 selon 274, 385 semble, il 150, 164 indicative vs subjunctive 150 423 Index sembler 276 semer 176 sensible 279 sentences 443ā452 normal structure of a sentence 443 sentences in speech 443 sentences in writing 443 sentence structure 445ā451 major sentences 447: simple sentences 448; declarative 448; exclamative 448; imperative 448; interrogative 448; complex sentences 450; compound sentences 449; compound-complex sentences 451 minor sentences 445, 446 sentence types 444 declarative sentences 444 exclamative sentences 444 imperative sentences 444 interrogative sentences 444 sentir 176, 278 sequence of tenses 140, 141 (se) servir 176, 283, 286, 294, 301 ses 267 seul 155, 203 seulement 413 shrubs gender of names of 180 si adverb of affirmation 410 si adverb of degree 405 si conjunction 453, 458 replaced by que 458 si . . . que 459 use of si in indirect questions 481 sien 240, 241 similes as adverbs of manner 398 simple 203 simple sentence 447, 448 declarative 448 exclamative 448 imperative 448 interrogative 448 simple tenses 14 simuler 292 āsion 181 si . . . que 409 soi 208 soit 487 soit que . . . ou / soit que 148 solde 184 solidement 398 somme 184 son 247, 267 before feminine noun beginning with vowel 267 possible ambiguity 269 the son series ā its values 268 songer 176, 233, 283, 286 sonnant 440 sorte que, de 148, 460 sortir 63, 176, 276, 294 se soucier 292 soudain 402 souffrir 176 424 souhaiter 149, 276 soulager 176 soulever 176 soumettre 176 soupcĢ§onner 292 soupeser 176 sourire 176 sous 256, 274, 386, 391 souscrire 176 sous reĢserve que 148 soutenir 176 se souvenir 103, 104, 176, 292, 294 souvent 402 stem 14 stylistic effect 257, 468 subir 176 subjunctive mood 6, 91ā102, 124, 144ā158, 171ā174 circumstances requiring subjunctive 148ā153 circumstances that may require subjunctive 154ā158 uses 144ā158 subordinate clauses 454ā466 subordinate clause as minor sentence 446 types of subordinate clauses 455 causal clauses 455, 456 concessive clauses 455, 457 conditional clauses 455, 458 consecutive clauses 455, 459 declarative clauses 466ā468 final clauses 455, 460 manner clauses 455, 461 noun clauses 455, 462 relative clauses 464 time clauses 465 subvenir 176, 286 succeĢder 176, 286 suffire 176, 286, 292 suggeĢrer 176, 292, 298 suite de, par 274, 378 suivant 274, 387 suivre 60, 176 superlative of adjectives 199 superlative of adverbs 409 superlative without plus or moins perhaps requiring subjunctive 155 superlative with plus or moins requiring subjunctive 151 supplier 292 supporter 292 supposant que 148 supposeĢ que 148, 481 supposeĢ que, aĢ 148 sur 274, 388, 390, 391 suĢr 288 il nāest pas suĢr 150 surgir 176 sur-le-champ 402 surprendre 176, 283 surpris, eĢtre 149 survivre 286 surprendre 176 Index ātā use of ātā with pronouns 472 ta 267, 271 taĢcher 292 taire 59, 176 tandis que 465 tant 259, 405, 408 tant que 465 tant . . . que 459 taon 184 tard 402, 403 tarder 283, 298, il me tarde 298, 301 te 208, 211, 228 āteĢ 181 tel 459 teĢleĢphoner 286, 292 tellement 405, 408 tellement . . . que 459 tel point que, aĢ 459 tel . . . que 459 teĢmoigner 294 temps 290 il est 150, 164 tendance 281 tendre 176, 283 tenir 27, 52, 56, 59, 79, 176, 233, 283, 301 sāen tenir 283 tenses 1, 7ā176 compound tenses of pronominal verbs 104ā106, 108 compound tenses of simple verbs 62ā73 conditional perfect tense 72, 73, 139, 141, 158 in reported speech 139 to refer to events that might have taken place 139 used to express uncertainty 139 conditional tense 45ā55, 138, 141 in main clause of sentence with conditional clause 138 in reported speech 138 used to express uncertainty 138 differences between French and English usages 140 sequence of tenses 140, 141 with depuis, il y a, voici, voilaĢ 140, 142 with venir de 143 double compound past tense 134 future perfect