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©2005 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume
pp. 891–930
Supplement to
Tectonic Setting, Geology, and Gold and Copper Mineralization in
Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific
STEVE GARWIN, ROBERT HALL, AND YASUSHI WATANABE
(Note: Figure and table numbers correspond to those cited in the printed part of the paper)
APPENDIX 1
Descriptions of the Geologic Settings and Mineral Deposit Styles for
Major Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific
Southwestern Kuril
intrusions and domes of the Miocene bimodal assemblage.
The host rocks of these deposits are Cretaceous to Paleogene
sedimentary rocks and Miocene sedimentary and volcanic
rocks. These deposits occur mainly as gold-bearing quartzadularia veins in the east-northeasterly strike-slip faults,
whereas some of them are disseminated in the host rocks
(Watanabe, 1995). The timing of the epithermal gold mineralization ranges from 14 to 4 Ma, with a hiatus from 12 to 8
Ma, which corresponds to the period of the backarc basin volcanism. A few 3 to 1.5 Ma low-sulfidation gold deposits are
also located near the present andesitic volcanic front (Yahata
et al., 1999). Representative deposits in northeast Hokkaido
are Konomai (73.2 t Au, 1,243 t Ag), Sanru (6.7 t Au, 46.4 t
Ag), and Itomuka (3,086 t Hg).
Small volcanic islands in the middle and northeastern parts
of the Kuril arc have not been well explored. The middle and
northeastern parts contain polymetallic base metal vein-type
prospects of middle and late Miocene age, which are associated with intrusive rocks (Ishihara, 1994).
Geologic setting: The Miocene to Recent Kuril magmatic
arc extends approximately 2,200 km from the northeastern
Kamchatka peninsula to southwestern Hokkaido, where it
connects to the Aleutian and northeastern Japan arcs, respectively (Fig. 11; Table 1). The southwestern portion of the
Kuril arc is associated with the Kuril backarc basin, which
formed before the middle Miocene, due to northeast-southwest rifting (Baranov et al., 2002). The basement rocks of the
southwestern Kuril arc consist of a Mesozoic accretionary
complex with a cover of Cretaceous and Paleogene sedimentary rocks. Eocene to middle Miocene ilmenite-series granitoids intrude the basement rocks (Ishihara et al., 1998). The
volcanism of the southwestern Kuril arc has changed from
middle Miocene andesitic activity to middle to late Miocene
bimodal basalt and rhyolite, including a period from 12 to 8
Ma with basalt-only volcanism. The andesitic and bimodal
volcanic activity migrated trenchward during the middle
Miocene (Watanabe, 1995). The middle to late Miocene bimodal and basalt-only volcanism occurred mainly in a northsouth–trending graben perpendicular to the arc trend
(Watanabe, 1995). The basalts of the Miocene bimodal assemblage changed from island-arc type at 13 to 11 Ma to
backarc basin basalt at 9 to 7 Ma and again changed into island-arc type at 5 to 4 Ma (Ikeda et al., 2000). Since the
Pliocene, bimodal volcanism in the backarc has disappeared
and andesitic volcanic activity at the volcanic front has become dominant. This Plio-Pleistocene activity was associated
with formation of calderas several to ten kilometers in diameter, which erupted large amounts of felsic ignimbrite (Ikeda,
1991).
East-northeasterly trending right-lateral strike-slip faults
were active during the late middle Miocene nearby the volcanic front of the southwestern Kuril arc due to oblique subduction of the Pacific plate (Watanabe, 1995). This fault
movement led to the westward migration and collision of the
Kuril forearc sliver with the northeastern Japan arc at southern Hokkaido, forming the present concave joint between the
Kuril and northeastern Japan arcs (Kimura et al., 1983).
Mineral deposit styles: More than 40 low-sulfidation epithermal gold and mercury deposits and prospects are distributed in northeast Hokkaido at the southwestern Kuril arc
(Fig. 11, App. 2). They are associated mainly with rhyolitic
Japan (northeastern and southwestern)
Geologic setting: The Japan arc extends approximately
1,800 km from southwest Hokkaido to north Kyushu, where
it connects to the Kuril and Ryukyu arcs, respectively (Fig.
11; Table 1). The arc has a concave configuration toward the
Pacific Ocean, consisting of a north-trending northeast segment and east-trending southwest segment. Presently these
segments are bounded by a major fault zone (ItoigawaShizuoka tectonic line), which also marks the boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates (Uyeda,
1991). The Izu-Bonin arc is connected with the Japan arc
near the joint between the northeast and southwest segments,
and the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates subduct beneath the
northeast and southwest segments, respectively.
The basement rocks of the Japan arc consist of continental
blocks of Permian-Triassic gneiss (the Hida belt, central
Japan) and high pressure-temperature schist, and a Jurassic
accretionary complex (Isozaki, 1997a, b). Mesozoic and
Paleogene I-type granitoids related to oceanic plate subduction intruded into these basement rocks (Ishihara and Sasaki,
1991). The Japan arc was a part of the Eurasian continent
until latest Oligocene but was separated from the continent
due to backarc spreading mainly along the Japan and Yamato
basins during the early Miocene, with about 60º clockwise
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and counterclockwise rotation of the southwest and northeast
segments, respectively (Otofuji et al., 1985; Hoshi and Takahashi, 1999).
Since the early Miocene, arc volcanism has been active in
both segments. This volcanism is divided into rift-related activity including bimodal volcanism of basalt and rhyolite in
the backarc during the early-middle Miocene and subduction-related andesite-dacite activity during the late Miocene,
Pliocene, and Quaternary (Tsuchiya, 1990, Nakajima et al.,
1995; Kimura et al., 2003). Rift-related basaltic activity
occurred during the Plio-Pleistocene in northern Kyushu, at
the western end of the southwest segment of the Japan arc.
This rifting is related to the backarc spreading along the Okinawa trough (Kamata and Kodama, 1999).
The tectonic regime of the northeast segment of the arc
since the Miocene has changed from early to middle Miocene
extension, characterized by arc-parallel normal faulting with
rifted basins, to late Pliocene to Quaternary shortening with
arc-parallel thrusting and folding, through a late Miocene to
early Pliocene transitional regime without significant tectonic
deformation (Sato, 1994). The middle Miocene rifting and related bimodal volcanism is best developed in the middle part
of the northeast segment. Bimodal volcanism is not clear or
mixed with andesite-dacite volcanism in the northern and
southern margins of the northeast segment, where the Okhotsk
continental block and the Izu-Bonin arc have collided with
the Japan arc during the middle Miocene, respectively (Kimura
et al., 1983; Amano, 1991. East-northeasterly trending rightlateral strike-slip faulting occurred during the Pliocene in the
northern part of the northeast segment due to the westward
migration of the frontal Kuril arc (Watanabe, 1990).
Significant faulting and folding have not been recognized in
the southwest segment of the Japan arc during the Miocene
and Pliocene. Since the latest Pliocene, east-trending rightlateral strike-slip faulting has occurred along the Median tectonic line and other tectonic zones, as well as thrusting along
the north-northwest–trending Itoigawa-Shizuoka tectonic
ine. These tectonic movements are ascribed to the oblique
subduction of the Philippine Sea plate beneath the southwest
segment of the Japan arc (Itoh et al., 2002) and convergence
between the North American and Eurasian plates (Uyeda,
1991), respectively.
Mineral deposit styles: Metallic mineral deposits of the Japan
arc include middle Miocene Cu-Pb-Zn (-Ag-Au) Kuroko deposits and late Miocene to Pleistocene Cu-Pb-Zn and Au-Ag
epithermal deposits (Fig 10; Watanabe, 2002). About 70
Kuroko deposits, including massive gypsum and barite deposits, have been discovered in the 800-km-long northeast segment of the Japan arc (Sato, 1974). These deposits are associated with monogenetic rhyolite volcanism of the middle
Miocene backarc bimodal assemblage in a submarine environment. In spite of the wide distribution of the Kuroko deposits
in the northeast segment, economic deposits are limited to the
middle part of the segment. In particular, productive Kuroko
deposits cluster in submarine calderas in the Hokuroku district.
Representative deposits in the Hokuroku district are Hanaoka
(0.96 Mt Cu, 1.3 Mt Zn, 0.3 Mt Pb), Shakanai (0.1 Mt Cu, 0.3
Mt Zn, 0.1 Mt Pb), Kosaka (0.6 Mt Cu, 1.7 Mt Zn, 0.4 Mt Pb;
Ohmoto et al., 1983), and the gold-rich Nurukawa deposit (6.8
t Au, 123 t Ag + Zn + Pb + Cu).
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Some Kuroko-type gypsum deposits are distributed in the
backarc in the southwest segment of the Japan arc (Sato,
1974). An Re-Os age of the Wanibuchi deposit in the southwest segment, 18.4 ± 0.6 Ma (Terakado, 2001), is older than
the range of ages (15.4–12.4 Ma; Sawai and Itaya, 1993) for
Kuroko mineralization in the northeast segment, suggesting
that Kuroko-style settings occurred slightly earlier in the
southwest segment than in the northeast segment of the
Japan arc.
Some middle (or early) Miocene epithermal Au-Ag deposits occur in the northeast segment of the Japan arc and are
related to felsic volcanism (Watanabe, 2002). These include
the Sado deposit (72.7 t Au, 2,278 t Ag), which has characteristics of an intermediate-sulfidation type. Because different
sets of mineralization ages, 24.4 to 22.1 Ma (Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1987a) and 14.5 to 13.4 Ma
(Shikazono and Tsunakawa, 1982), are reported for the deposit, the relationship between the Kuroko and epithermal
mineralization is not clear.
Late Miocene to Pleistocene Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag epithermal and
Au-Ag epithermal deposits are mainly distributed in the
northeast segments of the Japan arc, associated with calc-alkaline andesite-dacite volcanism in a terrestrial environment.
These deposits are mostly of vein type and hosted by
transtensional faults. Although there are numerous mineral
prospects of late Miocene age, economic deposits were
mainly formed during the Pliocene or Pleistocene in an arc
setting (Watanabe, 2002). Epithermal deposits during this period are classified into intermediate- or high-sulfidation types,
but the high-sulfidation deposits are small (Watanabe, 2002).
Representative deposits are the Chitose intermediate-sulfidation (18 t Au, 83 t Ag), Teine high- and intermediate-sulfidation (9 t Au, 130 t Ag), Toyoha polymetallic epithermal (1.8
Mt Zn, 0.5 Mt Pb, 3,000 t Ag, 10 t Au), Takatama intermediate-sulfidation (28.7 t Au, 280 t Ag), and Ashio xenothermal
(0.6 Mt Cu) deposits.
An epithermal gold province occurs in northern Kyushu,
where backarc rifting along the Okinawa trough has extended
into the arc. The province contains about 20 low-sulfidation
deposits of Plio-Pleistocene age, associated with intermediate
to felsic volcanism in and around the Beppu-Shimabara
graben (Sawai and Nagao, 2003). These include the Taio deposit (36.0 t Au, 137 t Ag).
Izu-Bonin
Geologic setting: The north-trending Izu-Bonin arc extends
approximately 1,200 km from the Izu peninsula of Honshu Island to the Iwo-jima Islands at 25º N and 142º E in the Pacific
Ocean (Fig. 11; Table 1). This magmatic arc is situated along the
eastern margin of the Philippine Sea plate due to northwestward subduction of the Pacific plate. It connects to the Japan
arc in the north and the Mariana arc in the south. Rift grabens
exist in the backarc of the central portion of the Izu-Bonin, and
the Ogasawara plateau on the Pacific plate is being subducted
beneath the southern margin of the arc (Tamaki, 1985).
This arc was located farther southwest relative to Japan
when Cenozoic arc magmatism commenced in the middle
Eocene, and then the arc moved northeast in response to
clockwise rotation and backarc spreading of the Philippine
Sea plate (Seno and Maruyama, 1984; Hall et al., 1995). The
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arc probably reached its present position by the middle
Miocene and has collided and accreted to the Japan arc at its
northern end in the Izu peninsula (Amano, 1991; Takahashi
and Saito, 1997). However, some workers (e.g., Hall, 2002)
suggest this collision took place as late as the Pliocene. This
accretion is inferred to have increased the coupling force between the arc and subducting Pacific plate (Okino et al.,
1999). Two stages of arc rifting are recognized, including middle Miocene and latest Pliocene to Quaternary. The middle
Miocene rifting occurred in the northern part of the backarc
with north-northwest–trending rift axes, which were truncated by northeast transform faults (Yamazaki and Yuasa,
1998). The latest Pliocene to Quaternary rifting is manifested
in the central part of the arc by several grabens with northtrending axes located behind the volcanic front (Taylor, 1992).
The oldest island-arc rocks in the Izu-Bonin arc are middle
Eocene (49–48 Ma) island-arc tholeiite and boninite series
basalt to rhyolite. This volcanism continued for more than 10
m.y. and was followed by tholeiitic and calc-alkaline volcanism,
which occurred along the arc until 27 Ma. Arc volcanism became inactive during 23 to 20 Ma, when backarc spreading in
the Shikoku basin was active. Middle Miocene to Holocene
Izu-Bonin frontal arc volcanism is bimodal (basalt and rhyolitedacite; Taylor, 1992), whereas calc-alkaline andesite and dacite
characterized the backarc from 12.5 to 2.9 Ma (Ishizuka et al.,
1998). Post-2.8 Ma backarc volcanism consists of clinopyroxene-olivine basalt associated with rifting (Ishizuka et al., 1998).
The tectonic regime of the Izu-Bonin arc has been extensional, characterized by several stages of normal faulting at
least since the Oligocene, except along its northern margin,
where the arc has collided with the Japan arc. Accretion of
several microcontinental blocks since the middle Miocene
has rotated the central part of the Japan arc. This accretion
also formed an accretionary prism and thrusts in the Japan
forearc (Mazzotti et al., 2002). The Izu block, accreted to the
Japan arc at about 1 Ma (Amano, 1991), contains northwesttrending right-lateral and north-northeast–trending left-lateral strike-slip faults that localize epithermal gold deposits.
Mineral deposit styles: Metallic mineral deposits along the
Izu-Bonin arc include Kuroko and epithermal deposits (Fig.
11). Kuroko-style submarine hydrothermal mineralization is
presently recognized at Myojin Knoll, Myojinsho, and in the
Sumisu rift of the Izu-Bonin arc (Glasby, 2000). The gold-rich
Cu-Zn-Pb Sunrise deposit at Myojin Knoll is estimated to have
9 million tons (Mt) of mineralized material (Iizasa et al., 1999).
Epithermal Au-Ag deposits are located in the Izu peninsula
at the northern end of the Izu-Bonin arc. These include
Seigoshi (16.0 Au, 511 Ag), Toi (12.1 t Au; 94 t Ag), Mochikoshi
(4.9 t Au, 104 t Ag), and others. These deposits consist of
northwest- or north-northeast–trending, gold-bearing adularia-quartz veins oriented subparallel to regional strike-slip
faults. These veins have characteristics of an intermediate- or
low-sulfidation type. Mineralization ages vary from 2.5 to 1.4
Ma, which corresponds to a period of bimodal volcanism of
basalt and rhyolite-dacite, as well as andesitic volcanism
(Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1987b).
(Figs. 2, 10; Table 1). The arc consists of the Ryukyu trench,
forearc islands, an active volcanic belt, and the Okinawa
trough in the backarc. The Ryukyu arc is related to westward
subduction of the Philippine Sea plate beneath the Eurasian
plate at a velocity of 6 to 7 cm/yr (Shinjo, 1999).
The basement rocks consist of Permian to Cretaceous
sedimentary or serpentinite mélange, including blocks of
limestone and metamorphic rocks, and Cretaceous to Paleogene sedimentary rocks. These basement rocks are overlain
by late Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. Middle to late Miocene
ilmenite-series and magnetite-series granitoids intruded the
forearc and backarc sides of the northern part of the arc, respectively. This intrusive activity was followed by Pliocene
and Quaternary calc-alkaline andesite volcanism, which is associated with rhyolite and dacite in the backarc (Karakida et
al., 1992). Paleomagnetic data (Kodama et al., 1995) and locations determined from Global Positioning System (GPS)
data (Nishimura et al., 1999) for the northern part of the arc
indicate that the forearc has rotated counterclockwise with
respect to the backarc part since 2 Ma, resulting in easttrending extension along the Kagoshima graben in south
Kyushu. In the central and southern part of the arc, middle
and late Miocene high Mg andesite and basalt occur with
calc-alkaline andesite (Shinjo, 1999). Since the latest
Pliocene, backarc spreading began in the Okinawa trough
(Sibuet et al., 1998), which is characterized by bimodal volcanism of basalt and rhyolite (Shinjo and Kato, 2000), seafloor hydrothermal activity and Kuroko-style mineralization
(Marumo and Hattori, 1999).
Near Taiwan, the arc is characterized by Eocene pyroclastic rocks and andesite flows, Miocene marine siliciclastic
rocks and an active submarine volcano (Hutchison, 1989).
