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Drama Extras 1:
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History of Theatre
DRAMA EXTRAS 1
Book One
The History and Styles of Theatre
Written by Angie Barillaro ©1997 revised 2009.
©Radiant Heart Publishing
P.O. Box 272 North Essendon Victoria 3041
ISBN: 1-921101-00-8
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Drama Extras 1:
History of Theatre
Drama Extras! Book One
The History and Styles of Theatre
Contents
1.
The Ancient World - Greek Theatre 1
2.
The Ancient World - Roman Theatre 5
3.
Medieval Theatre
4.
The Italian Renaissance Theatre
5.
The Elizabethan Theatre 15
6.
Seventeenth Century French Neoclassicism 19
7.
English Restoration Theatre 22
8.
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Theatre
8
11
25
Sentimental, Romantic & Melodrama
9. Late Nineteenth Century Theatre Realism 29
& Naturalism
10. Early Twentieth Century Theatre Non-Realism 34
11. Twentieth Century Theatre
Some Important innovators 37
12. Epic Theatre 40
13. Twentieth Century Theatre 43
Some Important Innovators 2
14. Australian Theatre - An Overview
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History of Theatre
1. THE ANCIENT WORLD - Greek Theatre
The story of the beginning of modern western theatre began around
the fifth Century B.C. in Greece. Emerging from the religious ceremonies
and rituals of the Greeks was the Greek tragedy or play. It was a slow
process of development, although many of these plays are so great
they are still performed today.
DIONYSUS - the Wine God
The Greeks had many Gods such as Dionysus, the God of Wine,
pleasure and fertility. Every year in the City of Dionysia, the Greeks held
competitions and festivals to honour this important God. It was a week
long feast of fun, plays, rituals, food, drinking, dancing and worship.
Thousands of people gathered together to celebrate and participate in
the outdoor festivities which were often bordering on riotous.
The Theatre of Dionysus
The first theatres were outdoors and an altar to Dionysus. Actors could
go backstage to change costumes and masks. The plays were
presented by a chorus of people who performed as a group not as
individuals. The chorus would dance, sing, and speak in unison.
The Theatre of Dionysus was built beneath the Athenian Acropolis and
was very central. Spectators originally sat on a slope which was later
built up with stone seats, like a semi circle stadium. A permanent
building was set up called a scene house and this provided the
background „scenery‟ for plays. Instead of building new sets for different
plays, other techniques were used. If the action was supposed to be
taking place by the sea, for example, the actors would mention it in
their dialogue, rather than have painted backdrops of the sea as would
later happen. If something happened, it was often „backstage‟ or
indoors and again it would be mentioned in dialogue or proof would be
brought back, such as a dead body. Ancient Greek Theatre was not
meant to be representational or pretending to be realistic.
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History of Theatre
Greek Drama
The three greatest playwrights are thought to be Aeschylus (525-456
BC), Sophocles (496-406 BC), and Euripides (480-406 BC), who along
with others also competed in the drama competitions in the fifth
Century. All three wrote tragic plays. Typical features of Greek tragedy
included:
 A prologue or introduction where background information is
explained and introduced.
 Five episodes each divided by
 Choral passages where the chorus sing and dance in unison
Most of these plays were religious and dealt with the theme of the
power of the Gods and the relationship between the many Gods and
men. Other themes included suffering, the role of evil, fate versus free
will and deep tragic events where the hero usually dies in the end.
Later, Greek comedy plays were produced which were energetic and
lively. Aristophanes (448 BC-380 BC) was one of the best known comedy
playwrights.
Greek Style
As plays were performed to an incredible 15,000 to 100,000 people at a
time, many features developed to overcome the problem of being
seen and heard by such large crowds. Greek theatre was big! Such
features included:
Masks: Actors wore large masks which represented what type of
character they were playing and allowed the audience to tell them
apart easily. They could also become another character with a simple
mask change, and males could play female roles.
Costumes: Actors also wore high platform shoes to add height and
brightly coloured, stunning clothes and sometimes, headpieces. Thus
the appearance was often larger than life.
Acting: Much of the plays were delivered in singing, dancing and
poetry. Because small details could not be seen from far away, actions
on stage were deliberate, slow, easily recognised and simple. Voice
skills needed to be well developed so that words could be heard by all
and being able to project one‟s voice was essential.
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Chorus:
Although the first performances featured only a chorus of
actors, later individual characters broke away and took on major roles.
The chorus was still kept and their role was to divide the episodes of the
play, give advice and express opinions about the action of the
characters, reflect audience feelings and add to the excitement, mood
and drama of the performance. The chorus remained on stage at all
times.
Music:
Music was important as it added to the action on stage and
accompanied the chorus.
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1. THE GREEK THEATRE
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. How important was religion to the beginning of Greek Theatre?
Explain.
2. Who was Dionysus?
3. Describe the celebrations that took place in the City of Dionysus
every year.
4. Draw a picture/sketch of the Theatre of Dionysus.
5. How did the Greet actors and playwrights show the audience where
the action or location was, without creating sets?
6. Name four Greek writers.
7. What was a Greek tragedy play like?
8. List the problems you would encounter performing outdoors, in front
of 15,000 to 100,000 spectators?
9. How did the Greeks overcome these challenges?
10. Explain the role of the chorus and why they were important.
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
1. Design/draw four masks that stand for different characters and
summarise who they stand for.
2. Create and write a scene that features a prologue (introduction),
some action and a chorus, around a topic of your choice.
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2. THE ANCIENT WORLD - ROMAN THEATRE
As the Romans expanded their Empire and Greece was conquered, the
theatre began to change and some would say for the worst.
The Buildings
The Romans further developed the theatres built by the Greeks. Instead
of building them on slopes they were built on flat ground and the
auditoriums were sheltered by a wall and covered by a roof. A two to
three metre stage was introduced and the back of the stage area was
large and could be decorated. Curtains were used for the first time at
the start and end of performances. Although the theatre buildings were
often majestic and comfortable, it was another story when it came to
what was being performed in these Roman theatres!
Roman Performances
The Romans copied and modified many aspects of Greek culture such
as their religion and drama to suit themselves. They tried to take many
Greek plays and adapt them for the Roman stage as well as pay for
writers such as Andronicus to write poems glorifying and praising Rome.
However, most plays were set in Greece and actors wore Greek masks
and costumes. At Roman festivals, plays were part of the entertainment
Not much work survives from the Roman Theatre with the exception of
Plautus and Terence. Both men copied Greek plays and adapted and
changed them to suit the Romans. As a result there is no such thing as a
„typical‟ Roman play, like the Greek Tragedies, except for the later
comedies. The Romans did not take theatre or drama as seriously as the
Greeks and seemed to be mocking them…
Mime Plays
The Romans preferred comedies, especially exaggerated and crude
ones. Rather than challenge and explore the deep questions raised by
Greek plays, the Romans wanted pure entertainment, lots of laughs and
excitement. Mime, or performing without speaking words, was popular
with the audiences. Such mimes recreated and made fun of middle
class citizens, as well as famous myths. Features included drunkenness,
obscenity, adultery, semi-naked dances, greed, acrobats and jokes! As
a result of crudeness on stage, actors were seen as an inferior group
whereas they had been respected in Greece.