tense 70, 71, 137, 141 future tense 45ā55, 135, 136, 141 to refer to future events 135 used as alternative to imperative 122, 135 imperfect indicative tense 43, 44, 129, 142 to express duration of time 129 to express period of time 129 to express repeated or habitual action 129 used to describe set of circumstances 129 imperfect subjunctive tense 99, 100 past anterior 88ā90, 133 used in time clauses 133 past historic 74ā87, 130 used in formal circumstances 130 used in written French 130 past tenses 128ā134 perfect indicative tense 66, 67, 131 used to refer to time in past 131 perfect subjunctive tense 101, 102, 146, 147, 158 pluperfect indicative tense 68, 69, 132 used to express event or period which has taken place before another in the past 132 pluperfect subjunctive tense 101, 102 present indicative tense 15ā42, 125ā128, 142 of āer verbs 16ā21 of āir verbs 22ā28 of āoir verbs 38ā42 of āre verbs 29ā37 to express continuous time 126 to express future time 127, 134 to express habitual time 125 to express past time 127 to express universal time 125 used to describe events happening at the present moment 125 present subjunctive tense 91ā98, 146, 147 sequence of tenses in subjunctive mood 145ā147 simple tenses 14 tense formation 14 tenter 292 terminer 301 terrible 204 terriblement 405 tes 267, 271 tien 240, 241 tiers 438 time 440 telling the time 440 approximately 440 half past the hour 440 other times 440 precisely 440 quarter past and quarter to the hour 440 the hour 440 time clauses 453, 465 ātion 181 titles 442 with an article 256 toi 216 tomber 63 ton 267 ton noun 184 ton possessive adjective 267, 271 before feminine noun beginning with vowel 267 tordre 176 tort 290 tort, aĢ 298 toĢt 402 totalement 405 toujours 402, 403 tour 184 tout 250, 272, 405, 406 tout droit 398 425 Index tout aĢ coup 402 tout aĢ lāheure 402 tout de suite 402 toutefois 413 tracer 176 traduire 176 trahir 176 traire 165 traiter 295 tranquillement 398 transcrire 176 transfeĢrer 176 transitive verbs 65 travailler 283 travers de, aĢ 274, 319 travers de, au 274 trees gender of names of 180 trentaine 437 treĢs 405 tressaillir 176 triompher 294 triste 203 triste, eĢtre 149 se tromper 294 trop 259, 406, 406, 409 trouver 150 tu 208, 216, 267 ātude 181 tutoyer 176 -ueil 180 un/une 248, 249 unanime 279 unanimement 398 unir 176 un peu 259, 405 āure 181 sāuser 283 utile 279 utilisant toutes ses forces, en 398 utiliser 283 vague 184 vaillamment 398 vaincre 59, 176 valoir 42, 55, 56, 61, 87, 170, 174, 176 valoir mieux 276 se vanter 292, 294 vapeur 184 vase 184 vegetables gender of names of 181 veiller 149, 283 vendre 14, 31, 44, 53, 56, 59, 67, 69, 71, 73, 82, 90, 95, 99, 100, 102, 118, 169, 173, 176 venger 176 venir 27, 52, 59, 63, 79, 94, 118, 168, 172, 176, 301, 469 venir de 143, 292 verbs 1ā176 426 Group 1 āer verbs 13, 15ā21, 44, 47ā49, 56, 59, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 76, 90, 91ā93, 99, 100, 102, 167, 168, 171 conditional tense 47: radical stem variation in conditional 49 conditional perfect 73 future tense 47: radical stem variation in future 49 future perfect 71 imperfect indicative tense 44 imperfect subjunctive tense 99, 100 past anterior 90 past historic 75, 76 past participles 59 perfect indicative tense 69 perfect subjunctive tense 102 pluperfect indicative tense 69 pluperfect subjunctive tense 102 present participles 56 present indicative tense 15ā21 present subjunctive tense 91ā93 Subgroup 1 18 verbs in āeler 18, 48 verbs in āeter 18, 48 Subgroup 2 19, 48 verbs with e or eĢ in stem 19 Subgroup 3 20 commencer / manger 20 subgroup 4 21 aller 21, 49 Group 2 āir verbs 13, 22ā28, 44, 50ā52, 56, 59, 67, 69, 79, 73, 77ā80, 90, 91, 94, 99, 100, 102, 168, 171 conditional tense 50ā52 conditional perfect 73 future tense 50ā52 future perfect 