Northern Taiwan lies at the junction between the Ryukyu and
Luzon arcs, where these two arcs started colliding at 10 Ma
(Teng, 1996). In this region, Plio-Pleistocene centers of magmatism (2.8–0.2 Ma; Chung et al., 1995) have migrated westward, in part, initiated by the westerly encroachment of the
Ryukyu trench and the southwestward opening of the Okinawa trough (Teng et al., 1992). Backarc extension in the
Pleistocene led to the emplacement of andesitic to dacitic hypabyssal plugs and flows, dated in the Chinkuashih region at
1.3 to 0.9 Ma (Tan, 1991; Wang et al., 1999). The volcanic
rocks overlie a Miocene marine sedimentary rock sequence,
similar to that exposed in the Ryukyu arc to the northeast.
Mineral deposit styles: The southern Kyushu epithermal
gold province in the northern Ryukyu arc contains Plio-Pleistocene low-sulfidation deposits, represented by Hishikari
(260 t Au, 208 t Ag), Yamagano, (28.4 t Au, 28.3 t Ag), and
Okuchi (22.2 t Au, 17.0 t Ag) with a few high-sulfidation deposits, such as Akeshi (8.9 t Au, 4.7 t Ag), Kasuga (8.8 t Au,
5.0 t Ag), and Iwato (8.1 t Au, 13.7 t Ag), and the Kushikino
intermediate-sulfidation deposit (55.9 t Au, 477 t Ag; Fig. 11;
Izawa and Watanabe, 2001). These deposits cluster on the
western side of the Kagoshima graben (Izawa and Urashima,
1987). Epithermal gold mineralization in the province started
with Pliocene high- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits in
the west of the province (Kushikino, 3.7–3.4 Ma; Kasuga.
5.5–5.3 Ma; Iwato, 4.7–4.2 Ma, and Akeshi, 3.7 Ma) and has
extended eastward with time to form Pleistocene low-sulfidation deposits (Okuchi, 1.6–1.2 Ma; Hishikari, 1.1–0.7 Ma;
Ryukyu
Geologic setting: The Ryukyu arc extends approximately
1,200 km from southern Kyushu Island in Japan to Taiwan
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Sudo et al., 2003). This eastward expansion of the metallogenic province followed an eastward shift of the Ryukyu volcanic front and is probably related to the counterclockwise rotation of Kyushu Island (Izawa and Watanabe, 2001). The
Kushikino intermediate-sulfidation deposit is associated with
an andesitic polygenetic volcano (Izawa and Zeng, 2001),
whereas low-sulfidation deposits are associated with rhyolitic
or dacitic monogenetic volcanic activity in the backarc
(Miyashita, 1975). Magmatic activity related to the high-sulfidation deposits has not been clarified, although these deposits
are hosted by late Miocene to early Pliocene andesitic volcanic rocks (Hedenquist et al., 1994). The low-sulfidation deposits in the metallogenic province are composed mostly of
adularia-quartz veins with alteration halos of sericite-chlorite
at depth and quartz-smectite ± kaolinite near the surface in
widespread chlorite or smectite-zeolite alteration zones
(Izawa and Urashima, 1987). High-sulfidation deposits are
characterized by replacement ores hosted by residual quartz
and quartz-alunite-dickite (or kaolinite) alteration zones
(Hedenquist et al., 1994).
The Chinkuashih high-sulfidation Au-Cu district in northeastern Taiwan has produced more than 92 t Au (Fig. 2, App.
2; Tan, 1991). Orebodies consist of enargite-gold vein systems, hydrothermal breccia pipes, and replacement bodies,
which are spatially and temporally associated with Pleistocene
dacitic hypabyssal intrusions. Host rocks include the dacitic
intrusions and Miocene calcareous and carbonaceous sandstones and shales. Bonanza grades have been reported from
many of these orebodies, but in more recent years mine
grades averaged approximately 3 g/t Au. The majority of the
past production was from the 2-km-long Penshan-Hsumei
vein system in the central portion of the district. The Chiufen-Wutanshan intermediate-sulfidation vein system occurs
about 1 km west of the high-sulfidation deposits and produced 29 t Au (Tan, 1991). The Tatun district, located 30 km
west of Chinkuashih, is characterized by one high-sulfidation
system, which was prospected for gold and copper in the past
(Yen, 1971).
The Neogene component of the arc includes andesitic flows,
tuffs, and volcaniclastic rocks. The Mount Pinatubo stratovolcano forms part of the Quaternary portion of the western
Luzon arc.
Older portions of the arc occur in the Luzon Central
Cordillera and include Eocene (?) to Miocene basaltic to andesitic volcanic breccias, volcaniclastic rocks, limestones,
shales, and conglomerates (United Nations Development
Program, 1987a; Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1979). In the
Central Cordillera, several phases of diorite to tonalite intrusions and their hypabyssal equivalents were emplaced from
the early Miocene through the Pliocene (Metal Mining
Agency of Japan, 1979, 1983; United Nations Development
Program, 1987a; Garcia, 1991). The Kias Creek dike complex
in Baguio (Mitchell and Leach, 1991) includes pyroxenehornblende-phyric diabases, lamprophyres, and appinites
that contain amphibolite xenoliths of inferred arc basement
origin (Paddy Waters, writ. commun., 2004). Three of these
dikes indicate Ar-Ar ages that range from 4.6 to 4.0 Ma
(Paddy Waters, writ. commun., 2004). Mineralized diatreme
breccias are associated with the emplacement of the Balatoc
plug in the Baguio district. This magmatism is dated at 1.0 Ma
(Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1983; Cooke et al., 1996).
The pre- and postmineralization Plio-Pleistocene quartz diorite and dacite intrusions and diatreme-related pyroclastic
rocks in the Mankayan district span the periods 2.2 to 1.8 and
1.2 to 0.9 Ma, respectively (Arribas et al., 1995; Hedenquist
et al, 1998). Plio-Pleistocene ages are reported for mineralized diorite intrusions at Sto. Thomas II (Sillitoe, 1989;
Baluda and Galapan, 1993) and Black Mountain (Waters,
2004) near Baguio, and at Tawi-Tawi (Wolfe, 1981) in the
southeastern portion of the Central Cordillera.
Mineral deposit styles: Porphyry copper-gold deposits and
related high- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems are abundant in the Luzon Central Cordillera and western Luzon arcs (Fig. 13, App. 3). These deposits are predominantly centered about Neogene to Pleistocene quartz
diorite-diorite intrusions hosted by coeval volcanic suites. The
Central Cordillera hosts the intermediate-sulfidation gold
lode systems of Acupan, Antamok, and Itogon, and the Sto.
Thomas II porphyry in the Baguio district, where an estimated 800 t Au have been produced (Mitchell and Balce,
1990). In Acupan, several major gold-bearing quartz vein systems, 0.65 Ma in age (Cooke et al., 1996), occur adjacent to
and within the Pleistocene Balatoc diatreme and comprise
sheeted veins, stockworks, and the high-grade “GW” breccia
bodies (Cooke and Bloom, 1990). The Itogon intermediatesulfidation gold-bearing quartz vein deposit occurs along the
eastern periphery of the Balatoc diatreme and is the eastward
extension of the Acupan system. The total length of the combined deposits approximates 4 km. In Antamok, major quartz
vein systems and associated stockworks are hosted by andesitic agglomerate and intercalated lava flows. Emplacement of the Antamok and Acupan-Itogon vein systems was
controlled by tensional fractures developed along regional
east-northeast– and northwest-trending conjugate strike-slip
faults (Fernandez and Damasco, 1979). The average global
grades of these three deposits are inferred to range from 4 to
6 g/t Au, which includes past production from high-grade
(>10 g/t Au) lodes.
Luzon
Geologic setting: The Luzon arc, as defined in this paper,
represents a composite arc system that extends 1,200 km
southward from the Coastal Range of southeastern Taiwan
through the volcanic islands north of Luzon, the Luzon Central Cordillera, and the Western Luzon arc, terminating in the
vicinity of southern Marinduque Island (Fig. 12; Table 1;
Cardwell et al, 1980; Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences,
1982; Mitchell and Leach, 1991). The arc has been active
from the Oligocene to the present and is presently underlain
by an east-dipping Benioff zone related to the Manila trench
(Divis, 1980). The subduction of the Scarborough Seamounts
beneath northern Luzon during the Plio-Pleistocene probably led to extinction of volcanism in the Central Cordillera
and the volcanic islands north of Luzon from ~4 to 2 Ma and
eastward migration of magmatism from ~2 Ma to the
Holocene (Fig. 7; Yang et al., 1996).
Cretaceous ophiolitic basement is exposed in the Zambales
region of the western Luzon arc. The United Nations (United
Nations Development Program, 1987b) infers a similar sequence to form the foundation for the Central Cordillera.
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The Lepanto high-sulfidation enargite-gold deposit, the
Victoria and Teresa intermediate-sulfidation vein systems,
and the Far South East and Guinaoang porphyry deposits
occur in the nearby Mankayan district, which contains a minimum of 700 t Au in combined past production and current
resources. There is a clear genetic association between porphyry and epithermal styles of mineralization in Mankayan.
The Far South East porphyry formed below and coeval to
Lepanto at 1.4 to 1.3 Ma, both deposits associated with the
emplacement of quartz diorite porphyry; the Victoria vein
system formed at ~1.15 Ma, as the hydrothermal system
waned (Hedenquist et al, 1998, 2001). At Lepanto, residual
quartz alteration of dacitic wall rocks host east-trending enargite-gold branch veins and stratiform lodes localized around
the intersection of the steeply dipping northwest-striking
Lepanto fault and the gently dipping unconformable base of
a Pliocene dacitic pyroclastic sequence. The dacitic rocks
form part of the Mankayan diatreme-dome complex (Garcia,
1991; Baker, 1992). The Victoria gold-base metal-quartz vein
system is located <1 km southwest of Far South East, at a
similar level to Lepanto. The veins average 7.3 g/t Au and
form an east-trending tensional array localized by right-lateral
movement on mine-scale strike-slip faults (Claveria et al.,
1999). The Teresa intermediate-sulfidation gold deposit, discovered in 2002, lies to the southwest of Victoria and extends
south to the Nayak vein system. It contains an estimated resource of 7.3 Mt at ~5.3 g/t Au (Waters, 2004). Both the
Mankayan and Baguio districts occur in zones of structural
complexity near major north-northwest–trending fault splays
of the sinistral strike-slip Philippine fault (Fig. 13).
The gold-rich Dizon copper porphyry deposit in the Zambales region and the Tayson copper-gold porphyry deposit in
the Batangas area occur in the western Luzon arc. Both porphyry deposits are located in Miocene to Pliocene windows in
Quaternary volcanic cover.
The Chimei copper-gold porphyry system in the Coastal
Range in eastern Taiwan is inferred to lie in the northern extension of the Luzon arc. Early Miocene ages (22 and 19 Ma)
are indicated for andesite from the Chimei porphyry deposit
(Chen, 1975, in Hutchison, 1989).
Mineral deposit styles: This K alkaline province includes
the Didipio district on the southeastern margin of the Palali
intrusion and the Isabella district within the Cordon syenite
complex (Fig. 13). Significant resources occur in the Dinkidi
copper-gold porphyry deposit (120 t Au, 0.5 Mt Cu) in Didipio and the Marian intermediate-sulfidation epithermal gold
mine and nearby porphyry copper-gold system in Isabella.
Dinkidi is hosted by a composite monzonite stock that has
been intruded by a highly mineralized syenite pegmatite dike,
which forms a gold-rich (5–15 g/t Au) core (Wolfe et al.,
1999). The spatial extent of quartz stockwork veins and flanking feldspar-destructive sericitic and argillic alteration zones
for the deposit is more restricted than recorded in the calc-alkaline porphyry systems elsewhere in Luzon. The Runruno
intermediate-sulfidation gold deposit and the Pao high-sulfidation enargite-gold occurrence (Kavalieris and Gonzalez,
1990) are also located in the Cordon arc.
Philippine
Geologic setting: The Philippine arc (Cardwell et al., 1980)
or the Pacific Cordillera extends more than 1,000 km from
Camarines in southern Luzon to the Pujada peninsula in
southeastern Mindanao (Fig. 12; Table 1). The arc occurs
close to the sinistral Philippine fault. Geologic basement to
the arc consists of Cretaceous ultramafic rocks and Paleogene
andesitic volcanic, volcaniclastic, marine siliciclastic, and carbonate rocks (Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982).
The arc includes segments that have been active at different times between the Oligocene and Quaternary (Divis,
1980; United Nations Development Program, 1987b).
Oligocene-Miocene basaltic breccias and turbidites are overlain by Neogene andesitic to dacitic volcaniclastic rocks, lavas,
and calcareous siliciclastic rock units in northeastern Mindanao (United Nations Development Program, 1987b). A foliated to massive trondjhemite dome (Paracale granodiorite of
Frost, 1959), Miocene diorite and andesite porphyry, and
Pliocene dacite porphyry occur in Camarines (United Nations
Development Program, 1987c). The diorite and andesite porphyry intrusions in the Leyte, Surigao, Co-O, and Masara
areas of east Mindanao are Miocene in age (Mitchell and
Leach, 1991). Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks, volcaniclastic
rocks, and intrusions also characterize the Leyte sector of the
arc. In eastern Mindanao, late Pliocene to Quaternary andesitic volcanoes, associated eruptive products and porphyritic stocks occur near Surigao and Lake Leonard in the
Masara region (Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Sajona et al.,
1997). Pleistocene to Recent (active) volcanoes characterize
arc portions in Camarines, southeastern Luzon, and Leyte
(Divis, 1980).
The Philippine arc presently lies above a west-dipping
Benioff zone related to the Philippine trench. However,
pre-Pliocene arc magmatism is not related to subduction at
this trench, as the trench is a young feature (Hamilton,
1979) and the subducting slab only reaches depths of 150 to
250 km (Gudmundsson and Sambridge, 1998). The source
of this pre-Pliocene magmatism is probably related to eastdirected subduction on the west side of the Philippines.
However, the subduction history in the Philippines is complex and most likely involved the formation of small intraPhilippines ocean basins within an overall strike-slip zone.
Cordon
Geologic setting: Surface exposures of alkaline igneous
rocks in north-central Luzon define two discrete regions, the
Cordon syenite complex and the Palali intrusion, which lie at
the southern end of the Cagayan rift basin. The basement to
the Cagayan basin consists of Cretaceous to Paleogene calcalkaline plutonic, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks (Table 1).
K alkaline magmatism occurred in the late Oligocene and
early Miocene, as indicated by K-Ar ages of ~25 Ma for the
Cordon Syenite Complex (Knittel, 1983) and 25 to 17 Ma for
the Palali intrusion (Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1977).
The emplacement of these intrusive complexes may be related to intraplate magmatism initiated by subduction beneath Luzon, as expressed by Divis (1983) and Knittel and
Cundari (1990), but there is no agreement as to the polarity.
Other possible sources of the alkaline magmatism include delayed partial melting of a relict subduction slab, as postulated
for southeastern Papua New Guinea by Johnson et al. (1978)
and Smith and Milsom (1984) or intra-arc extension.
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The present Philippine fault is mechanically linked to
Pliocene to Recent subduction along the Philippine trench,
but the Philippine fault predates this subduction, which implies a complex plate boundary during the Neogene. The geology of the islands indicates a long history of strike-slip
faulting (Rutland, 1968; Karig et al., 1986).
Mineral deposit styles: The gold districts of Paracale, Sta
Elena-Tabas, and Nalesbitan in the Camarines Norte, and
Surigao, Masara, and the Diwalwal-Compestela areas in eastern Mindanao are characteristic of the gold districts in the
Philippine arc (Fig. 13). Several historic intermediate-sulfidation lodes in the Paracale area (e.g., Longos mine) occur
along the contact between the Paracale trondjhemite and serpentinized ultramafics (Frost, 1959). Gold in the Paracale and
Sta Elena-Tabas areas are associated with intermediate-sulfidation lodes (United Nations Development Program, 1987c),
which contain tellurides at Exciban (James and Fuchs, 1990),
and the Larap (Mantanlang) porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit
(Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). Nalesbitan is a small high-sulfidation gold deposit hosted by andesitic volcanic rocks (Sillitoe et
al., 1990). In central Samar, Kuroko-type massive sulfide deposits at the Bagacay mine and Sulat deposit contain significant gold in addition to copper and silver (Bureau of Mines
and Geo-Sciences, 1986).
Gold deposits and prospects in eastern Mindanao consist
of intermediate-sulfidation lode and stockwork styles
(Placer, Co-O, Diwalwal-Compestela, and Masara), disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted and replacement styles
(Siana and Hijo), and porphyry Cu-Au deposits (Boyongan,
Kingking, Amacan, and Mapula). Descriptions of the majority of these deposits are included in Mitchell and Leach
(1991), with the exception of Boyongan and Bayugo, which
were recently discovered near Surigao. The Boyungan deposit is hosted by a K silicate altered, calc-alkaline dioriteporphyry composite stock emplaced within a sequence of
Neogene(?) andesite, pyroclastic rocks, and basaltic flows
(Josef, 2002). The deposit is concealed beneath a more than
50-m-thick, postmineralization cover sequence of Quaternary andesitic flows, laharic breccia, tuff, mudstone, and
conglomerate. The Boyungan and Bayugo porphyry systems
formed at ~2.6 to 2.3 Ma, approximately coeval to the development of the Siana sedimentary rock-hosted deposit
(Waters, 2004). Boyongan is inferred to have been uplifted
during the late Pliocene-Pleistocene and to have formed a
prominent topographic high, on the basis of an unusually
deep supergene oxidation profile that extends 300 to 500 m
beneath the base of the Quaternary cover rock sequence
(Josef, 2002; Waters, 2004). This relationship indicates that
shortly after Boyongan formed, it was uplifted by at least 1
km in the Plio-Pleistocene to partly expose the K silicate-altered core of the system and then downdropped as much as
500 m in a pull-apart basin, developed by movement along
strands of the sinistral Philippine fault system, prior to Quaternary volcanism, which concealed and preserved the deposit. In northeastern Mindanao, the westward-younging
and progressive compositional changes of intrusive centers
from ~4.5 Ma to Recent (Sajona et al., 1997), and the formations of porphyry deposits at ~2.5 Ma, could be related to
west-directed subduction, if initated at 6 to 5.5 Ma (Paddy
Waters, writ. commun., 2004).