By the end of the Roman Empire, a particular type of mime began to
emerge. One actor played all the parts in the performance (wearing
masks), danced and mimed, while a chorus narrated or told the story
he was acting out to music. This became known as pantomime, and still
survives today in children‟s plays.
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History of Theatre
Bloodthirsty Entertainment
Unfortunately, the Roman need for excitement and action seemed to
know no limits, causing problems for the future of theatre in their society.
More and more people, especially the Christian Church began to
attack the theatre because of the shocking acts that were taking place
on stage. Obscene language and actions were applauded, real
bloody violence was acceptable, criminals were killed on stage, sexual
acts were performed by prostitutes and gladiators fought to their
bloody death. Watching performances was like watching sport for the
Roman audiences. Other popular entertainments of the time included
chariot races, horse racing, battles, acrobats, wrestling, animal fights
and fights between people and animals such as lions. In the Colosseum
ampitheatre, seating fifty thousand spectators, thousands of animals
were killed, and people enjoyed watching Christians being eaten by
lions. Needles to say, the theatre had lost its way for a time.
The End of the Roman Empire
As the Roman Empire collapsed under invaders in 476AD, so too did
support for the theatre. As Christianity became stronger, the Church
banned theatrical performances and for hundreds of years only small
troupes of wandering actors continued performing.
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2. THE ANCIENT WORLD - ROMAN THEATRE
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. What did the Romans contribute to Greek Theatre?
2. What changes to the theatre buildings did the Romans add?
3. Describe early Roman plays such as those written by Andronicus and
Plautus.
4. Why were there no „typical‟ Roman plays?
5. How did the Romans differ in their attitude towards drama compared
with the Greeks?
6. What were the features of mime plays?
7. Describe Roman pantomime plays.
8. Why were people increasingly attacking the theatre?
9. Describe the popular forms of entertainment in Roman times.
10. What happened to theatre and drama when the Roman Empire
collapsed?
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
11. With regard to recreation and entertainment, explain what are the
differences between our world today and Roman times.
12. Draw/design a cartoon strip of 6 to 10 panels depicting an aspect of
the Roman theatre.
13. Imagine you are living in Roman times and you have just been to the
Colosseum. Write a letter to a friend in another country describing what
you have seen and your reactions.
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3. MEDIEVAL THEATRE
After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the theatre lost support and
funding. With the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, actors and
acting were banned and seen as evil from the fifth Century on.
Church Drama
However, by the ninth century these same Christians began to use
drama to portray the story of their religion and church. Slowly, starting
from short scenes and gradually moving to plays, Churches became
the venue where performances were given. This become known as
liturgical/church drama and was widespread throughout Europe. At first
these plays were acted by priests and choirboys, and later as the
popularity increased, by other men (woman were not allowed). As
these plays were performed in Churches, the Altar was the central
background, and on one side was Heaven and the other was Hell.
Simple sets and props were created and used as part of the plays, and
the audience sat in the usual church pews. As plays became more
complicated, Church performances became impractical and some
were now performed outdoors, in front of the church doors.
Stepping Out
When the plays left the Church, the towns ran pageants, featuring the
work of different trade guilds. All the tailors were in one guild, all the
carpenters were in another guild and so on, and each guild organised
to create and present a scene relating to its trade. The fishermen may
stage a scene from the Bible story Jonah and the whale, or Noah‟s Ark
could be staged by the shipbuilders‟ guide. Each scene would be
performed in a different place and the audience walked around to
watch them, or the scene would take place on a moving procession of
carts. All the plays were religious or Bible stories and managed to be
comic at times. Plays became quite complex, with many actors, and
elaborate staging, costumes and effects.
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Characteristics of Medieval Drama
There were various types of Medieval plays - biblical stories or mystery
plays, miracle plays (about Saints) and morality plays to teach people
right and wrong according to the Church. Town people were easily
influenced as they were largely illiterate and uneducated. Most plays
were well written. The plays highlighted the ever present reality of
eternity, by hell and heaven being so dominant on stage. Eternity was
more important than time on earth, so historical accuracy was not seen
as necessary. God‟s power was seen as all powerful, cycle plays were
common. These cycles consist of many short plays that are run together
to represent the Bible from beginning to end.
As there were no theatre buildings, performances took place at various
venues and usually outdoors. Stages were set against buildings or in the
middle of the town square and represented earthly and eternal
existence. Specific scenery to suggest location were also used in a
tokenistic way. Medieval clothes were worn by all the human
characters in the play. Whereas fancy dress and accessories were worn
by non-human characters like God, Angels, Saints and so on. Devils
wore elaborate, hideous costumes and masks. Special effects were
exciting and numerous, and often highly symbolic.
Some of the Medieval plays still performed today include „Everyman‟
(Anonymous), „The Wakefield Cycle‟ and the „Passion Play‟ from
Oberammergau, Germany.
Moving On
As society changed and began to probe issues deeply, there was a
need for non-religious drama and so the religious plays declined in the
fifteenth century, especially with the new Renaissance and the split in
the Church.
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3. THE MEDIEVAL THEATRE
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. How was the theatre perceived in the fifth century?
2. Where did plays re-emerge?
3. Describe liturgical drama.
4. What was the role of guilds in the town pageants?
5. What types of plays were performed in Medieval times?
6. What were the plays concerned about?
7. Describe the cycle plays.
8. Where did performances take place?
9. How were human characters dressed in contrast with non-human
characters like God and the Angels?
10. Why did religious plays decline in popularity?
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
11. Imagine you are staging a Medieval morality play.
Design the set, including Heaven and Hell on either side.
12. Design the costumes for three characters in your play:
- an Angel
- God
- Devil.
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4. THE RENAISSANCE THEATRE OF ITALY
Commedia Dell’Arte
Commedia Dell’Arte
In Italy during the 16th century, a new type of comedy drama was
commencing which gained immense popularity, and is still enjoyed
today. Commedia Dell‟Arte translates to comedy of professional
players. There were many companies and they toured all over Europe
and England. Commedia Dell‟Arte featured a very unique style of
drama, often presented by family groups. The commedia sprang from
the classical Roman comedy farce and other Roman plays. Commedia
Dell‟Arte was widely popular, fun and spontaneous.
Commedia Scenarios
There were no long, printed Commedia plays because it was
improvisational theatre. That is, there were standard characters and
brief scenarios. It was up to the actors to improvise, or make up the story
and dialogue as they went. Many scenarios were used again and
again for two hundred years. Story lines usually involve love, lies,
disguises and mystery or suspense, with hundreds of enjoyable and
energetic performances. Plays were made in many different settings,
especially outdoors in streets and markets. Often an actor would play a
particular character for many years, changing him/her as the need
arose. Later, the performer would pass this character role onto
someone else in the troupe or family. This was actor based theatre so it
was essential that everyone worked together co-operatively. A lazzo or
lazzi was a trick or turning point where a particular character could
initiate a new twist in the play and then return from. Lazzi added interest
to a play and were popular with the audience.
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Commedia Characters
Commedia Dell‟Arte consisted of a set of standard characters or roles.