71 imperfect indicative tense 44 imperfect subjunctive tense 99,100 past anterior 90 past historic 77ā80 past participles 59 perfect indicative tense 67 perfect subjunctive tense 102 pluperfect indicative tense 69 pluperfect subjunctive tense 102 present participles 56 present indicative tense 22ā28 present subjunctive tense 91, 94 Subgroup 1 24, 51, 77 finir 24 Subgroup 2 25, 52, 80 courir / partir / dormir 25 Subgroup 3 26, 77 cueillir 26 Subgroup 4 27, 79 tenir / venir 27 Group 3 āre verbs 13, 29ā37, 44, 53ā54, 56, 59, 60, 67, 69, 71, 73, 81ā84, 90, 91, 95, 96, 99, 100, 169, 173 conditional tense 53, 54 conditional perfect 73 Index future tense 53, 54 future perfect 71 imperfect indicative tense 44 imperfect subjunctive tense 99, 100 past anterior 90 past historic 81ā84 past participles 59, 60 perfect indicative tense 67 perfect subjunctive tense 00 pluperfect indicative tense 69 pluperfect subjunctive tense 00 present participles 56 present indicative tense 29ā37 present subjunctive tense 91, 95, 96 Subgroup 1 31 vendre / perdre / reĢpondre 31 Subgroup 2 32 rompre / rire / conclure 32 Subgroup 3 33 battre / mettre 22 Subgroup 4 34 croire 34 Subgroup 5 35 lire / conduire 35 Subgroup 6 36 eĢcrire 36 Subgroup 7 37 boire / craindre / dire / faire / prendre / vivre / eĢtre 37 Group 4 āoir verbs 13, 38ā42, 44, 55, 56, 61, 67, 69, 71, 73, 85ā87, 90, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 170, 174 conditional tense 55 conditional perfect 73 future tense 55 future perfect 71 imperfect indicative tense 44 imperfect subjunctive tense 99, 100 past anterior 90 past historic 85ā87 past participles 61 perfect indicative tense 67 perfect subjunctive tense 102 pluperfect indicative tense 69 pluperfect subjunctive tense 102 present participles 56 present indicative tense 38ā42 present subjunctive tense 97, 98 Subgroup 1 40 āecevoir 40 Subgroup 2 41 voir 41 Subgroup 3 42 asseoir / avoir / devoir / falloir / pleuvoir / pouvoir / savoir / valoir / vouloir 42 defective verbs 165 followed by two nouns, second with de 296, 297 impersonal verbs 164 intransitive verbs 63 linked to infinitive by aĢ 283ā285 linked to infinitive by de 292, 293 linked to noun by aĢ 286, 287 linked to noun by de 295, 296 modal verbs 159ā163 participles 56ā61 agreement of past participles with eĢtre 64 past participles 58, 59 present participles 56, 57 pronominal verbs 63, 103ā109 agreement of past participles 105, 108 forming the imperative 120 used to avoid passive voice 114 variable values 106 verbs and negation 415ā417 verbs with aĢ + noun and de + infinitive 298, 299 verbs with variable prepositional usage 300, 301 verbs with zero preposition 276ā278 verb stem 14 verb subgroups 26 vers 274, 389, 440 veĢtir 59, 176 vieillir 176 vieux / vieil 195 vingtaine 437 viser 283 vite 398 vitesse, aĢ grande 398 vivre 37, 56, 84, 169, 173, 176, 294 voice 106, 110ā114 avoiding the passive voice 114 formation of passive voice 112 voici 140, 142, 213 voilaĢ 140, 142, 213 voile 184 voir 41, 44, 56, 61, 86, 97, 156, 170, 174, 176, 278 volonteĢ 290 volontiers 398 vomir 176 vos 267, 270 votre 247, 267, 270 voĢtre 240, 241 vouloir 42, 55, 56, 61, 87, 98, 119, 149, 163, 170, 174, 176, 276 en vouloir 235, 298 used as alternative to imperative 122, 163 vous 208, 211, 216, 228, 267 vouvoyer 176 voyager 176 vrai 203 vrai, il est 164 il nāest pas 150 vraiment 405 vraisemblablement 409 vu que 456 weather 164 weights and measures gender of names of 180 wines gender of names of 180 427 Index word as clause 453 as minor sentence 446 word order in declarative clause 467, 468 y 211, 234, 236 equivalent of aĢ + noun 236 = there 236 428 years 441 zero article 248, 258 with adverbial expressions 256 with past participles 256 with prepositions 256 with set phrases 256 zero preposition 275ā278