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Masbate-Negros
Geologic setting: This arc assemblage consists of two overlapping arcs of different ages. The combined arc system extends 400 km and includes eastern Panay (Fig. 12; Table 1).
The arc system is terminated against the Philippine fault in
the north and abuts the Sulu-Zamboanga arc to the south.
Cretaceous basement includes marine sedimentary rocks and
pillow basalts, exposed in southeast Negros (Hamilton, 1979)
and serpentinized ultramafic rocks in northeastern Masbate
(Mitchell and Leach, 1991).
In the older western arc, Eocene to Oligocene andesitic to
dacitic volcanic and clastic rocks host a Miocene dacitic diatreme complex at Bulawan in southwest Negros and middle
Miocene dioritic intrusions in northeast Masbate (Mitchell
and Leach, 1991). In the younger eastern arc, middle
Miocene to Pliocene andesite flow breccias, volcaniclastic
rocks and conglomerates are overlain by late Pliocene andesitic volcanic rocks and Quaternary andesite to basalt stratovolcanoes (Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982;
United Nations Development Program, 1987d).
The two arcs are the product of subduction beneath Negros
but the polarity of the older arc is not clear; it has been interpreted to be situated above a west- (Sajona et al., 1997) or
east-dipping (Holloway, 1982; Hall, 2002) subduction zone.
The younger arc is probably the product of east-dipping subduction at the Negros trench, which currently appears to be
inactive or almost so (Cardwell et al., 1980) and associated
with a slab that extends to a depth of about 100 km (Gudmundsson and Sambridge, 1998).
Mineral deposit styles: The western Masbate-Negros arc
contains the Masbate intermediate-sulfidation stockwork gold
mine (62 t Au, Aroroy district) in northeastern Masbate, and
the Bulawan intermediate-sulfidation gold deposit and goldpoor Sipalay and Hinobaan porphyry Cu ± Mo deposits in
southwest Negros (Fig. 13; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). Approximately 40 t Au were exploited from underground lode mines
in the Aroroy district prior to World War II (Mitchell and
Leach, 1991). Open-pit reserves established in 1980 averaged
2.3g/t Au. Gold mineralization is associated with Miocene andesite to dacite clastic rocks at Masbate and a similar-aged
dacitic diatreme complex at Bulawan (Mitchell and Leach,
1991; Philex, 1995). In contrast, the gold-poor porphyry systems are considered to be Eocene to Oligocene in age (Bureau
of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1986; Singer et al., 2002).
The eastern Masbate-Negros arc includes geothermal areas
and several andesite-hosted silica bodies, which are inferred
to represent the upper levels of high-sulfidation epithermal
systems (United Nations Development Program, 1987d).
There may be potential for concealed porphyry-style mineralization at depth. Pliocene(?) conglomerates with pyriticquartz and acid-sulfate–altered clasts indicate a minimum age
for the high-sulfidation systems in southeast Negros (Mitchell
and Balce, 1990).
Sulu-Zamboanga
Geologic setting: This arc extends approximately 400 km
westward from the Semporna peninsula in eastern Sabah
through the Sulu archipelago to the Zamboanga peninsula,
where it is truncated by the western Cotobato and the
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Masbate-Negros arc systems (Fig. 12; Table 1). The Zamboanga peninsula can be subdivided into two segments by the
Sindangan-Cotobato-Daguma lineament (Cotabato fault
zone of Pubellier et al., 1991, and Rohrlach et al., 1999),
which has been interpreted as the accretionary boundary between the Cotabato island arc to the northeast and a continental fragment to the southwest (Jimenez et al., 2002). The
juxtaposition of these two terranes commenced in the middle
Miocene, with collision still active today, according to Rangin
et al. (1999). The source of the interpreted continental fragment is not clear nor is its existence documented conclusively.
Pre-Tertiary granitoids and metasedimentary rocks form the
basement in the southwestern part, and Cretaceous serpentinized ultramafic rocks and metasedimentary rocks comprise
the basement in the northeastern part, of the Zamboanga
peninsula (Hamilton, 1979; Jimenez et al., 2002).
The Sulu and Zamboanga sectors of the arc are composed
generally of Neogene to Quaternary andesitic volcanics and
sedimentary rocks. Plio-Pleistocene subaerially erupted andesitic volcanic rocks and hypabyssal intrusions occur in the
northeastern part of Zamboanga, with Miocene marine siliciclastic and carbonate rocks covering much of southwestern
Zamboanga; the suture between the two terranes is marked
by a Neogene mélange complex (Jimenez et al., 2002). In the
Semporna and Dent peninsulas of Sabah there are Neogene
calc-alkaline and K-rich calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, and
dacites above a Cretaceous to Paleogene basement of chert,
basalts and ultramafic rocks (Kirk, 1968; Hutchison, 1989;
Yan, 1990; Chiang, 2002). Arc activity terminated in the late
Pliocene and intraplate basalts were erupted in the Pleistocene at a number of small centers. Chiang (2002) suggests
that geochemical variation in the Mio-Pliocene volcanic rocks
indicates northwest-directed subduction. The change to intraplate basic magmatism during the Pleistocene indicates
sampling of a new and different mantle source.
The polarity of subduction is not clear because there is no
significant seismicity beneath the Sulu arc. Older northwestdipping subduction of the Celebes Sea is suggested to have
reversed to southeast-dipping subduction of the Sulu Sea on
the north side of the Sulu arc, which remained active until the
late Pleistocene (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989) due to
collision of the Cagayan volcanic arc and Palawan (Rangin et
al., 1990). However, in Sabah, where the Sulu arc can be
traced onshore into the Dent-Semporna arc, there is no evidence for southeast-directed subduction on the north side of
the arc. Hall and Wilson (2000) and Hall (2002) suggested
that after the Cagayan arc collision, the Celebes Sea began
subducting in a northwest direction beneath the south side of
the Sulu arc and this interpretation is favored by geochemical
evidence from Sabah (Chiang, 2002).
Mineral deposit styles: Gold systems are localized in the
Zamboanga and Semporna segments of the arc (Figs. 12–13),
but no large deposits have been found. Gold occurrences include alluvial deposits, small-scale mining centers, and several prospects. In Zamboanga, more than 12 precious and
base metal deposits and prospects of Neogene to Pleistocene
age occur proximal to the Cotabato fault zone (Jimenez et al.,
2002). These mineralized systems include intermediate-sulfidation veins and stockworks (e.g., Sibutad), porphyry copper
prospects (e.g., Labangan), and gold-rich volcanic-associated
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massive sulfide deposits (e.g., Canatuan and Malusok). Host
rocks include intermediate volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
and coeval intrusions for the porphyry and epithermal styles
of deposits and siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and schists for
the massive sulfide deposits. The Sibutad epithermal vein system is the largest gold resource discovered to date (23 t Au)
and contains hydrothermal breccia bodies, silica sinter deposits, and alteration types indicative of shallow- to near-surface development during the Pleistocene (Jimenez et al.,
2002).
In the Semporna peninsula, a high-sulfidation system at
Nagos and intermediate-sulfidation quartz-gold lodes at Bt.
Mantri are hosted by andesite to dacite volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks and hypabyssal plugs of inferred Pliocene age
(Kirk, 1968; Yan, 1990). Mineralization styles in both Nagos
and Bt. Mantri are interpreted by Yan (1990) to have developed in the upper levels of epithermal systems.
Cotabato-Central Mindanao
Geologic setting: This section describes two arcs, the Cotabato arc to the southwest and the Central Mindanao arc to the
northeast (Fig. 12; Table 1). In southern Mindanao, the
boundary between these two arcs is marked by the Cotabato
fault zone. The Cotabato arc includes the Daguma and
Sarangani regions and is inferred to be the northern extension
of the Sangihe arc. The Cotabato fault zone has been interpreted as the onshore extension of the Molucca Sea collision
zone (Pubellier et al., 1991), but there is no evidence in Mindanao for the northward continuation of the Halmahera arc,
and the Molucca Sea collision zone may terminate at the Cotabato fault, which acted as a strike-slip fault during the Neogene (Hall, 1996, 2002). Toward the northwest, this fault zone
is obscured by a sequence of Quaternary flood basalts, basalt
to dacite stratovolcanoes, and the Cotabato sedimentary basin.
The Central Mindanao arc is poorly defined, however, the arc
is bound by the Cotabato fault and the Cotabato basin to the
southwest and the Agusan-Davao trough to the east. The combined arc assemblage extends more than 350 km in a northerly
direction across southwest and central Mindanao.
In the Cotabato arc, Paleogene metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks are overlain by Miocene marine clastic and
carbonate rocks and intruded by an early to middle Miocene
diorite batholith and andesite to dacite hypabyssal stocks (Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982). Plio-Pleistocene andesitic flows, pyroclastic rocks and intrusions, and limited
Quaternary dacite-andesite volcanic rocks characterize the
northwestern and southeastern portions of the onshore part
of the arc.
The Central Mindanao arc contains a sequence of Oligocene
to middle Miocene basalts, volcaniclastic and carbonate
rocks, and late Miocene andesite to basalt volcanic and marine clastic rocks locally intruded by Neogene diorites (Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982; Sajona et al., 1997).
Active Quaternary basaltic and lesser andesitic volcanoes and
their eruptive products cover much of the region. The central
portion of Central Mindanao is underlain by fault-bound slivers of Cretaceous (?) ultramafic rocks (Sajona et al., 1997).
The Cotobato trench is characterized by a shallow, northeast-dipping Benioff zone, which is inferred to have developed
in recent times (Cardwell et al., 1980; Hutchison, 1989) and is
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not related to pre-Quaternary arc development. The east-dipping Molucca slab, which extends to about 600 km beneath
Mindanao, is inferred to have played a major role in Neogene
magmatism in both the Cotobato and Central Mindanao arcs.
The Cotobato arc may continue to the north as the MasbateNegros arc, however, reconstruction of a continuous volcanoplutonic arc across the Sulu-Zamboanga arc is uncertain.
Mineral deposit styles: The southern portion of the Cotobato arc includes porphyry Cu-Au, skarn and epithermal gold
occurrences and prospects associated with Neogene dioritic
stocks to hypabyssal dacite porphyry bodies and diatremes locally (Fig. 13; Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984). The Tampakan highsulfidation epithermal and/or porphyry Cu-Au deposit (270 t
Au, 6.8 Mt Cu) occurs within the eroded flanks of a Pliocene
(?) andesitic stratovolcano that lies unconformably on a
northerly trending ramp anticline in the hanging wall to a regional east-directed thrust fault (Rohrlach et al., 1999). A synmineralization diorite porphyry dike is dated at 3.2 Ma (U/Pb
by laser ablation ICP-MS; R. Loucks, pers. commun., 2002).
Enargite-bearing, high-sulfidation mineralization and advanced argillic alteration overprints the porphyry system from
surface to depths of about 500 m, with relict K silicate alteration zones present at 600 m below surface (Rohrlach et al.,
1999). Small-scale mining centers are located at T’boli in
South Cotobato, Tampakan in the Sarangani Range, and elsewhere in southern Mindanao. Gold is recovered from intermediate-sulfidation quartz veins hosted by Miocene volcanic
and volcaniclastic sequences.
Mitchell and Leach (1991) cited widespread epithermal
mineralization in the Sarangani Range, which lies in the
southeastern part of the Cotobato arc. Small-scale mining
near Bukidnon is associated with narrow quartz veins hosted
in phyllites and ultramafic rocks (Mitchell and Leach, 1991).
The relationship of these veins to the Central Mindanao arc,
if any, is unclear.
the northern portion of the Sangihe arc through the northern
arm of Sulawesi and into the neck of Sulawesi, where it ends in
the sinistral Palu fault (Fig. 14; Table 1; Hamilton, 1979). The
western portion of the arc overlies Sundaland continental crust
and Cretaceous to Eocene metamorphic rocks, which are intruded by late Miocene to Pliocene granitoids (Kavalieris et al.,
1992). These rocks are overlain unconformably by Eocene to
Oligocene marine basalt to andesite and sedimentary rocks that
form part of an oceanic arc to the east of the Marisa region
(Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). Geochemical and
isotopic data from northwestern Sulawesi support the inferred
transition from continental- to oceanic-arc settings from west
to east and indicate the presence of an underthrust fragment of
the Australian continent that extends from the western edge of
North Sulawesi through the northern and central parts of west
Sulawesi (Elburg et al., 2003). The early to middle Miocene
portion of the arc consists of andesitic to dacitic volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks and sedimentary rocks intruded by diorite,
quartz diorite, granodiorite, and their subvolcanic porphyritic
equivalents in the Gorontalo, Kotamobagu, and south Sangihe
areas (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). A Pliocene
rhyodacitic pyroclastic sequence and flow dome complex characterizes the Gunung Pani area in Marisa (Kavalieris et al.,
1990; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Quaternary andesitic stratovolcanoes define the arc from north of the Kotamobagu area
through Sangihe Island.
Major northwesterly trending faults influence the distribution of volcanic and sedimentary rock successions in north Sulawesi. The movement along these faults is oblique-slip, with
arc-parallel extension indicated by the progressive down-tothe north movement of the fault blocks located north of Kotamabagu (Carlile et al., 1990).
Mineral deposit styles: Gold and copper deposits in the
north Sulawesi-Sangihe arc commonly lie <10 to 20 km from
major northwesterly trending arc-transverse oblique-slip
faults (Figs. 8, 14). Many of these deposits are hosted by early
to middle Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks intruded by hypabyssal intrusions. West of Marisa, the western sector of the
arc has a continental affinity and is characterized by alluvial
gold derived from small orogenic lodes hosted by metamorphic basement (Kavalieris et al., 1992). The Gunung Pani
disseminated and stockwork intermediate-sulfidation gold
deposit (41 t Au) is controlled by north-northeast– and northeast-oriented faults in a rhyodacitic dome complex built upon
continental basement along the margin of Sundaland (Kavalieris et al., 1990). The deposit is 3.3 to 3.1 m.y. old (Ar-Ar;
Pearson and Caira, 1999) with gold contained in siliceous
limonitic and quartz-adularia lined fractures and mosaic
quartz breccias (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1990).
The Gorontalo region hosts porphyry copper-gold deposits
in the Tombulilato district, the Bolangitang intermediate-sulfidation epithermal prospect, and the Motombato high-sulfidation epithermal system and contains >140 t gold and substantial copper resources (App. 4). These Pliocene systems
(2.9–2.4 Ma; Perello, 1994) are hosted by Miocene volcanic
rocks and overlying dacite to rhyolite, which are intruded by
quartz diorite stocks (Lowder and Dow, 1978). The
Tombulilato district lies ~10 to 20 km from a major northwesterly oriented, arc-transverse dextral-fault zone (Pearson
and Caira, 1999).
Other Philippine arcs
Additional Cenozoic magmatic arcs of the Philippines include the Oligocene arcs of the Sierra Madre in central Luzon
and the northeast Luzon-Polillo-Catanduanes in eastern
Luzon (Fig. 12; Mitchell and Leach, 1991). Epithermal veins,
porphyry copper, skarn, and gold-bearing massive sulfide
prospects and alluvial gold workings occur in the East Rizal
region of the Sierra Madre arc. Gold-bearing, Besshi-type
massive sulfide prospects exist in eastern Bicol and small epithermal veins characterize prospects in Catanduanes Island.
In central Cebu, quartz-diorite porphyry intrusions, volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of probable Cretaceous age host
the gold-bearing Atlas porphyry Cu-Mo deposits (Sillitoe and
Gappe, 1984). Cretaceous quartz diorite bodies also occur in
Bohol, but these intrusions lack significant mineralization
(Bureau of Mines and Geo-Sciences, 1982). Miocene andesitic volcanics occur on both islands and may be linked via
a paleoarc system. Alternatively, the Bohol arc may extend
north beneath northwestern Leyte, as proposed by Mitchell
and Leach (1991).
North Sulawesi-Sangihe
Geologic setting: The Miocene to Recent North SulawesiSangihe magmatic arc extends approximately 1,200 km from
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In the Kotamobagu region, intermediate-sulfidation
stockwork veins in andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
at Lanut, Mintu, and Doup, and silicified middle Miocene
limestone at Lobongan in the Ratatotok district, support smallscale mining activities. The north- to northeast-trending
intermediate-sulfidation vein systems at Lanut and nearby
high-sulfidation lodes lie within a northwesterly corridor of
mineral prospects that extends more than 30 km across the
hinge portion of north Sulawesi. The Toka Tindung intermediate-sulfidation vein system (2.4 Ma; Moyle et al., 1997) in
northeastern Sulawesi is overlain by a Quaternary ash cover.