Masks and costumes were worn by the characters, except for the
„lovers‟ who were usually the centre of the performances. There were
three main types of characters - servants, lovers and old men or
masters.
Lovers The scenario usually revolved around the young lovers who
were attractive and young. The audience was to be on their side in their
fight against opposition to their relationship. These love affairs were
often opposed by the father and servants.
Masters/Old Men
They were typically professionals such as doctors
and lawyers, and their goal was to stop the lovers getting together. Two
of the most famous old men were Pantalone and Il Dottore, both targets
of satire.
Pantalone was a wealthy merchant who was reluctant to share his
money with anyone, because he wanted it all for himself. He was fiery
and impulsive, sneaky and hypo critical. Pantalone was usually trying to
prevent his daughter (one of the young lovers) from marrying someone
who is of a lower class. Pantalone‟s mask reflects his character and is
mean, angry and ugly.
Il Dottore (the Doctor) was usually paired with Pantalone who is
constantly bragging about his intelligence and showing off, lecturing to
everyone. His lecturing was often gibberish and did not make sense. His
mask featured heavy, serious face.
Servants or Zanni
Servants were constantly fighting with their masters and emphasised the
differences in social classes. The fights and misunderstandings were
comical, and stories were usually seen through their eyes or
perspective. They were not satirised or made fun of like old men.
Arlecchino
was one of the most famous servants, usually dressed in
bright clothes and probably stemmed from the „fool‟ or jester role of the
past. Arlecchino was often hungry and getting into hilarious messes that
he must get out of. Acrobats and physical feats were a feature of this
character. Arlecchino was an open and optimistic character.
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Commedia Characters 2
Brighella was another servant, but was very different to Arlecchino. He
was untrusting, sneaky and cruel, often commencing fights and
problems. Brighella‟s mask was ugly and rough.
Colombina was the main female servant. Females did not wear masks
in Commedia Dell‟Arte, so as to highlight their beauty and keep
audiences interested in watching. Arlecchino and Colombino were
often romantically linked, however there were usually many
complications. She was a friendly but firm character.
Commedia Dell‟Arte reached its peak between 1575 and 1650 but was
still popular for a further 100 years before it began to lose favour. Many
of its traditions were passed on, influencing acting styles and characters
in later performances.
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History of Theatre
4. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE COMMEDIA DELL’ARTE
A. COMPREHENSTION QUESTIONS
1. What was the Commedia Dell‟Arte?
2. Where did the Commedia originate from?
3. What were the scenarios?
4. How were lazzi used?
5. In what places were the Commedia plays performed?
6. How were troupes organised?
7. Describe the three types of character roles.
8. Why were the lovers unmasked?
9. Explain why the Colombina and other female characters did not
wear masks.
10. What was the difference in the way the Commedia presented
servants and old men?
B. CREATIVE EXTENSION QUESTIONS
11. The masters or old men, such as Pantalone and Il Dottore were
caricatures, or exaggerated characters. Draw two full length, cartoon
pictures of them, emphasising the type of people they were meant to
portray.
12. Write a scenario featuring:
- a pair of young lovers
- a father who opposes this relationship and wants to interest his
daughter in marrying his very old friend.
Try to make it comical - you may add other characters.
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5. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
ELISABETHAN THEATRE & SHAKESPEARE 1570-1620
The theatre of England during the 1500s was dominated by the writing
and plays of William Shakespeare. He is one of the most widely read
and performed playwrights of all time. His plays are still studied and
performed today, and many have been made into films.
Background to the Renaissance
During the period of time in history commonly referred to as the
Renaissance, many exciting and inspirational beliefs and works were
created. It was a time of new learning and ideas, where people
became very philosophical about such questions as human
individuality, intelligence and the meaning of life. There was a revival of
ancient and classical art and philosophy (study of ideas). During that
time, England had become a very powerful and proud nation.
Fortunately for the theatre, the ruling Queen Elizabethan I loved the
theatre and supported it. The drama of this time is called Elizabethan
theatre.
Elizabethan Theatres
Many ‟playhouses‟ or theatres were built during this time after the first
one was built by James Burbage in London in 1576. It was called ‟The
Theatre‟ and James‟ son became a great actor. The buildings were all
wooden structures with circular walls and an open air centre called the
„pit‟ (the centre had no roof). The raised stage was surrounded by
audiences on three sides. Behind the backstage wall was the
backstage area used for dressing rooms, scenery and special effects
machinery. The stages were portable and were occasionally removed
to house ‟sporting events‟ involving baiting and killing animals!
Roofs were made of thatched straw and wood. Musicians played from
the upper balcony or ‟musicians gallery‟. Most plays featured scenery
and props which were self supporting and painted, as in Medieval
productions. As well, real props and furniture was used on stage when
needed. Actors mostly wore the clothes that were in fashion at the time
except for special types of non-human characters such as fairies. The
clothes were beautiful, detailed and expensive, which added to
audience interest.
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Elizabethan Acting Companies
Actors belonged to companies of ten to twenty men. Each company
had its own manager and each company usually has important patrons
and people who supported them in financial and other ways. Woman
were not allowed to act and so males had to play the female roles!
These companies were professionally run to make money, so most
actors were very dedicated as this was their livelihood. To survive and
succeed actors also needed other skills like dancing, singing and being
able to play musical instruments. Companies also employed backstage
crew and musicians.
Life was not easy for Elizabethan actors because many things could go
wrong. Theatres sometimes burned, disease such as plague forced
others to close and winters were bitterly cold. Sometimes, companies
took to the road, and toured their plays outdoors. Audiences were also
known to be tough and rowdy, especially as many theatres were in the
„rougher‟ areas. However, people did love going to the theatre as it
was the most popular form of entertainment.
The Great Playwright - Shakespeare (1564-1616)
William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon in England, and was
considered to be a genius. He wrote over thirty-six plays, all of which are
admired for their powerful language, how well crafted they are and the
depth of characters. Very little is known about Shakespeare‟s life,
except that he married at eighteen and then went to work as an actor
and playwright in London. His plays touched everyone who went to see
them, often exploring deep human experiences that all people seem to
be able to relate to. In one of his plays „Romeo and Juliet‟, we see two
young, innocent lovers torn apart by the conflict of their rival families.
This tragedy written four hundred years ago still speaks to those who see
it today, and was recently made into yet another film version which was
hugely successful. Despite the poetic language and complexity,
Shakespeare was a shareholder in The Globe theatre built 1599 where
his plays were performed to huge audiences. He had his own theatre
company „The King‟s Men‟ which was supported by the Lord
Chamberlain‟s men.
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Playwrights Ben Johnson and Christopher Marlowe
Although Christopher Marlowe died at the age of twenty-nine in a pub
fight, he left behind some plays that were well received at the time,
although they were not as great as Shakespeare‟s plays. One play that
is still studied and performed today concerns an aging man who sells his
soul to the devil, and is the morality play known as Dr Faustus.
Another popular playwright of the time was Ben Johnston who also lived
a troubled life like Marlowe. His comic plays including „Volpone‟ and
„Every Man and his Humour‟ enjoyed success because they satirised (or
made fun of) all types of people. Johnson also wrote special
performances for the new Royal leaders, called „Masques‟. They were
very elaborate and decorative and were aimed at impressing Royalty.
The End of Elizabethan Theatre
The quality of plays declined and became more and more
„spectacular‟ which drew objections from the growing strict Puritan
Religion followers, who saw them as a waste of money.
To make matters worse, other inferior plays were being performed.
These were filled with violence and bloody death, so much so that the
government banned all plays. By the time the English Civil War began in
1642 all the theatres were closed down for twenty years.
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5. THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
ELIZABETHAN THEATRE & SHAKESPEARE
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1.
Describe the Renaissance period in history.
2.
What types of plays do you think were created in such a world?
Explain.
3.
Why was Queen Elizabeth I important to English Theatre?
4.
What were the theatre buildings like?
5.
For what other purposes were the theatres used for?
6.
How did actors dress on stage? Why?
7.
Describe a typical Elizabethan acting company.
8.
Why was life „not easy‟ for actors?
9.
What is known about William Shakespeare?
10.
Describe the types of plays he wrote.
11.
List two other playwrights and what they are remembered for.
12.
Why were the theatres closed in 1642? Give two reasons.
B. CREATIVE EXTENSION QUESTIONS
13.
Imagine you are a member of the strict and serious Puritan
religion. You are angry at the state of theatre both in the Royal courts
and out in the other theatres. Write a letter of objection, describing
what you see.
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6. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY FRENCH THEATRE
Neo Classicism
Neo Classicism
French theatre began to grow and develop after 1625, as the political
climate stabilised. Previously, in the 1500‟s there had been battles to
fight during the Civil War, meaning little energy and time went into
theatre. This situation greatly improved due to the work of Cardinal
Richelieu who set out to reform the theatre, and looked at what the
other European countries were doing. Some ideas he adopted from
these countries, especially Italy, included using a proscenium stage and
scenery. He also believed in an „ideal‟ of drama which became known
as neoclassical.
Neoclassical Ideas
Neoclassical drama was very ordered and ideals or rules had to be
followed. Plays were either all comedy or tragedy. Tragedies featured
noble characters who were based on royalty, whilst the comedies were
based on ordinary people. The plays were written in five acts, and all
the action on stage took place within the same day and place.
Moreover, the plot or storyline should be simple and the ending had to
be a good outcome. This meant that the evil characters were punished,
and the good characters were rewarded. Plays that were performed in
France that did not follow these neoclassical „rules‟ were often
disregarded or attacked. The best places to perform these plays was in
a specially built theatre with a proscenium arch. In such a theatre, the
audience sits in front of the stage which is framed with a border around
the sides and across the top, forming a picture frame effect. Therefore
when watching the play, the audience was looking in to another world.
Proscenium arch stages became the most popular form of stage and
are still popular today.
Famous Playwright – Moliere
Two playwrights, Corneille and Racine were famous for their tragedies.
Moliere (1622-1672) however became the most famous French
playwright, with his outstanding comedy plays. Moliere had spent many
years touring with his theatre company and had learnt so much from
the Italian Commedia Dell‟Arte troupes. Once established in Paris
again, he worked at the Palais Royal Theatre with other companies.
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Moliere
Not only did Moliere run his own company, but he also wrote the plays
and acted in them! French theatre companies like his comprised of ten
to twenty members, including musicians and backstage support crew.
Woman actors were allowed, and all the profits were shared.
One of Moliere‟s most popular plays was „Tartuffe‟. this play was a
religious satire, attacking groups who spent their time judging other
peoples‟ morals and worth. „Tartuffe‟ is still enjoyed today.
Moliere‟s whole life was the theatre. His wife was one of the company‟s
actresses, and Moliere wrote excellent female parts for her in his plays.
The company was immensely successful. Quite fittingly, Moliere‟s life
nearly ended on the stage, during a performance of one of his plays
„The Imaginary Invalid‟ in which he became very ill, dying only hours
later. Moliere‟s greatest achievements were his comedies.
The Stage
The French adopted the Italian Proscenium arch stage, as discussed
earlier. These were fully indoor theatres, so lighting was necessary. As this
was pre-electricity, light had to be provided by candles and oil lamps
and included chandeliers and footlights. Unlike today, the audience
lights were still left on because the lights needed to light up the stage.
Various lamps and chandeliers were also concealed on stage but
lighting effects were difficult, and the stage was not as brightly lit as
today. Scenery was kept simple and minimal. As neoclassical plays
were set in one place, there were no scene changes required, and the
same settings could be used for many plays. Furniture and props on
stage were used sparely, leaving room for the actors. Interestingly, it was
common practise for some of the audience to also sit on stage! On
stage seating was more expensive, but very disruptive to performers
and the rest of the audience - so not surprisingly, abolished by the 1750s.
The French Actors
Like the Elizabethan theatre actors, the French actors were professionals
who earned their living from their craft. With ten to twenty members,
including women, the companies had to make good profits to survive.
Shareholders bought shares or parts in the companies and they were
allowed to vote on which plays should be produced next. Each
company had many set plays it performed at different times. Actors
specialised in the type of roles they played, which were fairly
stereotyped. A major expense for actors was having to provide their
own costumes which were usually contemporary and expensive.
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6. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY FRENCH THEATRE
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1.
Who reformed and revived the French theatre and how?
2.
What were the „rules‟ of neoclassical drama?
3.
From where did the French adopt the Proscenium Arch Stage?
4.
Describe the Proscenium Arch Stage and its features.
5.
Describe Moliere‟s career as a playwright and actor.
6.
How were woman viewed in French theatre?
7.
As theatres were now indoors, what lighting was used to
illuminate the stage auditorium.
8.
What were the advantages/disadvantages of audience
members sitting on stage?
9.
How were the French and Elizabethan theatre companies similar?
10.
What were Moliere‟s plays about? Give an example.
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
11. Imagine you work for a French theatre company in Paris. Write a
letter home to your family in the country detailing your work and life.
12. Design a set including scenery that can be used for many types of
plays. After drawing the scenery image three types of plays that could
be performed there.
i.e.
- an outdoor park setting
- play about a wedding
- play about a family picnic
- play about two lovers
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7. THE ENGLISH RESTORATION THEATRE
After the English Civil War, Charles II returned from exile in 1660. By this
time, the old English theatres which had been attacked and shut down
for eighteen years were derelict and a new start was needed if the
theatre was to survive and continue.
The New Theatre
The new theatres were established which combined the Italian
Proscenium arch stage with the Elizabethan apron stage, where the
audience sits around three sides.
The stage featured painted slats or wooden structures that were used
for painted scenery. There were doors on either side of the stage for the
actors to move in and out of from the backstage area and wings. Many
changes took place over the years and by the early eighteenth century
(1700‟s), Georgian playhouses were the new style. An example of such
a theatre was Potter‟s Little Theatre which began a new trend in style.
Potters Little Theatre features seating boxes around the side walls for the
audience as well as a pit seating area. For the first time, the orchestra
was moved to a pit at the front of the stage. Candles lit the stage, and
the curtain was used at the beginning and end of every play. Later,
stage design and sets became more detailed and spectacular.