Host rocks consist of Neogene andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks that overlie siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. The
main Toka Tindung and satellite deposits (35 t Au) form a series of en echelon, north-trending lodes that lie in a northwest-oriented structural corridor (Wake et al., 1996).
The sedimentary rock-hosted Mesel gold deposit in the
Ratatotok district (62 t Au) has many similarities to Carlintype gold deposits in Nevada (Turner et al., 1994; Garwin et
al., 1995). In Mesel, most of the ore is controlled by steeply
dipping faults and is hosted in a decalcified, dolomitized, and
silicified middle Miocene carbonate sequence adjacent to,
and beneath, a premineralization, porphyritic andesite laccolithic intrusion. The Taware porphyry Cu-Au prospect and the
Bawone-Binebase high-sulfidation system on south Sangihe
Island are inferred to be of Miocene age (Carlile et al., 1990).
Neogene diorite to granodiorite bodies intrude the volcanic
rock sequences and are associated with porphyry Cu-Au(Mo) prospects on Bacan Island and gold prospects in the
northern part of the western arm of Halmahera Island. Volcanic activity has ceased at the southern end of the arc, and
the active volcanic arc moved west during the Pliocene (Hall
et al., 1988b) and is now built on the western margin of the
Neogene arc.
Mineral deposit styles: A porphyry Cu-Au prospect occurs
at Kaputusan on Bacan Island, where it is associated with
anomalous molybdenum and bismuth (Fig. 14; van Leeuwen,
1994). This small resource is centered in a Neogene quartz
diorite intrusion in pre-Miocene volcanic host rocks (Carlile
and Mitchell, 1994; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996).
The Gosowong intermediate-sulfidation bonanza vein system in the northwestern arm of Halmahera Island contains
nearly 27 t of gold at an average grade of 27 g/t (Olberg et al.,
1999). The steeply east dipping vein lies adjacent to a northwest-trending fault (Research Information Unit, 1997) that
forms part of a major northwest-oriented topographic lineament that extends through the western arm of Halmahera.
The deposit is hosted by a Neogene sequence of andesitic to
dacitic volcanic rocks and subordinate volcaniclastic rocks.
The age of mineralization is constrained to lie between 2.9 to
2.4 Ma (Olberg et al., 1999). The recently discovered Kencana and Toguraci intermediate-sulfidation vein systems lie 1
km south and 2 km southwest of Gosowong, respectively.
Kencana, the larger of the two deposits, contains 70 t of gold
at an average grade of 41 g/t in a quartz vein breccia (indicated plus inferred categories; Mining News, 2004). Kencana
is hosted by a northwest-trending, 35° to 55° northeast-dipping, fault within a sequence of andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (IAGI, 2004). Other mineralization in the
area includes intermediate-sulfidation epithermal and porphyry styles (Olberg et al., 1999). Small intermediate-sulfidation veins occur on Obi Island, hosted in part by andesitic
peperites (N. White, writ. commun., 2004).
Halmahera
Geologic setting: This Neogene to Recent arc sweeps across
the western arm of the Halmahera Islands and includes
Bacan and Obi Islands (Fig. 14; Table 1). The modern arc extends 400 km from near the Philippine trench to the western
extension of the Sorong fault. The basement to the arc consists primarily of Cretaceous-Paleocene ophiolite in Halmahera, Bacan, and Obi (Hall et al., 1991), although there are
Mesozoic and probable Precambrian gneiss and schist exposed on Bacan (Hamilton, 1979; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996).
The Halmahera region has a long history of arc activity. The
ophiolitic basement was formed in an intra-oceanic arc (Ballantyne, 1992) and is overlain in Halmahera and Obi by products of a Late Cretaceous arc and in Halmahera, Bacan, and
Obi by an Eocene to Oligocene arc (Hall et al., 1988a, b,
1995; Ali and Hall, 1995; Malaihollo and Hall, 1996). These
arcs formed as the result of subduction at the margin of the
Philippine Sea plate in an intra-oceanic setting, and arc activity was terminated between the late Oligocene and early
Miocene by collision with the north Australian margin (Hall,
1996). During the middle Miocene, there was little or no arc
activity and platform carbonates were deposited over a large
area and arc activity resumed in the late middle Miocene. All
these rocks form the basement to the Neogene Halmahera
arc, which was active from about 11 Ma between Obi in the
south and Morotai at the north end of the island chain (Baker
and Malaihollo, 1996). The active arc shows geochemical evidence of a continental crustal contribution to magmas on
Bacan (Morris et al., 1983) and a similar contribution can be
identified in the Neogene lavas on Bacan (Forde, 1997),
which indicates movement of Australian continental fragments along strands of the Sorong fault, as first suggested by
Hamilton (1979).
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Medial New Guinea
Geologic setting: New Guinea can be divided into four
major structural-stratigraphic belts, from south to north: (1)
the stable northern margin of the Australian craton (Fly platform), (2) Papuan fold belt, (3) New Guinea mobile belt, and
(4) allochthonous Paleogene volcanic island arcs accreted in
the Miocene (Fig. 15; Dow, 1977; Hamilton, 1979; Pigram
and Davies, 1987; Rogerson and McKee, 1990; Hall, 2002).
The suture zones between the accreted island arcs and mobile belts are typically marked by craton-directed overthrusts
of Paleogene ophiolite and mélange (Dow, 1977; Hamilton,
1979). The late Miocene to Pleistocene medial Irian Jaya
magmatic arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) lies within the
Papuan fold belt, where south-directed compressional tectonics have led to localized deformation, crustal thickening,
and block uplift during the Plio-Pleistocene to Recent
(Hamilton, 1979; Weiland and Cloos, 1996; Hill and Raza,
1999). The medial New Guinea magmatic belt, as defined in
this paper, extends more than 1,500 km along the central
crest of New Guinea, includes the Quaternary stratovolcanoes near Bosavi, and continues to the southeast through the
Owen Stanley thrust belt to the Papuan peninsula and nearby
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D’Entrecasteaux Islands (Dow, 1977; Rogerson and McKee,
1990; McDowell et al., 1996). The basement consists of a
thick sequence of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in Irian Jaya
and Paleozoic metamorphic rocks and Permo-Triassic granite
overlain by Mesozoic siliciclastic rocks in Papua New Guinea
(Hamilton, 1979; Dow and Sukamto, 1984; Pigram and
Davies, 1987; Hill and Raza, 1999).
The late Miocene to Pleistocene high K calc-alkaline to K
alkaline intrusions (e.g., intrusive complexes at Porgera, Grasberg, and Ok Tedi; McDowell et al., 1996) in the Central
Ranges of New Guinea do not overlie a well-defined Benioff
zone and lack coeval subaerial volcanic rocks. However, this
paucity of volcanic rocks may in part reflect the extensive uplift and erosion of the region (e.g., average exhumation rates
of ~0.7–1.7 mm/yr since the mid-Pliocene; Weiland and
Cloos, 1996). The distribution of these intrusions coincides
with the margins of uplifted basement blocks adjacent to
north-northeast– to northeast-trending lineaments defined by
faults, volcanoes, and drainage patterns (e.g., Grasberg, Ok
Tedi, Porgera, Bosavi, Murray, and Bulolo lineaments; Fig.
15; Davies, 1991; Corbett, 1994; Fischer and Warburton,
1996; Hill et al., 2002; Pubellier and Ego, 2002). These lineaments parallel the structural trend of basement rocks, as inferred from aeromagnetic data (The Australian Petroleum
Company Proprietary, 1961) and locally define boundaries to
domains of differing structural styles in the Papuan fold belt
(e.g., Ok Tedi; Mason, 1994, 1996). These relationships have
led Hill et al. (2002) and others to infer the localization of intrusions at high crustal levels along dilatent segments of reactivated, orogen-parallel extensional Mesozoic basement faults
near intersections with south-directed frontal thrusts. In contrast, there is no clear relationship between thrust faults and
the Pliocene (3.2–2.8 Ma) calc-alkaline intrusions that occur
south of the Sorong fault system in the Bird’s Head at Aisasjur, Papua (Paddy Waters, writ. commun., 2004).
The southward migration of K-rich magmatism and related
mineralization follows the southward progression of fold and
thrust belt deformation (Davies, 1991), with intrusion-related
mineral deposits forming in zones of major uplift at the intersection between frontal thrusts and orogen-transverse strikeslip (transfer) fault zones (Hill et al, 2002). The source of the
K-rich magmas is ambiguous. Favored possibilities include delayed partial melting of the mantle modified by previous (?Cretaceous) subduction beneath the continental margin, prior to
the accretion of allochthonous arc terranes in the mid-Miocene
(Johnson et al., 1978) and asthenospheric upwelling due to the
docking of arc terranes transported from the east (McDowell
et al., 1996). The results of mantle tomographic imaging support the existence of ancient subduction slabs within the mantle beneath New Guinea (Hall and Spakman, 2002).
Mineral deposit styles: This belt contains the Carstenz district, which includes the Grasberg porphyry Cu-Au deposit,
the Ertsberg Cu-Au skarn complex, and a gold-rich skarn at
Wabu. Grasberg contains a resource of 4,000 Mt at 0.64 g/t
Au (2,560 t) and 0.6 percent Cu (24 Mt; Figs. 14–15, App. 4;
van Leeuwen, 1994). The proven and probable reserve of the
combined open-pit and underground deposits totals 1950 t of
gold (year-end 1998; Widodo et al., 1999). The deposit is
hosted by Pliocene diorite to monzonite stocks (3.3–2.7 Ma)
and an andesite-diorite diatreme complex (MacDonald and
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Arnold, 1994). The main Grasberg intrusion cooled extremely
rapidly, as indicated by nearly identical ages determined by
Re-Os (2.9 ± 0.3 Ma on sulfide), Ar-Ar (3.33 ± 0.12–3.01 ±
0.06 Ma on biotite), and (U-Th)/He (3.1–2.9 ± 0.1 Ma on apatite), which supports the interpretation that the intrusive
complex was emplaced within ~1 km of the paleosurface
(Weiland and Cloos, 1996; McInnes et al., 2004). The Grasberg complex occurs about the intersection of northeasttrending, sinistral strike-slip fault systems with steeply northeast dipping reverse faults (MacDonald and Arnold, 1994) in
the hanging wall to a major frontal thrust (Hill et al, 2002).
The vertical ore distribution exceeds 1,500 m.
The Pleistocene (1.2 Ma) Ok Tedi porphyry Cu-Au system
(441 t Au, 4.5 Mt Cu; App. 5) is centered on monzonite porphyry stocks and breccia dikes, emplaced in Middle to Late
Cretaceous siltstone and sandstone (Rush and Seegers, 1990).
Lenses of copper-gold-magnetite and sulfide skarn locally
occur within this rock sequence. The vertical distribution of
ore exceeds 600 m, including an oxidized gold-rich cap that
formed an annulus to the quartz stockwork core of the deposit in the leached cap, prior to mining (Rush and Seegers,
1990). Ok Tedi occurs in the core of a west-trending doubly
plunging anticline in the hanging wall to a major frontal thrust
that lies along a major northeast-trending basement fault inferred from the distribution of regional-scale folds and PlioPleistocene intrusions (Mason, 1996; Mason and Ord, 1999).
Ok Tedi is the largest porphyry-skarn complex of several systems that formed in the Star Mountains contemporaneous to
Plio-Pleistocene thrust faulting (Arnold and Griffin, 1978).
The Ertsberg skarn complex, 2 km southeast of the Grasberg porphyry deposit, includes the Ertsberg, Ertsberg East,
Intermediate, and Deep ore zones, DOM, and Big Gossan
copper-gold skarn deposits. Combined past production and
present reserves in the Ertsberg skarn deposits exceed 140 t
of gold and 3.8 Mt of copper (Mertig et al., 1994; van
Leeuwen, 1994). The majority of the gold and copper resources are hosted in the Erstberg East (Intermediate and
Deep ore zones) orebody (189 t Au, 2.4 Mt Cu) in one of the
largest Cu-bearing magnesian skarns in the world (Mertig et
al., 1994; Coutts et al., 1999). The skarns are hosted within or
adjacent to the Pliocene Ertsberg intrusion (3.1–2.6 Ma;
Mertig et al., 1994; Meinert et al., 1997). The subsurface,
Kucing Liar magnetite-copper-gold skarn, about 500 m
southwest of the Grasberg intrusive complex, contains more
than 450 t Au (Widodo et al., 1999). The protolith lithologies
for the Ertsberg skarns consist of a basal dolomitic unit and
an upper limestone sequence of early Tertiary age (New
Guinea Group Limestone; Mertig et al., 1994).
The Wabu Ridge gold skarn in the Hitalipa district, 35 km
north of Grasberg-Erstberg, contains a geologic resource of
more than 250 t Au and occurs along the margin of a late
Miocene to early Pliocene K alkaline intrusive-extrusive complex (6.6–5.2 Ma; O’Connor et al., 1999). The deposit is
hosted by an Oligocene sequence of limestone and calcareous
siltstone in a south-vergent anticline-thrust fault complex,
close to the intersection of a northeast-trending sinistral
strike-slip fault (O’Connor et al., 1999).
The Porgera mine in the New Guinea Highlands contains
two major stages of gold mineralization, early intermediatesulfidation type within the open-pit (premine reserve: 54 Mt
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5.8 g/t Au) and late high-grade ?low-sulfidation type in zone
VII, which lies along the Roamane fault at a depth of 200 to
500 m beneath surface (premine reserve: 5.9 Mt at 27 g/t Au;
Handley and Bradshaw, 1986; Handley and Henry, 1990;
Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Both stages of mineralization are related to the 6.0 ± 0.3 Ma
emplacement of the mafic (diorite-gabbro) sodic-alkalic
Porgera Intrusive Complex within Jurassic carbonaceous siltstones and Cretaceous calcareous shales (Handley and Henry,
1990; Richards, 1990; Richards and McDougall, 1990). The
early stage consists of disseminated pyrite and quartz-carbonate-base metal sulfide veins and associated sericite-carbonate
alteration; the later stage consists of quartz-roscoelite (Vbearing sericite)-adularia veins and breccias with native gold
and minor pyrite and Au-Ag telluride minerals (Handley and
Bradshaw, 1986; Ronacher et al., 1999). The presence of
magnetite-chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite and biotite-actinolite-anhydrite in the early-stage assemblage at more than 1,000 m
below zone VII (Ronacher et al., 1999) provides a potential
link to porphyry-style mineralization at depth. The duration
of the hydrothermal system, including both early and late
stages of mineralization, is ~100,000 yrs, as constrained by the
40
Ar/39Ar laser dating method (Ronacher et al., 2002).
Intermediate-sulfidation gold systems occur at Hidden Valley, Kerimenge, Hamata, and Wau in the Wau-Bulolo graben
(Carswell, 1990; Hutton et al., 1990; Nelson et al., 1990;
Denwer and Mowat, 1998). This graben is an intra-arc rift
basin formed in the Pliocene as a result of movement along
inferred northeast-trending strike-slip faults in a basement of
Cretaceous to Paleogene schist and phyllite (Owen Stanley
Metamorphics) that was intruded by the mid-Miocene Morobe Granodiorite (Lowenstein, 1982; Dekker et al., 1990;
Corbett, 1994). The deposits are typically associated with
faults and late-stage breccia bodies and diatremes related to
mid-Pliocene dacite to andesite porphyry intrusions (e.g.,
Edie Porphyry; Carswell, 1990). The common ore type consists of quartz-carbonate-base metal sulfide veins and related
sericite-quartz-pyrite alteration. These systems contain more
than 190 t Au at grades that range from 1.0 to 3.7 g/t Au.
The ore mineralogy and paragenetic sequence of events at
the Pliocene Umuna lode, Misima Island (77 t Au) is similar
to those described for the deposits of the Bulolo graben
(Lewis and Wilson, 1990; Appleby et al., 1996). At Umuna,
pyritic quartz and quartz-carbonate veins fill a steeply dipping
fault zone in greenschist facies metamorphic rocks (Lewis
and Wilson, 1990). The Plio-Pleistocene Gameta and Wapola
intermediate-sulfidation gold deposits (4.2 t Au) on Fergusson Island share characteristics with the style of mineralization at Misima (Appleby et al., 1996). Gameta and Wapola are
localized along gently to moderately dipping detachment
faults related to metamorphic core complexes that place Cretaceous or older ultramafic rocks of the Solomon Sea plate on
pre-Cretaceous gneiss and amphibolite of the Australian craton (McNeil, 1990; Chapple and Ibil, 1998). Pliocene granodioritic plutons form the core to the domal uplifts. The core
complexes are inferred to have formed from late Pliocene to
Recent time in response to isostatic uplift of subducted sialic
continental crust through overlying, obducted oceanic crust
and rifting due to the westerly propagation of the Woodlark
basin spreading center (Chapple and Ibil, 1998).
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The Pliocene Tolukuma intermediate-sulfidation quartzadularia-carbonate vein system, 100 km north of Port
Moresby, is high grade (1.5 Mt at 13.8 g/t Au). The deposit is
associated with phreatomagmatic breccias in the hanging wall
of a normal fault that juxtaposes andesitic volcanic rocks
against footwall Owen Stanley Metamorphics (Semple et al.,
1998).