Restoration Audiences
As theatres had been closed for so many years, audiences were
intrigued and curious about the theatre. For the first time on the English
stage they could watch women perform. The audiences were mostly
sophisticated and friendly young men and women. As audience
numbers rose, so too the audience standards and expectations
dropped followed by a decline in plays being performed.
Restoration Plays
Most plays during this time were comedies, with a few exceptions.
Restoration comedy was also referred to as comedy of manners
because the plays imitated the English aristocracy (rich) and their way
of living. The plays were witty, clever, filled with intrigue and mystery and
fast paced. The dialogue was filled with sexual imagery and innuendo
or double meaning. Plays centred around the same themes - affairs and
love triangles. Loud, crude, speeches were made at the start of each
play (prologue -introduction, and at the end of the plays (epilogue or
ending). Many of these attracted complaints by Puritan religious
groups.
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Restoration Acts
Despite the lack of great plays to perform in, actors still worked hard
and developed their craft. Actor-managers ran their own theatre
companies, acted in their plays and were constantly improving the
stage and acting. One such person was David Garrick who is
remembered for his great acting ability, improving stage scenery and
introducing hidden stage lighting.
Actors appeared in Restoration comedy dressed in elaborate
contemporary clothes. This comprised of huge hats, curly wigs, long
coats, ruffles for the men, and wide sumptuous dresses were worn by
women. Makeup was heavy and hid the natural face.
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7. ENGLISH RESTORATION THEATRE
A. COMPREHENSTION QUESTIONS
1.
What was the state of drama and theatre in England in 1660?
2.
When did things begin to change?
3.
Describe the playhouses of Restoration England.
4.
What was new in Potters Little Theatre?
5.
Who went to the theatre and how did this later change?
6.
Describe the kind of plays from this time.
7.
Who was David Garrick and what was his contribution?
8.
Describe what actors wore on stage.
9.
How important was scenery?
10.
Why did many of the plays performed attract opposition from
Puritans?
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
11. The Puritans were a strict religious group who emphasised simplicity
and seriousness. They did not approve of the bawdy plays being
performed, calling them immoral. They wanted wholesome, virtuous
plays. Imagining you are a puritan, write a diary entry describing a
theatre visit that has disgusted you.
12. What type of play would you like to see, as a Puritan?
Write a letter to a theatre company, outlining a great idea for a play
you have written.
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8. EIGHTEENTH & NINTEENTH CENTURY THEATRE
Sentimentalism, Romanticism & Melodrama
Many people objected to the „disrespectable‟ antics of the Restoration
plays. They disliked their crudeness, sexual comment, innuendos and
lack of morals. Partly as a reaction, new types of plays were written and
performed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These were
Sentimental dramas or plays, and aimed at being the opposite of the
bawdy plays that had gone before.
Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism relates to feelings or emotions. Therefore, sentimental
drama aimed at touching the feelings of the audience deeply. A
successful sentimental play was one that made the audience members
strongly sympathise, or feel sorry for the characters on stage, and
created emotional reactions. If audience members cried, worried or felt
anxious about the drama on stage, the play was successful.
Plots and acting were aimed at our sympathy. Plays were usually based
around stories with happy endings. A typical plot could involve tragedy
or comedy, with many terrible events taking place before the happy or
tragic endings. Good people were always rewarded, whilst the bad
were always left dead or despairing. Using magic or incredible twists of
fate, where after much suffering, the good and the patient characters
were rewarded and lived happily ever after. The stories were not
believable but people enjoyed them for entertainment and escape
value. As the plays worked on the audience‟s emotions, people felt
relief at being able to express their feelings freely in the theatre. This still
happens today, with millions of people hooked on certain TV soap
operas which they watch day after day, year after year! Sentimental
plays were very popular, especially with middle class people.
Melodrama
By 1800, Sentimentalism gave way to Melodrama. Melodramas were still
very sentimental but they had developed into a distinct style which was
also successful. Melodrama plots were the same as in the earlier
Sentimental plays. They were filled with suspense and very emotional.
Good people were rewarded and bad people were punished.
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Melodrama
Special effects and big colourful scenes were very important to
melodrama because they excited the audience, and were so new and
unusual. Music was an important part of these plays, in the form of
songs as well as musical background. The orchestra was an essential
part of the play. The action on stage was gripping and exiting,
attracting large audiences of middle and lower class people.
Audiences were rough and loud often interrupting plays. Most
melodramas featured the following characteristics.
 Musical score and sound effects
 Spectacular effects and scenery
 An evil villain
 An innocent, good, victim heroine
 Narrator
 Disguises and deception
 Humour
 Scenes that build up suspense such as last minute rescues.
Melodramas were so popular they were churned out in large numbers,
although few of them were considered of a high quality. Because of the
need for spectacle and action, incredible „realistic‟ feats were
performed on stage, including volcanos erupting and horse races!
These were possible thanks to the invention of electricity and electric
motors. Sometimes scenery was painted on cloth and electronically
moved behind the actors, suggesting movement.
Popular novels and stories were also adapted for the stage, such as
„Monte Cristo‟ and „Uncle Tom‟s Cabin‟ or the works of Charles Dickens.
Finally, lighting played a major role in the success of melodrama
because of the invention of gas. Candles and oil lamps with their dim,
dangerous lighting were a thing of the past. Lighting was now easily
controlled and could be dimmed and brightened for special effects.
Romanticism
Romantic theatre started in Germany thanks to the works and influence
of the playwright Goethe, who combined Greek tragedy with
Shakespearean theatre.
Romantic theatre had nothing to do with love and romance in
particular, but was a description for a movement or style of art, music
and drama. Romantics lived deeply, were influenced by ancient
classics and often combined all the arts. For example, the artists would
paint popular poems, or musicians would write a musical score based
on a play. Romantics valued emotions, ideals, freedom and
emphasised the role of arts to inspire people.
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Romantic poets were adored and included Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley,
Keats and Tennyson. Living with heart and passion, the Romantics
valued imagination and spirituality.
Acting in Romantic plays was poetic, flowing, very emotional and
dramatic. Today‟s audiences would probably find Sentimental,
Melodramatic and Romantic plays too exaggerated and emotional to
take seriously.
8. EIGHTEENTH & NINETEENTH CENTURY THEATRE
Sentimentalism, Romanticism & Melodrama
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1.
Why were the new Sentimental plays developed?
2.
What was the aim of Sentimental plays? How was this achieved?
3.
Why were such plays so popular?
4.
Describe a typical melodrama.
5.
What effect did the invention of electricity and gas have on the
theatre?
6.
Describe Romanticism and the Romantic era.
7.
Why would today‟s audiences not accept Melodramatic drama?
8.
What was acting like in these Romantic plays?
9.
How did audiences behave at these plays?
10.
How was movement suggested on stage?
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9. THE LATE NINTEENTH CENTURY THEATRE
Realism and Naturalism
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, people grew tired of
Romanticism and Melodrama and their exaggeration. There was a
movement towards the opposite - or realism and naturalism. People
wanted to see real-life people in real-life situations portrayed on stage,
and that is what they received.
Realism
As scientific and technological breakthroughs were changing the world
at a fast pace, more emphasis was placed on seeing reality in a
scientific, factual manner. Whereas Romantics based their ideals on the
emotional and spiritual, the Realists emphasised ideas and proof,
especially through observation. Physiology, psychiatry - or the study of
human behaviour was gaining recognition. People were starting to seek
scientific answers to questions about what motivates our actions, or why
do we do things we do? Realism can be tracked back to the 1850s as
people began to study the influence of the environment (including
family background, work, culture, etc) on the person.
Playwrights became more interested in observing people and writing
plays focusing on characters and contemporary society - or the real
world. This was new because previously playwrights had dramatised
myths or historical occasions. Many plays dealt with the harsh realities of
life, representing on stage the problems in the world around that time.
To see plays about poverty, homelessness, prostitution and other
problems shocked many people, who would have preferred to escape
from these realities and see „happy ever after‟ melodramas. Writers
believed they could change the world for the better if they could draw
attention to the injustices of life.
Henrick Ibsen (1828-1906)
Henrick Ibsen was a Norwegian playwright who best represented
realism in drama. Ibsen‟s plays had a profound impact on the theatre
and steered the way ahead. His plays were controversial because he
did not follow the usual ‟happy endings‟, but rather highlighted that
sometimes bad things happen to good people and vice versa.
Common themes in Ibsen‟s plays included divorce, unhappiness,
diseases, the role of woman, depression and struggles, and the plays
offered insights into the human mind and heart that were genuine or
real, rather than what society wanted to hear.
Some of Ibsen‟s most famous plays were ‟A Dolls House‟, ‟Hedda
Gabbler‟ and ‟ghosts‟.
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Given the nature of his plays, the style of acting had to change
drastically from the previous melodrama style. Characters in Ibsen‟s
plays spoke realistic dialogue, and all action was believable.
Naturalism or ‘A Slice of Life’
According to the followers of Naturalism in the 1870s, Realism did not go
far enough. Writers such as Emile Zola (1849-1902), believed that a play
on stage should be exactly as off stage. On stage, one should be
treated to a „slice of life‟. Acting became even more life like and story
lines did not have to be fully developed, because after all. The
audience was just seeing into real life episodes.
Other famous playwrights were Henri Becque, August Strindberg, Maxim
Gorky and Anton Checkhov.
Such writers and their plays created a need for a new breed of actors,
directors and designers, and many individuals set out to do their own
thing. People such as André Antoine founded Theatre Libre in Paris
and led the way directing and staging these new plays. Others such as
Gordon Craig and Vsevolold Meyerhold created new styles of staging
and lighting design. Europe was „swept‟ by pockets of innovative but
small theatrical activity. Over in Russia, a collaboration between a
director and a theatre company would profoundly influence modern
theatre and acting.
Konstantin Stanislavski
Stanislavski, the artist director of the Moscow Art Theatre developed an
‟acting system‟ with his partner Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko.
Although detailed, the system enabled actors to enter into the world of
the character they were playing on stage. The emphasis was on a
totally believable performance. Speech and body movement had to
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be as life like as possible, and the way to understand the character was
through research, observation and most of all, empathizing with the
character. Empathy with the character being played meant imagining
as fully as possible what it must be like to be in the character‟s shoes
and life. In the past, actors had tended to play roles in a rigid,
stereotyped manner. Stanislavsky‟s „system‟ recognised that every
individual is unique and worth understanding.
Acting Style
Voice had to be life-like and authentic. Accents had to sound realistic.
Speech was all important because it emphasised character‟s
motivations, state of mind, etc. and silence was used for impact.
Movements and gestures came from what the character was saying or
feeling. Free use of body and space was key - whatever was needed to
create a natural, believable performance.
The Stanislavski System
Stanislavski‟s acting system was a way of life, such was the dedication
he required. Some parts of Stanislavski‟s system could be summarised
as:
1. Personalisation
Actors should „become‟ the character they are playing so the
audience sees a real performance, not just an actor pretending to be
like someone else. By combining who they were, and entering fully into
the character, actors achieved this.
2. Magic If
Actors asked themselves the question “What if I was in the character‟s
shoes/situation?” This enabled them to create more believable
performances and to stretch themselves so they could play a character
very different to themselves.
3. Given Circumstances
Actors needed to identify the character‟s past and present life and
reality (I.e. family background, being unemployed, etc.) this enabled
them to understand their character.
4. Concentration
Actors who could concentrate were more disciplined, focused and
attentive. Relaxation techniques were important.
5. Observation
If actors become more observant they could develop greater
understanding and empathy for others, which could be used in their
characterisations.
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6. Emotional Memory
Actors were encouraged to relive memories or experiences to bring up
genuine feelings. In other words, instead of trying to act sad, they were
to relive the memory of an experience that made them sad, and as the
sad emotions resurfaced, they could then play the sad moment on
stage.
7. Superobjective
Actors had to work out what the character‟s motivations or objectives
were. What is this person really trying to do throughout this play?
Stanislavski wrote his detailed theories in several books, highlighting how
seriously he valued acting and the theatre. He is considered the most
influential person in the modern theatre.
The Moscow Art Theatre
Stanislavski worked with the Moscow Art Theatre, producing excellent
plays. The company was very dedicated, studying plays and rehearsing
intensely. Productions were realistic with detailed scenery and special
effects. If a scene was set in a lounge room, the whole room was
recreated including real furniture and the stage was often cluttered.
(This later changed). The Moscow Art Theatre achieved great success
staging the plays of Anton Chekhov (1860-1904), including „The Seagull‟,
‟The Cherry Orchard‟, „The Three Sisters‟ and „Uncle Vanya‟. As these
plays offer great insight into the frustrations of life, they are still
meaningful and performed today. Stanislavski trained actors, directed
the plays with support from others and sometimes even acted himself.
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9. THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY THEATRE
Realism & Naturalism
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
Why did people move away from Melodrama?
Define Realism.
3.
How were Realistic plays received by the public?
4.
Describe the issues Realistic plays dealt with.
5.
What sort of plays did Ibsen write?
6.
How and why did acting styles change?
7.
Define Naturalism.
8.
Describe what Stanislavski believed actors should be like.
9.
How did Stanislavski‟s acting style differ from Melodrama?
10.
How were voice, movement and gesture used in Stanislavski‟s
system?
11.
Describe the Realistic stage set (scenery).
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10. EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE
Non-Realism
In 1885 a new dramatic movement emerged, believed to signal the
beginning of Modern theatre. At the height of Realism, a group of artists
reacted against all forms of representing the natural world on stage. In
other words, why should despair be represented by a man talking
about his feelings in a realistic looking lounge setting - when the same
feelings could be symbolised on a bare stage with minimal, if any
dialogue? Modernism could be seen emerging, especially in the visual
arts as abstract paintings and sculptures appeared.
Symbolism
Symbolists demanded freedom to explore and interpret the inner and
outer world. According to Symbolism, great truths may not always be
obvious or easy to prove. What about the inner truth of intuition,
symbols, dreams? Real life issues and everyday concerns were not
performed, however their plays portrayed dreams, hidden fears and
emotions. These plays were mysterious and did not make „sense‟ to
many people as symbolists did not feel the need to imitate the world or
its ways. Whilst these plays meant something to creators, they were
often rejected by theatres as they seemed meaningless or too weird.