Maramuni
Geologic setting: The Maramuni arc forms a belt of
Miocene calc-alkaline, intermediate to mafic volcanic and intrusive rocks that extends ~1,000 km across the southwestern
margin of the New Guinea mobile belt from near the Irian
Jaya border to 100 km southeast of Port Moresby (Fig. 15;
Table 1; Page, 1976; Dow, 1977; Rogerson and McKee, 1990;
McDowell et al., 1996; Hill and Raza, 1999). Arc magmatism
is inferred to be related to the subduction of the Solomon Sea
beneath the Papuan Peninsula and eastern New Guinea, following the early to mid-Miocene collision of the Ontong Java
plateau with the Melanesian arc and the southwestward jump
in subduction zones, from the Melanesian to the Marumuni
trench (Cullen and Pigott, 1989; Hill and Raza, 1999; Hall,
2002). The basement to the arc includes pre-Triassic metavolcanic rocks and granite in the Papuan fold belt (Papuan
province) and variably metamorphosed, latest Cretaceous to
Paleogene mélange and ophiolite in the New Guinea and
Owen Stanley thrust belts (Solomon province; Hamilton,
1979; Pigram and Davies, 1987; Rogerson and McKee, 1990).
The arc has been exhumed at least 3 to 4 km mainly from 8
to 5 Ma, due to the late Miocene collision of the FinisterreAdelbert (Melanesian) arc, which caused regional uplift of
northern Papua New Guinea (Crowhurst et al., 1996). This
exhumation exposed mid-Miocene batholiths east of the
Bosavi lineament, including the Bismark (17–13 Ma), Maramuni Diorite (15–10 Ma), Akuna (17–15 Ma) and Morobe
Granodiorite (14–12 Ma) intrusive complexes (Page and McDougall, 1972; Page, 1976; Lowenstein, 1982; Hall et al.,
1990). The margins of these batholiths serve as the locus for
the emplacement of late Miocene porphyries and related
copper-gold mineralization (e.g., Yandera porphyry; Watmuff,
1978).
Mineral deposit styles: Middle to late Miocene Cu-Au porphyry and skarn mineralization styles are associated with diorite to granodiorite porphyritic intrusions in the Marumuni arc
(Fig. 15). The subeconomic Frieda River porphyry system developed between 13.6 and 11.5 Ma and has a mean K/Ar age
of 11.9 Ma (Whalen et al., 1982). The major orebodies,
Horse-Ivaal and Koki, are centered on small, elongate calc-alkaline microdiorite stocks (<1.5 km in length), cut by latestage andesite porphyry and postmineralization trachyandesite dikes (Hall et al, 1990). The estimated depth of
emplacement of the porphyry complex is 1.5 to 2 km beneath
paleosurface (Hall et al., 1990). The Nena high-sulfidation
Cu-Au deposit, 7 km northwest of Frieda, formed contemporaneously with the Frieda porphyry deposits (Hall et al.,
1990). The deposit is hosted by a middle Miocene sequence
of andesitic lapilli tuff, directly beneath an andesitic lava unit
(Bainbridge et al., 1998). Hypogene covellite, stibnoluzonite,
and luzonite-enargite are the primary ore minerals hosted by
residual quartz alteration. The deposit formed at a similar
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structural-stratigraphic level to the porphyry deposits with
ore distributed over a vertical extent of ~300 m (Bainbridge
et al., 1998). The Frieda and Nena deposits lie along the
northeast-trending zone of faults and intrusions that extend
southwest through Ok Tedi, which Bainbridge et al. (1998)
suggested represents a basement fault that has localized the
southwestward migration of magmatism from mid-Miocene
at Frieda to Pleistocene at Ok Tedi.
The middle Miocene Wafi porphyry and coeval high-sulfidation system contains in excess of 107 t Au and 1.3 Mt Cu
(Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998). The Wafi deposits are hosted by
siliciclastic rocks of the Owen Stanley Metamorphics, intruded by diorite to dacite porphyry stocks, adjacent to two
major northeast-trending faults (Ercig et al., 1991; Tau-Loi
and Andrew, 1998). The porphyry system is centered on a
diorite stock, less than 300 m in diameter, concealed beneath
a leached cap of residual quartz and is extensively overprinted
by advanced argillic alteration that extends to ~450 m beneath surface; the relict potassic zone is preserved at ~600-m
depth. The depth of porphyry-style mineralization exceeds
900 m. Several enargite-bearing residual quartz-hosted gold
zones occur near fault intersections with the margin of the 1.0
by 0.6 km Wafi diatreme (Ercig et al., 1991; Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998). Secondary K-feldspar in the potassic zone of the
porphyry deposit indicates a K/Ar date of 14 Ma, whereas,
alunite from the advanced argillic zone returns a K/Ar date of
13 Ma (Tau-Loi and Andrew, 1998).
A subeconomic porphyry Cu-Au system is associated with
mid- to late Miocene dacitic to dioritic stocks at Yandera (9–7
Ma; Watmuff, 1978) and a small gold skarn occurs adjacent to
the Elandora andesite to granodiorite porphyry (late
Miocene?) at Mount Victor in Kainantu (Abiari et al., 1990).
At Mount Victor, the causal Elandora porphyries are localized
along the margins of the mid-Miocene Akuna batholith and
Cretaceous Mount Victor Granodiorite (Abiari et al., 1990).
The origin of the shoshonitic K alkaline Tabar-Feni Island
chain, which lies approximately 400 km above the New Britain
subduction slab, is less evident. However, Pliocene to Recent
magmatism in this arc could originate from subduction
modified mantle and be related to north-trending rifting of
the outer Melanesian arc during the opening of the Bismarck
Sea, which commenced at ~3.5 Ma (Johnson, 1979; Wallace
et al., 1983; McInnes and Cameron, 1994). A subarc mantle
source to Lihir Island magmatism is supported by the similarity between 187Os/188Os values from samples of gold ore
and related intrusions from the Ladolam deposit and the present-day mantle (187Os/188Os value of 0.1217), as sampled
from xenoliths collected from a nearby sea-floor volcano
(McInnes et al., 1999).
The geologic basement to the Melanesian arc is not exposed but is inferred to be pre-Eocene oceanic crust (Hall,
2002) The oldest rocks exposed include Eocene calc-alkaline
pillow lavas, volcaniclastic rocks, minor limestone, and rare
gabbroic intrusions (Dow, 1977; Rogerson and McKee, 1990).
The northwest-trending faults that extend across eastern New
Britain, New Hanover, and southern New Ireland Islands are
inferred to link to offshore transform faults that separate
northeast-oriented spreading ridges in the Bismarck Sea
(Falvey and Pritchard, 1982; Rogerson and McKee, 1990).
North-trending horst blocks form the foundation for the Islands of the Tabar-Feni chain and localize Pliocene to recent
volcanism on Lihir Island (Moyle et al., 1990). On
Bougainville Island, northwest-trending faults and lineaments
localize the distribution of Pleistocene to Recent volcanoes,
where more than 1,200 m of uplift has occurred since the
early Miocene (Clark, 1990).
Mineral deposit styles: The Melanesian arc hosts early
Miocene (25–22 Ma) Cu-Au porphyry (±skarn) prospects,
such as Esis, Plesyumi, and Kulu (Hine and Mason, 1978;
Hine et al., 1978; Titley, 1978) and the Wild Dog high-sulfidation deposit (Lindley, 1990) on New Britain, and the Legusulum porphyry prospect on New Ireland (Fig. 15; Rogerson and
McKee, 1990; Singer et al., 2002). The Arie and Mount Kren
porphyry systems on Manus Island are middle Miocene
(15–13 Ma; Singer et al., 2002). The Arie deposit is the largest
of all the Miocene systems (165 Mt at 0.32% Cu) and is related
to diorite porphyry and breccia bodies hosted by basaltic to andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Singer et al., 2002).
The Pliocene (3.4 Ma) Panguna copper-gold porphyry deposit (768 t Au, 6.4 Mt Cu) on Bougainville Island is centered
on a series of diorite, quartz diorite, and granodiorite stocks
localized along the margin of a premineralization (~5–4 Ma)
quartz diorite pluton (Clark, 1990). The following description
is based on that of Clark (1990). Intrusive breccia pipes in the
surrounding andesitic volcanic sequence and along intrusive
contacts host high-grade ore (>1.0 g/t Au and 1.0% Cu).
Mapped faults and regional lineaments defined from sidelooking airborne radar indicate two populations: west-northwest trends, which correspond to the elongate dimensions
of synmineralization diorite stock and related dikes, and
northeast trends, which parallel late-stage pebble dikes and
postmineralization (1.6 Ma) andesite dikes. The deposit extends from surface to a depth of ~650 m.
The Pleistocene (~0.3 Ma) Ladolam gold deposit (1,378 t Au)
on Lihir Island lies in the floor of the K alkaline Quaternary
Melanesian (inner and outer)
Geologic setting: The calc-alkaline Melanesian arc, as described in this paper, from west to southeast, includes the accreted portions of the Finisterre-Adelbert arcs in northeastern New Guinea and New Britain Island (inner Melanesian
arc) and the Manus, New Ireland, and Bougainville Islands
(outer Melanesian arc; Fig. 15; Table 1), which corresponds
to the Finisterre province of Rogerson and McKee (1990).
The Melanesian arc represents the northerly continuation of
the Solomon arc, which began development in the Eocene to
early Oligocene in response to southwest-directed subduction of the Pacific plate (Falvey and Pritchard, 1982; Hall,
2002). The collision of the Ontong Java plateau in the early
Miocene jammed the Melanesian trench with a general hiatus in arc magmatism from the mid- to late Miocene until
northeast-directed subduction was established beneath the
New Britain trench in the earliest Pliocene (~6 Ma; Hall,
2002). Magmatism continues through to the present. The
configuration of the arc system is largely due to the modification of the mid-Oligocene arc by westerly transport of the
inner Melanesian arc toward New Guinea, which led to
accretion of the Finisterre-Adelbert terranes in the late
Miocene (Pigram and Davies, 1987; Crowhurst et al., 1996;
Hall, 2002).
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Luise caldera, in the hanging wall of a north-northeast–trending normal fault (Moyle et al., 1990; Carman, 1995, 2003).
Three major styles of hydrothermal alteration are evident.
Early porphyry-style potassic (biotite-orthoclase-albite-anhydrite) and propylitic (calcite-chlorite-K-feldspar-albite-Kmica) alteration types are overprinted by transitional epithermal adularia and late epithermal silicic, argillic, and advanced
argillic alteration styles (Carman, 2003). The superposition of
these types of alteration and a range of K/Ar dates obtained
from hydrothermal minerals (1.0–0.2 Ma for biotite, Kfeldspar, and illite, and 0.15 Ma for alunite) led Moyle et al.
(1990) and Carman (1995) to call upon catastrophic sector
collapse of the Luise stratovolcano (present rim elevation of
~700 m) and the telescoping of the hydrothermal system
from porphyry to epithermal conditions at ~0.3 Ma. The gold
in the deposit is mostly contained in epithermal, pyrite-marcasite-arsenopyrite breccia and quartz-calcite vein ore types
that typically extend from near sea level to 200 m below
(Moyle et al., 1990; Carman, 2003). Sillitoe and Hedenquist
(2003) interpret the epithermal event at Ladolam to be low
sulfidation, on the basis of the extensional back-arc setting
and alkaline host rocks.
about 4 to 3 Ma as a result of collision between the arc and
the Australian margin in Timor (Carter et al., 1976). Clastic
and carbonate sedimentary rocks are intercalated with the
volcanic sequences of both generations of arc. The Neogene
arc is characterized by calc-alkaline andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks and their intrusive equivalents in Sumatra, and
basaltic to andesitic volcanic rocks and intrusions of calc-alkaline and tholeiitic affinities in the Java–Flores and east Banda
sectors (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; Soerja-Atmadja et
al., 1994). Dacitic to rhyolitic suites occur locally and are particularly abundant in the Alor, Wetar, and Romang sectors.
Quaternary basaltic to dacitic, and locally rhyolitic, volcanic
products cover older volcanic rocks throughout much of the
arc.
Mineral deposit styles: The arc is characterized by intermediate-sulfidation vein systems at Mangani, Salida, Lebong
Tandai/Donok, and Lampung in Sumatra and also in West
Java (Fig. 14, App. 4). The geologic basement to Sumatra and
western Java consists of Sundaland continental crust, where
no direct link between the intermediate-sulfidation deposits
and coeval intrusions is apparent. Nearly 80 t Au was produced from high-grade lodes (~15 g/t Au) in Lebong Tandai
and Lebong Donok in the Bengkulu district by the Dutch
prior to 1941 (Kavalieris, 1988; van Leeuwen, 1994). Lebong
Tandai is hosted by Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks and
Lebong Donok occurs in Miocene carbonaceous shale associated with the brecciated margins of a competent dacite intrusion (Kavalieris, 1988). The Tandai lode is localized along a
steeply dipping east-west fault system, which is offset by
northeast- and northwest-oriented strike-slip faults (Jobson et
al., 1994). Tandai, Donok, and Rawas, to the east, occur
within 20 to 30 km of the Sumatra fault near major east- and
northeast-trending arc-transverse faults.
At Miwah in Aceh, northern Sumatra, a high-sulfidation
system is hosted by north-trending, tensional fracture zones
in andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks, intruded by a Pliocene
rhyodacite within 25 km of the Sumatra fault (Williamson and
Fleming, 1995). The Tangse porphyry Cu-(Mo) prospect occurs 40 km to the northwest of Miwah and is hosted by a middle to late Miocene plutonic complex (van Leeuwen et al.,
1987). At Martabe, east of Sibolga and south of Lake Toba,
recently discovered disseminated high-sulfidation deposits
are hosted by multistage phreatomagmatic breccias and
dacitic flow dome complexes localized by extensional faults
adjacent to a strand of the Sumatra fault (Levet et al., 2003;
Sutopo et al., 2003). Early, texture-destructive, residual
quartz alteration zones are tabular and partly controlled by
the moderate dips of local breccia units and underlying porphyritic andesite adjacent to steeply dipping dilational faults.
This style of advanced argillic alteration serves as preparation
for subsequent gold depositional events. Gold is associated
with late-stage fracture- and breccia-controlled enargite-luzonite mineralization and, to a lesser extent, earlier, intermediate-sulfidation chalcedony veins (Levet et al., 2003). More
than five deposits occur over a 7-km strike length, the largest
of which, Purnama, has a resource of 116 t Au.
Gunung Pongkor (103 t Au at 17.1 g/t Au) in western Java
is a low sulfide intermediate-sulfidation bonanza vein system
hosted by Miocene andesitic tuffs and breccias and a subvolcanic andesite intrusion (Basuki et al., 1994). The Pongkor
Sunda-Banda
Geologic setting: This Eocene to Recent arc extends nearly
4,000 km from northwestern Sumatra through Java and terminates in the Banda Island group of eastern Indonesia (Fig.
14; Table 1). The basement to the arc varies from Mesozoic to
late Paleozoic platform sedimentary rocks deposited on continental crust that are intruded by two mica granites in Sumatra, through Cretaceous to Tertiary melange and ophiolite in
central and eastern Java, to oceanic crust in the Banda arc
(Hamilton, 1979).
An Eocene to early Miocene calc-alkaline arc, the “Old Andesites” of van Bemmelen (1949), extends through Sumatra
and Java and continues eastward toward the Banda arc. The
dextral Sumatra fault follows the arc and is inferred by Hamilton (1979) to have been active since the late Oligocene; more
recent work indicates the fault became active during the
Miocene (McCarthy and Elders, 1997). Although the term
“Old Andesites” has given the impression that the arc is andesitic, and such rocks are the most obvious arc products,
dacitic rocks are widespread, as minor intrusions, lavas, and
pyroclastic and ash deposits. The dacitic rocks have been
overlooked because they have commonly been reworked into
sedimentary sequences (Smyth et al., 2003) but show that arc
activity began in the Eocene in Java. Arc activity ceased, or
significantly declined, in the early Miocene and there was
widespread deposition of sedimentary rocks, especially carbonates, between Java and Sumba.
Arc activity resumed in the late middle Miocene, and a
middle Miocene to Recent magmatic arc is built on older sedimentary and volcanic rocks in most of the Sunda-Banda arc,
and in Java lies to the north of the axis of the older arc. The
volcanic arc has propagated east into the Banda region since
about 12 Ma; the volcanic rocks east of Sumbawa are less than
9 Ma old and the volcanoes become progressively younger
eastward (Abbott and Chamalaun, 1981; Honthaas et al.,
1998). Volcanism continues to the present day, although
Banda arc volcanic activity ceased in the Wetar region at
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
13
14
vein system consists of four main northwesterly trending veins
that define a northeast-oriented corridor. This corridor extends
through the Bayah dome to the southwest, where it controls
the distribution of several vein systems in the historic Cikotok
mining district. The host rocks in the Bayah dome consist of
Pliocene volcanic and clastic sequences, which locally are intruded by premineralization porphyritic dacite stocks. Individual lodes are hosted by steeply dipping north-northeast- and
north-northwest–trending faults. The northerly orientation and
dilational character of these lodes are consistent with their development as a response to north-directed subduction in this
sector of the arc. The age of intermediate-sulfidation vein mineralization obtained from adularia is 8.5 Ma, which differs from
the 2.1 to 1.5 Ma ages determined for other epithermal lode
systems in the region (Marcoux and Milesi, 1994).