As a result, the Symbolists set up their own theatres.
A „typical‟ Symbolist play was very atmospheric and dreamy. Settings
were abstract, colour symbolised feelings and action and the acting
style was seemingly non human. Actors used chant, unusual
movements, stillness and silence. Maurice Maeterlinck‟s plays „The
Intruder‟, „The Blind‟ and „Melisande‟, amongst others all seemed very
mystical, as though a dream.
Dreams and the Subconscious
Symbolists were greatly influenced by, and interested in the power of
the subconscious mind. This is believed to be a hidden part of the mind
where people may store long lost memories and traumas and by
unlocking it, gain greater inner freedom. At this time, physiatrists such as
Sigmund Freud were becoming well known with their theories about the
human person and the role of the subconscious.
Dreams were seen to be the keys to unlocking all that was hidden or not
understood. For example, to dream of water symbolised emotions.
Therefore, to dream of nearly drowning symbolised feeling
overwhelmed and unable to cope. Just as strange, disconnected
images appear in out dreams - so too were some of the Symbolist plays.
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Expressionism
Another abstract movement was Expressionism. Although it too did not
believe in recreating the real world on stage, it differed to Symbolism
because it made stronger, social and political messages. Expressionists
were protesting against what they saw as increasing dehumanisation
because of technology and industrialisation. Distortion (or
exaggerating) was used on stage to make strong political statements.
In one play, „R.U.R.‟ by Josef and Karl Capet, robots were used instead
of people as a warning of the future.
Expressionist plays combined reality, fantasy and symbolism to put a
message across or recreate a state of mind. There in no logical time
sequences, no individual characters and no continuity. Background sets
were symbolic and fantasy based. Lighting and music were very
important in creating the overall mood.
Futurism
In 1909, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti began the Futurism movement.
Unlike the Expressionists, Marinetti was not threatened by technology
and industrialisation, believing they were great innovations. Tired with
what he perceived as „old fashioned‟ theatre stuck in the past, he
attempted to create energetic, fast paced plays. Different scenes were
performed at the same time, audiences were often challenged and
involved in the action. Futurism did not last much more than ten years as
it was too extreme for popular consumption.
Dada
In 1914, World War I began and many artists expressed their anger and
disgust through their works. A group of artists who had escaped to
Switzerland created the Dada movement to highlight the pointlessness
and stupidity of war. Music, art, drama and poetry were combined,
sometimes using shock tactics to confront people in what we today
would call „Performance Art‟. Although seemingly short lived, there is
no doubt that these modern movements created waves, opened up a
whole new world of possibilities to other artists and influenced later
works.
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10. EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE
NON-REALISM
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Why did the Symbolists move away from Realism?
2. Where did the Symbolists gain inspiration for their art?
3. What were their plays about?
4. How were these plays accepted and why?
5. Describe a typical Symbolists play.
6. Explain the importance of Dreams and the Subconscious mind.
7. How did Expressionism differ to Symbolism?
8. Describe Futurism. Why did it only last ten years?
9. What was the point of Dada?
10. Overall, what was the importance of these non-realistic
movements?
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
11. Think back to a dream you have had in the past where everything
seemed jumbled up.
- Turn this into a scenario for a play.
- Design/draw and describe the setting, lighting and sound you would
use to stage your dream.
If you do not have a dream, create one, after rereading the notes on
Symbolism and Expressionism.
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11. TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE
Some important innovators
As Modern theatre opened up to the influences of non-realistic
movements such as Symbolism and Expressionism, as well as the
demands of staging works of Realism, there was a need for change in
the area of acting styles, stage design and directing. Many individuals
made valuable contributions that both shaped the theatre and
influenced others. The innovators below are just some of these people.
Adolphe Appia (1862-1928)
Appia was born in Switzerland and sought to unify the stage elements
such as set and lighting to create a harmony that would better serve
the play being performed. Instead of harmony and unity on stage,
many plays were spoilt by the clashing elements and flat scenery and
floors which did nothing to enhance the actor on stage. To „blend‟ such
elements together, Appia introduced differing heights on stage (I.e.
small platforms, blocks) which opened up the stage.
In the area of lighting, Appia used the newer, better lights available and
lit the stage from different angles, creating many special effects and
moods. He set high standards and inspired directors and designers.
Gordon Craig (1872-1966)
Craig was an English actor who elevated the status of the director as
someone whose vision should be created on stage. He favoured
simplicity, with everything working together to manifest this „vision‟.
Moving away from naturalistic sets, Craig worked with the abstract and
symbolic, creating stunning and original designs and effects. Every bit of
space and what filled it (or did not fill it) mattered and was used to carry
his concepts. Craig emphasised the visual aspects of theatre to create
the marriage of the play. Everything was united and important in Craig‟s
theatre.
Max Reinhardt (1872-1943)
Reinhardt was a German director whose work and ideas further
developed the central role of the director. He also studied past
theatrical traditions to learn from their staging of plays. If a historical play
was staged, Reinhardt introduced the importance of recreating
elements from that time. That was different because in the past very
little attention was given to theatrical history.
Reinhardt believed the director was free to choose and combine
elements in staging a play in the best possible way.
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Vsevolod Meyerhold (1874-1940)
Meyerhold began his career in the Moscow Arts Theatre in Russia,
working with the famous director-actor Konstantin Stanislavski, who
greatly influenced the craft of acting. Meyerhold left after disagreeing
with the Company‟s ideas. Whereas Stanislavski emphasised creating
an illusion (or appearance) of Realism, Meyerhold disagreed believing
instead in theatre for theatre‟s sake. The audience did not need to be
fooled that they were anywhere else other than a theatre. Some ideas
Meyerhold played with included no curtains and extending the stage
into an auditorium/theatre which was fully lit. The key factor was the
actor, and sets, costumes and words were not so essential. Meyerhold‟s
interests in human movement led him to develop biomechanics, or a
detailed form of physically training actors that enhanced focus
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11. TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE
Some Important Innovators
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1.
Why was there a need for changes in the way plays were staged?
2.
How did Appia unify the stage elements and what impact did this
have?
3.
What lighting innovations did Appia introduce?
4.
What two aspects of theatre did Craig emphasize?
5.
How important was the role of the director to Appia, Craig and
Reinhardt?
Discuss.
6.
On what point did Stanislavski and Meyerhold disagree?
7.
What was Meyerhold‟s biomechanics system?
8.
Describe Meyerhold‟s theatre.
9.
Which director/s used past theatrical traditions to influence their
work and how?
B. CREATIVE EXTENSION QUESTIONS
10.
Imagine a new play has been commissioned on the subject of
„the future‟ and Appia, Meyerhold and Craig have been invited to write
visions for the way the play should be produced.
 Write their three vision statements explaining what they would
like to see on stage.
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12. BERTOLT BRECHT (1898-1956) & EPIC THEATRE
Born in Germany, Bertolt Brecht wrote and directed many plays that
have had a great impact on how plays and theatre have been seen in
the last fifty years.