The style of mineralization changes to the east. In the
Lombok–Sumbawa portion of the arc, which is underlain by
oceanic crust, high-sulfidation epithermal and porphyry CuAu deposits and prospects are present. The Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit in southwest Sumbawa contains
more than 366 t Au and 4.8 Mt Cu (Clode et al., 1999) and
occurs in an uplifted crustal block, which has been exhumed
about 2 km since the mid-Pliocene (Garwin, 2002a). Mineralization is genetically related to three stages of Neogene
tonalite porphyry intrusions emplaced in quartz diorite and
andesitic volcaniclastic wall rocks. The tonalite porphyry complex was emplaced over a span of ~100,000 yrs at ~3.7 Ma
(Fletcher et al., 2000; Garwin, 2002a; McInnes et al., 2004).
A late mineralization diatreme occurs about 2 km northwest
of Batu Hijau. The deposit occurs in the central portion of a
district characterized by several porphyry centers, peripheral
intermediate-sulfidation vein systems, and distal, sedimentary
rock-hosted replacement-style mineralization (Meldrum et
al., 1994; Irianto and Clark, 1995; Garwin, 2002a). Local controls include the intersections of northeast- and northwesttrending fault zones with the margins of premineralization
quartz diorite plutons.
Enargite-gold veins at Elang, 60 km east of Batu Hijau,
occur close to a porphyry copper-gold system, which formed
at ~2.7 Ma (Maula and Levet, 1996; Garwin, 2000). Batu
Hijau and Elang occur within 20 to 30 km of a major left-lateral oblique-slip fault zone that controls the distribution of
Miocene volcano-sedimentary units, Pliocene intrusions, and
the present coastline of Sumbawa.
Base metal-rich, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal barite
and quartz vein prospects are hosted in andesitic to dacitic
volcanic rocks and intercalated sedimentary rocks in the
West Flores, East Lomblen-Pantar, Wetar, and Romang regions of the Banda arc. In Romang, vein-style mineralization
is localized in a dilational zone along a west-northwest–trending dextral strike-slip fault corridor (Garwin and Herryansjah,
1992). Local jasperoid replacing reefal limestone characterizes several prospects in the Flores-Romang sector of the arc
(e.g., localities in Rinca Island, West Flores, and south Romang). At Wetar, Au-Ag barite deposits (23 t Au) represent a
submarine exhalative system in a sea-floor caldera setting
similar to the Kuroko deposits in Japan (Sewell and Wheatley,
1994). Gold-silver mineralization occurs in stratiform barite
sand units (exhalite), which are underlain by copper-rich massive pyrite-marcasite zones and quartz-pyrite stockworks
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
hosted in argillically altered felsic volcanic breccias of
Miocene age. Most of the copper is contained in enargite,
which is atypical of volcanic-associated massive sulfide systems. The age of mineralization is believed to lie between 5
and 4 Ma (van Leeuwen, 1994; Sewell and Wheatley, 1994).
The Wetar deposits were formed in north elongate extensional basins developed by the interaction of steeply dipping,
north-northwest and north-northeast trending conjugate
strike-slip faults inferred from the description of the geologic
setting of the deposits in Sewell and Wheatley (1994).
Central Kalimantan
Geologic setting: The Paleogene to Miocene Central Kalimantan arc of Carlile and Mitchell (1994) extends approximately 1,200 km from western Sarawak, through northwest
and central Kalimantan into northeastern Kalimantan (Fig.
14; Table 1). The trace of the arc disappears to the northeast,
beneath the western onshore extension of the Neogene SuluZamboanga arc in the Semporna peninsula of Sabah. The
basement to the arc is continental in western Kalimantan,
where the oldest rocks exposed consist of late Paleozoic mica
schists intruded by Triassic to Carboniferous and Cretaceous
(Schwaner Massif) granites (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison,
1989). In contrast, Late Cretaceous to Paleogene ophiolite,
arc volcanic and sedimentary rocks comprise the basement to
the arc in eastern Kalimantan and Sabah. In the Bau area of
west Sarawak, Triassic andesitic arc volcanic rocks are overlain by Jurassic and Cretaceous marine carbonate and siliciclastic rock sequences interpreted by Hutchison (1989) to
have been deposited along the marginal shelf of Sundaland.
The arc is defined by the discontinuous distribution of erosional remnants of calc-alkaline andesitic, trachyandesitic, and
local dacitic volcanic-plutonic centers, inferred to be associated
with tonalite, granodiorite, and granite intrusions in western
(Sintang intrusive suite) and northeastern (Long Lai intrusive
suite) Kalimantan (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). Arc activity is
still poorly dated and may extend from the Eocene. Arc construction is related to south-directed subduction beneath the
Rajang accretionary complex of northwest Borneo in the
Oligocene to Miocene by Carlile and Mitchell (1994). Arc activity diminished after early Miocene collision between the
continental crust of the South China Sea margin and the active
margin of northern Borneo (Hutchison et al., 2000; Hall and
Wilson, 2000). About ~1.3 km of exhumation from 25 to 23 Ma
and the eastward shift of the Kutai basin sedimentation mark
this tectono-magmatic event (Moss et al., 1998). The distribution of igneous rocks and middle to late Tertiary sedimentary
basins indicates that northwest-trending arc-transverse faults
played a role in arc tectonics and magmatism (Fig. 8).
The sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary Kutei basin are locally intercalated with arc-related pyroclastic rocks in eastern
Kalimantan. Hamilton (1979) inferred that the development
of the Kutai basin is related to the rifting of the eastern margin of Sundaland and the drifting of western Sulawesi away
from Kalimantan in the middle Tertiary. Chambers and Daley
(1997) indicated initial rift-basin formation in the Eocene and
subsequent basin development by load subsidence to Recent
time. It is now clear that the separation of western Sulawesi
and Kalimantan by rifting began in the Eocene, although it is
still uncertain if there was ocean crust formation in the
14
15
Makassar Strait (Cloke et al., 1999). Plio-Pleistocene tholeiitic plateau flood-basalts form platforms in northwestern,
north-central, and northeastern Kalimantan.
Mineral deposit styles: A well-defined northeasterly trending belt of gold deposits and prospects extends approximately
500 km along the southeastern margin of the Oligocene to
Miocene arc (Fig. 14). This central Kalimantan gold belt coincides with the margins of the Kutei and Barito basins along
the eastern flanks of the Schwanner massif and the rifted
margin of Sundaland. Andesitic volcanic rock-hosted, intermediate-sulfidation vein and stockwork mineral deposits
occur along this belt. The styles of mineralization in these systems are discussed by Simmons and Browne (1990) for Mt.
Muro, by Wake (1991) for Muyup, by Thompson et al. (1994)
for Masupa Ria, and van Leeuwen (1994) for Mirah and the
others. The Mt. Muro vein complex is the largest of these deposits (51 t Au). The complex lies close to the northwesttrending Trans Borneo shear of Hutchison (1989) and consists of more than 15 vein systems, most of which strike
northwesterly and dip steeply. At Masupa Ria, intermediatesulfidation veins are superimposed on an early-stage high-sulfidation alteration system (Thompson et al., 1994).
The Kelian intermediate-sulfidation deposit (179 t Au, van
Leeuwen et al., 1990) is localized in a maar-diatreme complex, which contains multiple diatreme breccia pipes and latestage endogenous quartz-porphyry domes (Davies et al.,
1999). The diatreme complex postdates subvolcanic andesite
intrusions and a north-northeast–trending Eocene to Oligocene
rhyolitic volcano-sedimentary sequence. The ore is hosted by
a variety of breccia styles, which have undergone extensive
hydrothermal alteration. Styles of mineralization include network veins and breccia and fracture filling by complex carbonate-quartz-pyrite-sphalerite-galena-gold/electrum. Limited
K/Ar radiometric dating at Kelian indicates an early Miocene
age for andesite intrusion (23 Ma) and sericite alteration (20
Ma; van Leeuwen et al., 1990). The deposit lies adjacent to
the Kutei basin and along the rifted margin of Sundaland.
Disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted gold deposits occur
in the Bau district of western Sarawak (~40 t Au in past production, Wilford, 1955; Wolfenden, 1965). Gold is associated
with carbonate and siliciclastic members of the Jurassic Bau
Limestone in fault contact with the overlying Cretaceous
Pedawan Shale. Pervasive silicification and extensive collapse
breccias have developed close to the shale and/or limestone
contact along the Tai Parit fault and adjacent to argillic-altered dacite porphyry dikes. Tai Parit marks the general intersection between a north-northeast–oriented belt of middle
Miocene (13–10 Ma; Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 1985)
dacite to granodiorite intrusions with the northeast-trending
Bau anticline. Disseminated gold mineralization is associated
with arsenopyrite in silicified shale at Jugan, approximately 10
km along trend, to the northeast. These sedimentary rockhosted deposits form part of a >300 km2 district, which also
includes weak porphyry copper-style mineralization and previously mined Cu-Au skarns, auriferous mesothermal and epithermal polymetallic sulfide-veins, and disseminated mercury deposits (Schuh, 1993)
Historic and recent alluvial gold mines are common in
western and central Kalimantan. The placer gold is probably
sourced from orogenic quartz lodes in crystalline basement
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and intermediate-sulfidation vein systems that have undergone supergene enrichment during weathering. A colloidal
origin for the gold recovered from the Ampalit alluvial mine
in Central Kalimantan has been inferred by Seeley and
Senden (1994), on the basis of gold grain morphology and its
fineness of 998. The delicate nature of the grain boundaries
and the high fineness preclude mechanical transport from
nearby epithermal veins, which commonly contain electrum
(purity of <900 fine).
Other Indonesian, Borneo, and Papua New Guinean arcs
Several other late Cenozoic magmatic arcs are described by
Carlile and Mitchell (1994), including the Miocene Northwest
Borneo (Sarawak), the Neogene West Sulawesi, and Miocene
Moon-Utawa arcs (Fig. 14). Although there is igneous activity
in these regions, there are reasons to doubt that these arcs
formed in subduction-related settings. The Miocene igneous
rocks of Sarawak are too poorly known and dated to be confident of their origins. Recent work (Prouteau et al., 2001) suggests there are two suites: early Miocene arc volcanic rocks are
the product of south-directed subduction north of Borneo and
could be the equivalent of Paleogene rocks in Sabah (Hall and
Wilson, 2000; Hutchison et al., 2001), whereas middle and late
Miocene magmatic rocks are postcollisional and have some
adakitic features (Prouteau et al., 2001).
Neogene volcanic activity in western Sulawesi began at
about 11 Ma and was probably not related to active subduction but rather to extension (Yuwono et al., 1988; Priadi et al.,
1994; Polvé et al., 1997). Elburg and Foden (1998) described
the rocks as syncollisional and isotopically enriched and relatively K rich, which they attribute to a contribution of subducted sediments. Neogene magmatic rocks are commonly
high K and include shoshonites and leucitites. The trace element patterns in the lavas suggest subduction zone recycling,
but they are most similar to rocks of postsubduction extensional environments, such as those of the southwetern United
States (Macpherson and Hall, 2002).
There was little volcanism in western New Guinea during
the Neogene and no evidence of significant subduction. Seismically, there is a poorly defined slab beneath western New
Guinea, which suggests a south-dipping subducted slab of little more than 100 km at the New Guinea trench. Tomographic images show no slab beneath western New Guinea
(Spakman and Bijwaard, 1998; Hall and Spakman, 2002). As
noted by Carlile and Mitchell (1994), Neogene volcanic rocks
from Irian Jaya have been little explored and the midMiocene Moon-Utawa rocks have not been well studied.
Other Miocene volcanic rocks in Irian Jaya have an unusual
chemical character that is postcollisional and quite different
from Neogene magmatic rocks in eastern New Guinea
(Housh and McMahon 2000).
Carlile and Mitchell (1994) postulated the existence of the
Neogene Aceh arc in northernmost Sumatra, on the basis of
the distribution of volcanic rocks of similar age and the citation of an offshore trench in Stephenson et al. (1982). However, this arc, if it exists at all, lacks a Benioff zone and a pronounced bathymetric trench, as indicated by satellite gravity
data. It is more likely that the Aceh arc represents a young
portion of the Sunda arc with magmatic activity localized
along a west-northwest–trending arc-transverse fault zone.
15
16
Miocene to Pliocene calc-alkaline and alkaline volcanic
rocks and granodiorite to monzonite intrusions (Dondo Suite)
in the western arm and neck of Sulawesi do not host significant gold mineralization. However, significant gold deposits
do occur at Awak Mas (26 t Au) and Palu (G. Hartshorn, pers.
commun., 1999). Both deposits are located close to sinistral
strike-slip faults of the Palu fault system. In Awak Mas, epi- to
mesothermal quartz veins and stockworks are localized along
shear zones in Cretaceous metasedimentary basement and
near fault contacts with basalt (van Leeuwen, 1994). Gold occurs in pyritic quartz-albite-carbonate breccias, veins, and
stockworks. The Ag/Au ratio of the deposit is less than one.
The genetic relationship between mineralization and the
Neogene magmatic arc, if any, is not clear.
No significant gold prospects are known in the Northwest
Borneo arc of Hutchison (1989). However, gold occurs in
placers and minor quartz veins near dacitic pyroclastic rocks
and flows of the Hose Mountains and the Usun Apau plateau
(Kirk, 1968; Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1976).
The Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks and dioritic intrusions in the “Bird’s Head” portion of the Moon arc in Irian
Jaya are characterized by gold and base metal mineralization
associated with quartz veins and stockworks (Carlile and
Mitchell, 1994). No significant gold or copper prospects are
documented for the Oligocene to Miocene volcanic arc rocks
on Yapen Island, east of the Moon arc.
The Mount Kinabalu pluton, satellite intrusions, and coeval
andesitic-dacitic volcanic rocks in northwestern Sabah do not
lie along a well-defined magmatic arc. The ages of the causal
high K calc-alkaline adamellite pluton and apophyses range
from 12.2 to 1.3 Ma (Kirk, 1968; Hutchison, 1989). However,
the most probable age ranges from 7.0 to 6.4 Ma (App. 4; Bellon and Rangin, 1991; Imai, 2000). The pluton intrudes Paleogene sedimentary rocks of the Rajang accretionary prism to
the inactive Northwest Borneo trench (Hutchison, 1989). A
series of northwest-trending faults pass through Mount Kinabalu, forming a fault zone that extends through central Sabah
to the Semporna peninsula (Kinabalu fault of Tokuyama and
Yoshida, 1974). Basement rocks consist of greenschist- and
amhibolite-facies schist and gneiss of Mesozoic (?) age.
The Mamut Cu-Au deposit is centered on an apophysis to
the Kinabalu pluton along the eastern flank of Mount Kinabalu. Porphyry-style mineralization occurs in and adjacent to
an adamellite porphyry stock (7.0 Ma; Imai, 2000) cut by
postmineralization granodiorite dikes in a sequence of weakly
hornfelzed sandstone, mudstone, spillitc tuffs, and serpentinized peridotite. The host-rock sequence is inferred to have
been tectonically emplaced in the early to middle Miocene
(Kosaka and Wakita, 1978).
Woodlark Island in Papua New Guinea is a remnant of a
Miocene island arc built upon Cretaceous (?)-Eocene tholeiitic, Solomon Sea floor basalt, which is inferred to have been
obducted onto the Australian craton (Fig. 15; Russell and Finlayson, 1987; Russell, 1990). Intermediate-sulfidation gold deposits, Kulumadau, Boniavat, and Busai, are related to a porphyritic microdioritic pluton and monzonite dikes emplaced in
high K calc-alkaline andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
of early to middle Miocene age (Russell, 1990). The ore assemblage at Kulumadau contains calcite ± quartz-pyrite-base
metal sulfides in phreatic explosion breccias, in contrast to the
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
ore assemblages at the Busi and Boniavat vein systems, which
are more quartz rich and typically contain only minor base
metal sulfides (Russell, 1990). The age of mineralization at
Busai is dated as 12.3 Ma (Russell and Finlayson, 1987).
Burman
Geologic setting: The Neogene to Quaternary Burman
magmatic arc includes an onshore portion in Myanmar, which
extends ~1,200 km from the Jade mines in the north through
Mount Popa and Pegu Yoma in the south, and an offshore
chain of islands and seamounts in the Narcandam and Barren
Island region of the Andaman Sea (Fig. 2; Table 1). The arc
lies to the west of the dextral strike-slip Sagaing fault, which
marks the boundary between the Burma continental block to
the west and the Shan-Thai core of the Eurasian plate to the
east (Hutchison, 1989). The onshore portion of the arc is calcalkaline to high K calc-alkaline, while the offshore sector is
tholeiitic (Hutchison, 1989). A belt of alkaline to shoshonitic
rocks, about 100 km to the east of the calc-alkaline arc, extends along the eastern side of the Sagaing fault and continues southward along the eastern shore of the Andaman Sea.
The eastward increase in alkalinity is attributed to the waning
stages of eastward subduction of the Indian plate beneath the
Burma block during the transition to strike-slip movement associated with spreading in the Andaman Sea that began by
~10 Ma (Curray et al., 1979; Stephenson and Marshall, 1984).
The Burman magmatic arc is associated with a poorly defined
Benioff zone that extends to a depth of 200 km.
The basement to the arc in the Banmauk region consists of
Mesozoic phyllite, schist, gneiss, and amphibolite. Marine
basalt, andesite, volcaniclastic rocks, and mudstone overlie
the basement rocks and both sequences are intruded by the
Cretaceous Kanzachaung granodiorite batholith (United Nations Development Program, 1978a). Eocene andesite sills
and early Oligocene diorite to granodiorite stocks (e.g.,
Shangalon granodiorite), trachyte flows and dikes are overlain
by Oligocene to Miocene mudstones and sandstones (United
Nations Development Program, 1978a, b; Mitchell et al.,
1999). This succession covers much of the western forearc
and eastern backarc basins to the Burman arc. Late Miocene
to Quaternary basalt and andesite are characteristic of the
Mount Popa, Taungthonlon, and Monywa areas.
Mineral deposit styles: Alluvial gold occurs at Mansi, to the
west of the northern portion of the arc, and in the Jade Mines
region to the north (Goosens, 1978; United Nations Development Program, 1978c). In the Banmauk region lode gold was
recovered from pyritic quartz lodes hosted by Tertiary andesitic tuffs and breccias at Kyaukpazat (Goosens, 1978) and
in granodiorite at Sadwin (United Nations Development Program, 1978c). The Shangalon porphyry Cu-Au prospect is
hosted by quartz diorite along the margin of the Cretaceous
granodiorite batholith, 80 km southwest of Banmauk.
The Monywa high-sulfidation deposit occurs in an uplifted
portion of the arc about 50 km north of Mount Popa. More
than 4.5 Mt of copper occurs in hypogene chalcocite-bearing
breccia bodies associated with hypabyssal dacitic intrusions,
which indicate radiometric ages of 19 Ma at Letpadaung and
13 Ma at Kyisintaung (App. 6; Kyaw Win and Kirwin, 1998).
The gold content of the copper ore is minor. The intermediate-sulfidation quartz veins that occur within 5 km of the
16
17
chalcocite orebodies contain low levels of gold and silver
(Kyaw Win and Kirwin, 1998).
In the Indawgyi region of the backarc basin, immediately
west of the Sagaing fault, Miocene (?) sedimentary rockhosted gold mineralization at Kyaukpahto is localized in a decalcified and silicified calcareous arkosic sandstone sequence
(Male Formation) of probable Eocene age (Ye Myint Swe,
1990; Mitchell et al., 1999). Hydrothermal alteration includes
decalcification, silicification, and sericitic and argillic styles.
Gold is associated with fine-grained pyrite and arsenopyrite in
quartz veinlets and as disseminated framboidal grains in silicified and brecciated sandstone. The region hosts numerous
primary and alluvial gold occurrences that are spatially related to a 100-km-long segment of the Sagaing fault.
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APPENDICES 2 to 6
Grade-Tonnage and Age Characteristics for Major Gold
and Copper ± Gold Deposits in the Cenozoic Magmatic
Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific
In these appendices, the total size and contained gold and
copper contents (metric tonnes), grades (g/t Au and % Cu)
and age of formation (Ma) are reported for all major and
some minor deposits. These contents include conservative resource figures for the deposits and combined reserves and/or
resources and past production for the mines, except where indicated otherwise. The grade-tonnage characteristics and age
relationships are illustrated in Figures 17 and 18 in the
printed part of the paper.
17
LS
LS
LS
LS
IS
EP-XE-PM NE Japan
EP-PM
NE Japan
EP-PM
HS-IS
IS
IS
IS
IS
IS
IS
VMS
VMS
VMS
VMS
VMS
XE-PM
IS
IS
LS
LS
IS
IS
LS
Konomai
Sanru
Kitano-o
Hokuryu
Ohgane
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Toyoha
Osarizawa
Hosokura
Teine
Sado
Takatama
Chitose
Shizukari
18
Todoroki
Koryu
Nurukawa
Hanaoka
Kosaka
Shakanai
Yoichi
Ashio
Bajo
Ohmori
Taio
Hoshino
Seigoshi
Rendaiji
Toi
Izu-Bonin
Izu-Bonin
Izu-Bonin
SW Japan
SW Japan
SW Japan
SW Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
NE Japan
Kuril
Kuril
Kuril
Kuril
Style
Deposit
Magmatic
arc
Izu
Izu
Izu
North Kyushu
North Kyushu
Chugoku
North Kyushu
Tohoku
Southwest Hokkaido
Southwest Hokkaido
Tohoku
Tohoku
Tohoku
Tohoku
Southwest Hokkaido
Southwest Hokkaido
Southwest Hokkaido
Tohoku
Tohoku
SW Hokkaido
Tohoku
Southwest Hokkaido
Tohoku
Southwest Hokkaido
Northeast Hokkaido
Northeast Hokkaido
Northeast Hokkaido
Northeast Hokkaido
Region/district
1.3
0.6
1.3
5.7
24.9
1.0
41.8
27.9
8.7
1.1
1.6
2.9
15
1.4
20
28.5
0.4
0.3
11.4
0.9
0.5
2.5
2.3
1.05
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
300
Contained
Cu (000s t)
9.3
4.0
10.8
6.3
0.12
615
6.8
0.1-0.2 960
0.4-0.7 600
0.3-2.0 100
9
7
14.5
10
5.1
7.5
0.35
0.15
5
8.2
6.4
7.4
5.9
Au
(g/t)
12
3
14
3
13
1
36
3
7
6
8
23
29
77
11
3
7
4
2
2
73
7
3
Contained
Au (t)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Yamada et al. (1988)
Ohmoto et al. (1983)
Ohmoto et al. (1983)
Ohmoto et al. (1983)
Past production only;
Watanabe (2002)
Shikazono (1986); Furukawa
Mining Co. Ltd. (1981)
Izawa and Watanabe (2001)
Shikazono (1986)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Izawa and Watanabe (2001)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Saito et al. (1967);
Shikazono (1986)
Shikazono (1986)
Shikazono (1986);
Saito et al. (1967)
Sakai and Oba (1970)
Watanabe (1995)
Watanabe (1995)
Shikazono (1986);
Saito et al. (1967)
Shikazono (1986);
Saito et al. (1967)
Shikazono (1986);
Saito et al. (1967)
Kanbara and Kumita (1990)
Mineland Osarizawa
(unpub. data)
Shikazono (1986)
Reference for
Grade-tonnage data
Plio-Pleistocene
1.5 (K/Ar)
1.8-0.7 (K/Ar)
2.8-2.5 (K/Ar)
4.6-3.9 (K/Ar)
1.1 (K/Ar)
3.6-2.9 (K/Ar)
Miocene
3.1-2.1 (K/Ar)
1.2 (K/Ar)
Middle Miocene
Middle Miocene
Middle Miocene
Middle Miocene
12.3 (K/Ar)
2.4 (K/Ar)
7.7 (K/Ar)
3.5-3.3 (K/Ar)
24.1-22.1 (K/Ar)
14.5-13.4 (K/Ar)
4.4-4.0 (K/Ar)
Miocene
5.8 (K/Ar)
2.9-0.5 (K/Ar)
11.4 (K/Ar)
13.7 (K/Ar)
12.9-12.2 (K/Ar)
12.4 (K/Ar)
7.7-7.4 (K/Ar)
Age (Ma)
(method)
Grade-Tonnage and Age Charactersitics of Significant Gold and Copper Deposits in Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Japan and Taiwan
Appendix 2
Sawai et al. (1998)
and (2001)
Hamasaki and Bunno
(2002); Ministry of
Internatinal Trade and
Industry (1987b)
Ministry of Internatinal
Trade and Industry
(1987b)
Sawai et al. (2002)
Sakota et al. (2000)
Yuan et al. (1993)
Sawai et al. (1992)
Shimizu et al. (1998)
Yamada et al. (1988)
Ohmoto et al. (1983)
Ohmoto et al. (1983)
Ohmoto et al. (1983)
Sawai and Itaya (1996)
Watanabe (1991)
Seki (1993)
Sawai et al. (1992)
Shikazono and
Tsunakawa (1982)
Sawai et al. (1992;
Sawai and Itaya (1996)
Ministry of International Trade and Industry (1987a), Shikazono
and Tsunakawa (1982)
Sawai et al. (1989)
Hirai et al. (2000)
Yahata et al. (1999)
Yahata et al. (1999)
Sugaki and Isobe (1985)
Maeda (1996)
Reference for age
18
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
HS
IS
IS
LS
LS
Iwato
Kushikino
Fuke
Hishikari
Yamagano
19
Ryukyu
Ryukyu
Ryukyu
Ryukyu
Ryukyu
South Kyushu
South Kyushu
South Kyushu
South Kyushu
South Kyushu
South Kyushu
South Kyushu
1.6
5.5
1.6
8.3
0.9
3
20
0.2
0.8
0.6
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
13.6
47.3
17.4
6.7
9.8
3.1
4.6
12.2
6.4
Au
(g/t)
119
Contained
Cu (000s t)
22
260
28
3
56
8
9
9
92
2
5
Contained
Au (t)
Izawa et al. (2001)
Murakami and
Feebrey (2001)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Izawa and Watanabe (2001)
Hayashi (2001);
Nakamura et al. (1994)
Hayashi (2001)
Tan (1991);
Wang et al. (1999)
Hayashi (2001)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Japan Mining Industry
Association (1978)
Reference for
Grade-tonnage data
1.6-1.2 (K/Ar)
1.1-0.7 (K/Ar)
2.0-1.9 (K/Ar)
2.2-1.4 (K/Ar)
3.7-3.4 (K/Ar)
4.7-4.2 (K/Ar)
3.7 (K/Ar)
4.5 (K/Ar)
1.0 (Ar/Ar, K/Ar)
2.5 (K/Ar)
Pio-Pleistocene
Age (Ma)
(method)
Ministry of International Trade and
Industry (2000)
Sekine et al. (2002)
Murakami and
Feebrey (2001)
Ministry of International Trade and
Industry (2000)
Izawa et al. (1984);
Togashi and Shibata
(1984)
Izawa and Zeng (2001)
Ministry of International Trade and
Industry (1985)
Izawa et al. (1984)
Ministry of Internati0nal
Trade and Industry
(1987b)
Ministry of International
Trade and Industry
(1987b)
Wang et al. (1999)
Reference for age
Notes: Grade-tonnage data includes combined resources and past production; mineralization styles: HS = high-sulfidation epithermal, IS = intermediate-sulfidation epithermal, LS = low-sulfidation
epithermal, PM = polymetallic, VMS = Kuroko-type massive sulfide, XE = xenothermal
LS
Ryukyu
HS
Akeshi
Okuchi
South Kyushu
Ryukyu
Ryukyu
Taiwan
Ryukyu
Chinkuashih HS
(Taiwan)
Kasuga
HS
Izu
Izu-Bonin
Izu
Region/district
Yugashima LS
Magmatic
arc
Izu-Bonin
Style
Mochikoshi LS
Deposit
Appendix 2 (Cont.)
19
Style3
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
San Fabian
Santo Nino*
Lobo*
20
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
SK
HS
IS
IS
IS
IS
IS
Black
Mountain*
Kenon South
Gambang
Suluakan
(Worldwide)
Botilao
Ullman*
Dilong/Hale
Thanksgiving*
Lepanto*
Antamok*
Itogon*
Acupan*
Victoria*
Teresa2
Dizon*
Tayson
San Antonio
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
Batong Buhay* IS
PO CGD
Tawi-Tawi
Batong Buhay* PO CGD
PO CGD
Guinaoang
Sto Thomas II* PO CGD
Far South East PO CGD
Deposit1
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Western Luzon
Western Luzon
Western Luzon
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordilerra
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Luzon Central
Cordillera
Magmatic
arc
Zambales
Batangas
Marinduque
Northwest Luzon
Mankayan
Mankayan
Baguio
Baguio
Baguio
Mankayan
Baguio
Northwest Luzon
Baguio
Northwest Luzon
Baguio
Mankayan
Baguio
Baguio
Bobok
Northwest Luzon
Baguio
Baguio
San Fabian
Mankayan
Baguio
Mankayan
Region/district
187
336
195
1
7.3
11
31.1
40.7
1.1
35
38
82
123
55.6
62
62
159
107
210
286
314
326
449
650
0.36
0.31
0.57
2.78
0.5
0.34
0.52
0.35
0.35
0.38
0.38
0.39
0.6
0.28
0.35
0.27
0.37
0.38
0.65
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
0.93
0.35
0.1
13.0
5.3
7.3
3.92
3.29
11.6
0.35
0.33
0.19
0.13
0.32
0.33
0.33
0.16
0.25
0.25
0.2
0.21
0.37
0.7
1.33
Au
(g/t)
706
1042
1112
1131
175
129
426
431
195
236
236
620
642
588
1001
848
1206
1616
4225
Contained
Cu (000s t)
182
118
20
13
39
80
97
122
315
134
13
12
13
16
16
18
20
20
25
27
53
57
66
121
314
865
Contained
Au (t)
1.4-1.3 (K/Ar)
5.5 (K/Ar)
7
3.1-2.9 (Ar/Ar)
4.6(K/Ar)
7
1.5 (K/Ar)
20.6
3.5 (K/Ar)
1.5 (K/Ar)
1.4-1.3 (K/Ar)
Age (Ma)
1.15 (?)
Singer et al. (2002)
2.7 (K/Ar)
Singer et al. (2002)
20.5
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
TVI Pacific Inc.(1995)
Waters (2004)
B. Andam (pers.
commun., 1996); Benquet
Corp., (1994) (estimate)
Itogon-Suyoc Mining
Pleistocene(?)
Incorporated (1993,
1994) (estimate)
Bureau of Mines and
0.65 (K/Ar)
Geo-Sciences (1986);
Benquet Corp. (1995)
(estimate)
Claveria et al. (1999)
1.15 (K/Ar)
Mitchell and
Leach (1991)
Claveria et al. (1999)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Yumul (1980)
Metal Mining Agency
of Japan (1977)
Sillitoe and Gappe
(1984)
Singer et al. (2002)
TVI Pacific Inc. (1995)
Sillitoe and Gappe(1984)
Mining Journal
(14 Oct. 1994)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Claveria et al. (1999)
Reference for
grade-tonnage data
Grade-Tonnage and Age Charactersitics of Significant Gold and Copper Deposits in Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of the Philippines
Appendix 3
Sillitoe (1989)
Singer et al. (2002)
Inferred: Hedenquist
et al. (2001)
Hedenquist et al. (2001)
Cooke et al. (1996)
Inferred from
Cooke et al. (1996)
Hedenquist et al. (2001)
Sillitoe (1989)
Singer et al. (2002)
Waters (2004)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Sillitoe and
Angeles (1985)
Singer et al. (2002)
Sillitoe (1989)
Hedenquist et al. (2001)
Reference for age
20
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGM
HS
IS
IS
IS
IS
DS/IS
VMS
VMS
PO CGD
POCGD
POCGD
IS
IS
IS
VMS
PO CGD
IS
PO CGM
PO CGM
PO CGM
Kingking
Boyongun
Bayugo
Amacan *
Mapula
Larap
(Matanlang)
Nalesbitan *
Placer*
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Longos Point*
Masara*
Co-o *
Siana*
21
Sulat
Rapu-Rapu
Basay*
Hinobaan
Sipalay*
Masbate*
Bulawan*
Sibutad
Canatuan
Tampakan
T'Boli
Lutopan*
Biga *
Carmen*
Rapu-Rapu
Negros
Negros
Negros
Masbate
Central Samar
Central East
Mindanao
Surigao
Masara
Camarines Norte
Surigao
Camarines Norte
Camarines Norte
Camarines Norte
Surigao
Surigao
Masara
Masara
Zambales
Marinduque
Isabela-Didipio
Isabela-Didipio
Isabela-Didipio
Region/district
Cebu
Cebu
Cebu
Cotabato
533
395
390
2.4
21
2.3
900
14
7.1
262
440
807
14.5
32.5
0.9
4.8
3.9
3.2
39.9
0.5
0.43
0.43
1.85
0.75
1.23
0.44
0.41
0.47
0.61
0.35
0.37
0.4
116
78
65
7.6
0.35
0.6
0.41
0.52
0.4
0.43
400
250
20
177
124
55
27
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
0.31
0.25
0.24
5.5
1.12
2.23
0.3
2.9
2.54
0.29
0.14
0.05
4.25
0.62
7.3
5.42
8.65
12.0
1.63
0.4
1.23
0.40
0.36
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.12
1.0
0.24
1.04
Au
(g/t)
2665
1699
1677
43
6750
87
1153
1804
3793
198
228
429
312
1447
1500
82
920
484
237
Contained
Cu (000s t)
165
99
94
13
24
5
270
41
18
76
62
40
62
20
7
26
34
38
65
26
9
46
28
167
150
12
21
120
13
28
Contained
Au (t)
2.1 (K/Ar)
15 (K/Ar)
23.2 (K/Ar)
25 (K/Ar)
Age (Ma)
3.2 (U/Pb)
Pleistocene
14.4 (K/Ar)
?30 (K/Ar)
17.5
?30 (K/Ar)
Late Miocene
Miocene
2.6-2.3 (Ar/Ar)
4.3 (K/Ar)
Pliocene
20.5
Pliocene
Research Institute
Unit (2002)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) 108 (K/Ar)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
United Nations Development Program (1992)
Manila Mining Corporation (1993, 1994);
Mitchell and Leach
(1991) (estimate)
United Nations Development Program (1992)
Mitchell and Leach
(1991); White et al.
(1995)
United Nations Development Program (1992)
Bureau of Mines and
Geo-Sciences (1986);
Mitchell and Leach
(1991) (estimate)
Bureau of Mines and
Geo-Sciences (1986)
TVI-Pacific (2003b)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Mitchell and Leach
(1991) (estimate)
Metals Economics
Group (1994)
Jimenez et al. (2002)
TVI-Pacific (2003a)
Rohrlach et al. (1999)
Pliocene
2.6-2.3 (Ar/Ar)
2.6-2.3 (Ar/Ar)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) Late Miocene
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) Late Miocene
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Feebrey (2003)
Reference for
grade-tonnage data
Walther et al. (1981)
R. Loucks, pers. commun.
(2002)
Jimenez et al. (2002)
Sillitoe (1989)
Divis (1983)
Singer et al. (2002)
Divis (1983)
Mitchell and Leach (1991)
Mitchell and Leach (1991)
Waters (2004)
Sillitoe (1989)
Sillitoe (1989)
Singer et al. (2002)
Sillitoe et al. (1990)
Sillitoe (1989)
Waters (2004)
Waters (2004)
Mitchell and Leach (1991)
Mitchell and Leach (1991)
Singer et al. (2002)
Walther et al. (1981)
Wolfe et al. (1999)
Mitchell and Leach (1991)
Reference for age
Notes: Grade-tonnage data includes combined resources and past production
1 Present or historic mines are indicated by *
2 The Teresa gold reserve figure is not included in the endowment estimates quoted in the text or figures.
3 Mineralization styles: DS = disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted, HS = high-sulfidation epithermal, IS = intermediate-sulfidation epithermal, LS = low-sulfidation epithermal, PO CGD = porphyry copper-gold, PO CGM = porphyry copper-gold-molybdenum, SK = skarn, VMS = volcanic-associated massive sulfide
Cebu
Cebu
Cebu
Cotabato
Sulu-Zamboanga Zamboanga
Sulu-Zamboanga Zamboanga
Cotabato
Cotabato
Masbate-Negros Negros
Philippines
Masbate-Negros
Masbate-Negros
Masbate-Negros
Masbate-Negros
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Philippines
Western Luzon
Sierra Madre
Cordon
Cordon
Cordon
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
IS
Pisumpan
Tapian*
Dinkidi
Marian
Runruno
Magmatic
arc
Style3
Deposit1
Appendix 3 (Cont.)
21
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
HS
IS
IS
IS
IS
IS
Gn. Pani
Toka Tindung
Doup
Lanut*
Bolangitang
Mesel Deposits* DS
22
SK
Kucing Liar
IS
IS
IS
Gn. Pongkor*
Lebong Tandai*
Lebong Donok*
Tangse
Martabe
DOM
Ertsberg*
Ertsberg East
(IOZ/DOZ)*
Big Gossan
Wabu
PO CGD Medial
New Guinea
Grasberg*
(reserve)
Sunda
Sunda
Sunda
Medial
New Guinea
SK
Medial
New Guinea
SK
Medial
New Guinea
SK
Medial
New Guinea
SK
Medial
New Guinea
SK
Medial
New Guinea
PO CMD Sunda
HS
Sunda
IS
IS
IS
PO CGD
Halmahera
Halmahera
Halmahera
Medial
New Guinea
PO CGD Halmahera
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
Gosowong*
Kencana2*
Toguraci*
Grasberg*
(resource)
Kaputusan
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
North Sulawesi
HS
Bawone
(Binebase)
Cabang Kiri East
Sungai Mak
Kayubulan Ridge
Bulagidun
Tapadaa
Motomboto
North Sulawesi
Sangihe
Style3
Deposit1
Magmatic
arc
Bengkulu
Bengkulu
West Java
Tangse
Sibolga
Carstenz
2.8
2.9
6.0
600
66.7
31
32.6
37
Carstenz
Carstenz
210
117
320
1877
0.99
1.7
0.41
4000
70
9.7
--
12
5.5
12.3
30
136
84
75
14.4
43
2
4.5
0.15
1.67
2.3
2.69
1.14
1.41
1.04
0.6
0.3
0.43
0.76
0.76
0.61
0.54
2.0
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
Carstenz
Carstenz
Carstenz
Carstenz
Gosowong
Gosowong
Gosowong
Carstenz
Bacan
Kotamobagu
Gorontalo
Kotamobagu
Kotamobagu
Kotamobagu
Marissa
Gorontalo
Gorontalo
Gorontalo
Marissa
Gorontalo
Gorontalo
Sangihe
Region/district
15.5
14.3
17.1
1.74
0.42
0.8
1.02
0.9
2.16
1.41
1.04
27
41
27
0.64
0.21
6.45
1.6
2.80
2.85
1.35
0.58
0.39
0.33
0.68
0.08
1.5
1.37
Au
(g/t)
900
518
750
995
2394
4512
19521
24000
210
585
638
570
88
232
40
Contained
Cu (000s t)
43
41
103
116
13
26
38
189
253
451
1952
27
70
11
2560
15
63
11
19
15
35
41
79
33
25
10
3
3
6
Contained
Au (t)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Levet et al. (2003);
Sutopo et al. (2003)
Basuki et al. (1994);
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Widodo et al. (1999)
Mertig et al. (1994)
Widodo et al. (1999)
Coutts et al. (1999)
O'Connor et al. (1999)
Widodo et al. (1999)
(open pit and
underground)
Widodo et al. (1999)
Olberg et al. (1999)
Mining News, 2004
Intierra (2003)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
(approximate)
van Leeuwen (1994);
Carlile and Mitchell (1994)
Gold Gazette Asian
Edition (April 1999)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
Carlile and Mitchell
(1994) (estimate only)
Newmont Mining (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Reference for
grade-tonnage data
Miocene
8.5 (K/Ar)
13-9
Pliocene(?)
3.1-2.6 (K/Ar)
3.1-2.6 (K/Ar)
~3
3.1-2.6 (K/Ar)
6.6-5.2 (K/Ar)
~3
3.3-2.7 (K/Ar)
2.9-2.4 (Ar/Ar)
Pliocene
Pliocene
3.3-2.7 (K/Ar)
Late MiocenePliocene
Neogene
Neogene
Neogene
2.4 (K/Ar)
3.3-3.1 (Ar/Ar)
2.9 (K/Ar)
Late Pliocene
2.4 (K/Ar)
8.8 (K/Ar)
3.75 (K/Ar)
1.9 (K/Ar)
Miocene
Age (Ma)
Grade-Tonnage and Age Charactersitics of Significant Gold and Copper Deposits in Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Indonesia and Borneo
Appendix 4
Jobson et al. (1994)
Mertig et al. (1994);
McDowell et al. (1996)
Mertig et al. (1994);
McDowell et al. (1996)
Mertig et al. (1994);
McDowell et al. (1996)
Mertig et al. (1994);
McDowell et al. (1996)
van Leeuwen (1994)
B. K. Levet, pers.
commun. (2003)
Marcoux and Milesi (1994)
O'Conner et al. (1999)
Carlile and Mitchell
(1994)
Olberg et al. (1999)
Olberg et al. (1999)
Olberg et al. (1999)
MacDonald and Arnold
(1994); McDowell et al.
(1996)
MacDonald and Arnold
(1994); McDowell et al.
(1996)
Widodo et al. (1999)
Garwin et al. (1995)
White et al. (1995)
Carlile et al. (1990)
Moyle et al (1997)
Pearson and Caira (1999)
Perello (1994)
Perello (1994)
Perello (1994)
Lubis et al. (1994)
Singer et al. (2002)
Perello (1994)
Carlile et al. (1990)
Reference for age
22
IS
IS
IS
IS
PO CGD East Sunda
PO CGD East Sunda
IS
Banda
VMS-HS Banda
IS
IS
IS
IS
DS
Cibaliung
Cikondang
Mangani*
Way Linggo
Batu Hijau*
Elang
Soripesa
Wetar Deposits*
Kelian*
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Mount Muro*
Mirah
Masupa Ria
Bau Deposits
(Sarawak)*
23
Meratus
0.48
0.35
0.44
1.8
1.9
0.5
4.3
12.8
1.96
3.1
1.85
4.2
0.4
0.35
6.5
9.1
10.9
10.4
3.1
Au
(g/t)
941
2100
7216
Contained
Cu (000s t)
8
42
98
31
4
12
51
179
240
1
23
574
6
4
8
14
24
Contained
Au (t)
3.7 (U/Pb)4
PlioPleistocene(?)
Age (Ma)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Cox (1992) (estimate
includes Tai Parit and
Jugan)
Singer et al. (2002)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Research Information
Unit (1997)
van Leeuwen (1994)
7.0 (K/Ar);
6.8-6.4 (K/Ar)
13-10 (K/Ar)
25 (K/Ar)
Early
Miocene(?)
20 (K/Ar)
Maula and Levet (1996) 2.7 (U/Pb)4
Carlile and Mitchell (1994)
van Leeuwen (1994)
5-4; 4.7
van Leeuwen (1994)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
Clode et al. (1999)
Research Information
Unit (1997)
Research Information
Unit (2002)
van Leeuwen (1994)
Reference for
grade-tonnage data
Metal Mining Agency of
Japan (1985) (on felsic
intrusions)
Imai (2000); Bellon and
Rangin (1991)
Thompson et al. (1994)
Simmons and Browne
(1990); Thompson et al.
(1994)
Sewell and Wheatley
(1994); van Leeuwen
(1994)
van Leeuwen et al. (1990)
Fletcher et al. (2000);
Garwin (2000, 2002a)
Garwin (2000)
Marcoux and Milesi (1994)
Reference for age
Notes: Grade-tonnage data includes combined resources and past production, except for Grasberg, IOZ/DOZ, DOM, Big Gossan, Kucing Liar deposits, which include reserves as of December 1998
1 Present or historic mines are indicated by *
2 The Kencana resource figure is not included in the endowment estimates quoted in the text or figures
3 Mineralization styles: DS = disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted, HS = high-sulfidation epithermal, IS = intermediate-sulfidation epithermal, LS = low-sulfidation epithermal, PO CGD = porphyry copper-gold = PO CMD = porphyry copper-molybdenum, SK = skarn, VMS = volcanic-associated massive sulfide or exhalative
4 206Pb/238U ages of zircons using a sensitive high-mass resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP II)
MeratusSumatra
4.3
IS
Sungai Keruh
Central Sulawesi
22
Arc unrelated?
IS
Awak Mas
7.3
0.3
6.0
16.5
97
5.4
600
1640
0.9
0.41
0.7
1.3
7.8
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
196
Central
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
Bau
Central
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
West Sumbawa
East Sumbawa
Wetar
West Sumbawa
Mangani
Lampung
West Java
West Java
Bengkulu
Region/district
Mamut (Sabah)* PO CGD Kinabalu Pluton Mamut-Nungok
Central
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
Central
Kalimantan
Sunda
Sunda
Sunda
Sunda
Sunda
IS
Rawas*
Magmatic
arc
Style3
Deposit1
Appendix 4 (Cont.)
23
Style2
Magmatic
arc or belt
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
24
Inner Melanesian
Inner Melanesian
Inner Melanesian
Inner Melanesian
Inner Melanesian
Outer Melanesian Bougainville Island 1397
Outer Melanesian Lihir Island
420
(Tabar-Feni arc)
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
HS
HS
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
PO CGD
HS
PO CGD
?LS
LS, PO CGD
IS
Freida River
Wafi River
Yandera
Nena
Wafi River
Arie
Plesyumi
Esis
Kulu
Wild Dog
(Mt. Sinivit)
Panguna*
Ladolam*
Kabang
Woodlark*
338
69
18
1060
100
1.5
0.46
0.32
0.42
1.63
0.52
1.3
0.4
0.54
0.64
3.7
1.4
0.55
3.28
5.83
0.1
0.81
2.6
0.31
0.6
13.8
3.1
2.3
1.9
3.7
1.0
1.38
2.1
5.8
0.6
0.1
0.63
Au
(g/t)
6426
528
1420
1125
5512
1300
340
351
4480
Contained
Cu (000s t)
10
6
768
1378
6
34
56
47
329
60
21
29
5
10
28
55
77
78
487
51
7
441
Contained
Au (t)
Russell (1990)
Clark (1990)
Lihir Gold (2003);
Research Information
Unit (2002)
Christopher (2002)
Lindley (1990)
Hall et al. (1990)
Tau-Loi and
Andrew (1998)
Watmuff (1978)
Bainbridge et al. (1998)
Tau-Loi and
Andrew (1998)
Singer et al. (2002)
Semple et al. (1998)
Denwer and
Mowat (1998)
Chapple and Ibil (1998)
McNeil (1990)
Carswell (1990)
Hutton et al. (1990)
Reference for age
4.2 (K/Ar)
5.9 (Ar-Ar)
4.4
1.6 (K/Ar)
Chapple and Ibil (1998)
12.3 (K/Ar)
<0.5 (K/Ar)
3.4 (K/Ar)
0.35-0.10
(K/Ar)
Russell (1990); Russell
and Finlayson (1987)
Clark (1990)
Moyle et al. (1990);
Davies and Ballantyne
(1987)
Sillitoe (1989)
3.8-2.4 (K/Ar) Denwer and Mowat
(1998); Page and
McDougall (1972)
Pliocene
Langmead and
McLeod (1990)
12 (K/Ar)
Whalen et al. (1982)
14 (K/Ar)
Tau-Loi and Andrew
(1998)
7
Singer et al. (2002)
12 (K/Ar)
Hall et al. (1990)
14 (K/Ar)
Tau-Loi and Andrew
(1998)
15
Singer et al. (2002)
25-24 (K/Ar) Titley (1978)
25 (K/Ar)
Hine et al. (1978)
22 (K/Ar)
Hine and Mason (1978)
23-22
Lindley (1990)
Pleistocene
3.8-2.4 (K/Ar) Hutton et al. (1990);
Page and McDougall
(1972)
3.8-2.4 (K/Ar) Carswell (1990); Page
and McDougall (1972)
Pliocene
McNeil (1990)
Appleby et al. (1996)
Nelson et al. (1990)
Arnold and Griffin
(1978)
Dugmore and Leaman
(1998)
Ronacher et al. (2002)
1.2-1.1 (K/Ar) Page (1976)
Age (Ma)
(method)
Lewis and Wilson (1990) 3.5 (K/Ar)
Dugmore and
Leaman (1998)
Handley and
Henry (1990)
Nelson et al. (1990)
Singer et al. (2002)
Singer et al. (2002)
Reference for
grade-tonnage data
Notes: Grade-tonnage data includes combined resources and past production
1 Present or historic mines are indicated by *
2 Mineralization styles: HS = high-sulfidation epithermal, IS = intermediate-sulfidation epithermal, LS = low-sulfidation epithermal, PO CGD = porphyry copper-gold = SK, skarn
2.6
4.0
Manus Island
165
New Britain Island
New Britain Island
New Britain Island
New Britain Island 0.96
West Sepik
Morobe Province
West Sepik
Morobe Province
Central Province
Outer Melanesian Ambitle island
(Tabar-Feni arc)
Neogene island
Woodlark Island
arc remnant
Maramuni
Maramuni
Maramuni
Medial
New Guinea
Maramuni
Maramuni
IS
9.2
2.3
5.3
Tolukuma*
Morobe Province
Fergusson Island
Fergusson Island
IS
55
Morobe Province
Hamata
56
Misima Island
IS
37
Morobe Province
7.5
84
Enga Province
Morobe Province
85
Central Province
Gameta
Medial
New Guinea
Medial
New Guinea
Medial
New Guinea
Medial
New Guinea
65
Western Province
IS
IS
700
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
Western Province
Region/district
Wau (Edie
Creek)*
Wapolu*
PO CGD, SK Medial
New Guinea
Star Mt.(Futik) PO CGD
Medial
New Guinea
Mt. Bini
PO CGD, IS Medial
New Guinea
Porgera*
?IS, LS
Medial
New Guinea
Hidden Valley IS
Medial
New Guinea
Umuna /
IS
Medial
Misima*
New Guinea
Kerimenge
IS
Medial
New Guinea
Ok Tedi*
Deposit1
Grade-Tonnage and Age Charactersitics of Significant Gold and Copper Deposits in Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Papua New Guinea
Appendix 5
24
25
Burman backarc
DS/IS
KyaukpahtoIndawgyi
4
0.40
226
Burman arc
HS
Monywa
0.40
905
Monywa
Burman arc
HS
Monywa*
(Letpadaung)
Monywa*
(Kyisintaung)
Kyaukpahto *
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Notes: Grade-tonnage data includes combined resources and past production
1 Present or historic mines are indicated by *
2 Mineralization styles: DS = disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted, HS = high-sulfidation epithermal, IS = intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
Miocene(?)
3.81
905
3620
15
Minproc (1985)
Ivanhoe Mines (2003)
13 (K/Ar)
Kyaw Win and
Kirwin (1998)
Kyaw Win and
Kirwin (1998)
Mitchell et al. (1999)
19 (K/Ar)
Ivanhoe Mines (2003)
Age (Ma)
Reference for
grade-tonnage data
Contained
Au (t)
Contained
Cu (000s t)
Au
(g/t)
Metric tonnes Cu
(million t)
(%)
Region/district
Magmatic
arc
Style2
Deposit1
Appendix 6
Grade-Tonnage and Age Charactersitics of Significant Gold and Copper Deposits Associated with the Burman Arc of Myanamar
Reference for age
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