Brecht‟s philosophy was that theatre should be political and force
people to think. He opposed the tradition of theatre as entertainment
or escapism and sought out to create the opposite. Audiences were to
leave his plays having learnt something about themselves and the
world. Given that Brecht lived during times of turmoil including two
World Wars, the Great Depression, Nazism, etc. it is not surprising that
people like Brecht used the theatre in this way (politically), to get their
message across.
Features of Epic Theatre
Brecht created a distinct style called Epic Theatre, also referred to as
theatre of Alienation. In reality, Brecht was influenced by many other
people and theatrical traditions. The characteristics of Brecht‟s Epic
Theatre included:
Alienation
To feel alienated means to feel not part of something. Brecht did not
want his audiences to sympathise with characters on stage, he wanted
them to feel estranged, separate, detached so they could remain
objective and learn from the message being portrayed. Some doubt
this was ever achieved.
Narrative
A character was often used to narrate or comment during the play. This
stopped the action of the play, reminding the audience it was not real,
and added more „food for thought‟.
Episodic
Brecht‟s plays consisted of short episodes broken up with narration, song
and dance.
No Stage tricks or illusions
Actors moved props around, lights were left on - in other words no tricks.
Props were minimal. Scenes were often slide projected.
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History of Theatre
Chorus
Actors spoke or sang in unison as had previously happened in ancient
Greek theatre. The chorus broke up the scenes of the play and
commented on the play directly to the audience.
Signs
Big signs were hung to spell obvious stage props or to comment on
action, characters etc.
Generalised Characters
As Epic theatre discouraged audiences identifying with or becoming
too attached with characters, general roles were written. Examples
included Mother, Worker.
Brecht‟s best plays included „ Mother Courage and her Children‟, „The
Life of Galileo‟ and „The Caucasian Chalk Circle‟.
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12. BERTOLT BRECHT (1898-1956) & EPIC THEATRE
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Explain Brecht‟s philosophy of theatre.
2. What was the point or objective of Epic theatre?
3. What influenced Brecht‟s political motives/thoughts?
4. Define alienation.
5. How did Brecht alienate his audiences and what was the effect of
this?
6. What was the role of the narrator?
7. Why were there no elaborate sets and lighting?
8. How was the chorus used?
9. Why were characters usually generalised rather than fully rounded?
B. CREATIVE EXTENTION QUESTIONS
10. Write a three minute Epic play with a strong message.
For example: Republican Australia
 Include the elements of Epic theatre such as short scenes, signs,
narration, etc.
 Write in all stage instructions.
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13. TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE
SOME IMPORTANT INNOVATORS
Artaud & Grotowski
Many innovators of modern drama were too confronting and different to be
accepted and understood in their own life time. This was certainly the case
with people such as Brecht, Artaud and others. Their ideas have now been
accepted and allowed to influence many directors, designers, and actors.
Artaud and the Theatre of Cruelty
At the same time as Bertolt Brecht was writing his Epic, political plays - Antonin
Artaud (1896-1948) was more interested in exploring the inner world of the
human mind. Artaud was a surrealist in the 1920s, believing that there were
many dark secrets hidden deep inside our minds (unconscious) that we were
not aware of, that caused us to do the things we did. Another member of the
Surrealist movement was Salvador Dali, famous for his strange „dream‟
paintings filled with objects. Artaud was greatly influenced by the Surrealist
movement even when he left.
Artaud believed that theatre should force people to confront and heal their
inner selves or they would become negative and destructive. He
disapproved of the typical plays that dealt with social problems and
individuals.
Unlike Brecht, who wanted to „brainwash‟ his audience with strong messages Artaud thought that was a waste of time. Theatre was to be more primitive
and instinctive if it was to really touch people and change them. He used the
term „Theatre of Cruelty‟ because he was forcing the audience to face itself,
or being „cruel to be kind‟. Rituals and symbols were seen as powerful.
Artaud felt that plays should be taken out of the traditional theatre building
which he rejected as being too formal, and preferred large spaces such as
warehouses. The audiences were intermingled with the actors and there was
to be no scenery except for symbols. Lighting was to be exciting, fast and
sound was also important. Artaud believed that the audience could be
„assaulted‟ with a fast paced light/sound/human show and their inner selves
be released and be confronted and healed. Although this aim may seem far
fetched, Artaud‟s ideas can be adopted into contemporary performances. As
well, many people use drama in this way to heal from psychological pain and
this is called psychodrama.
Artaud suffered mental and emotional breakdowns, perhaps explaining his
area of interest. After he died, his published works inspired many dramatists
and in 1963 the Theatre of Cruelty was formed and Artaud‟s ideas were
materialised and toured.
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Grotowski and Poor Theatre
Jerzy Grotowski was born in Poland and his ideas about acting and
theatre have contributed greatly in that they reclaimed the essential
importance and role of the actor. Grotowski reminded people that one
did not need expensive sets, lighting, costumes, because his theatre
was actor based. Hence he called his Theatre - Poor Theatre. When all
stage elements are removed, only the essentials are left - actors and
audience. The relationship between actor and audience is a powerful
one which Grotowski studied closely as part of his „laboratory‟.
Great demands are made on actors in Poor Theatre because they are
the centre of attention, the key. Effective actors must work on
themselves until they can give of themselves fully. Grotowski worked
intensely with his actors as he recognised all individuals are unique.
Grotowski‟s book „Towards a Poor Theatre‟ included many of the
exercises that he used to help free his actors. Some of his techniques
included silence/inner meditation, physical endurance and training in
emotional memory (or reliving an event to recreate the emotion).
Plays were staged in diverse settings from ordinary rooms to
warehouses. Like Artaud, he saw no need to separate the audience
and actors, as he wanted to create a dynamic relationship, Grotowski
believed the power of the actor should be so strong that he/she could
transform anything around him through the power of his/her belief. In
other words the floor could become the sea or a boat, etc.
Grotowski‟s influence came at the best possible time for it seemed to
„re-invent‟ drama and the theatre at a time when dramatists had to
compete with films, videos, and television, and the only plays being
staged seemed to be lavish expensive musicals. Grotowski showed us
that even a vulnerable lone actor with no props can have as much
impact as any blockbuster film.
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Absurdism
Absurdism was a movement based on the ideas of Existentialism, first
developed by Jean-Paul Sartre. According to existentialists, life is
meaningless - jus a series of acts - nothing. Absurdism was somewhat
popular in the 1950s and 1960s due to the plays of Eugene Ionesco,
Samuel Beckett and Jean Genet. Absurd plays highlight the
meaningless or absurdity of life and often feature an underlying despair.
Features of absurd plays may include some of the following:
simple/minimal sets; meaningless dialogue and repetition highlighting
futility. Some people find Absurd plays hard to understand and cope
with, however the movement provided some impressive plays, notably
Samuel Beckett‟s classic „Waiting for Godot‟.
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13. TWENTIETH CENTURY THEATRE - SOME IMPORTANT
INNOVATORS - Artaud, Grotowski
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Why are some innovators of modern drama often not accepted?
2. How did Artaud‟s attitudes differ compared with Brecht‟s ideas?
3. Define surrealism.
4. What was the goal of theatre according to Artaud.
5. Why was the term Theatre of Cruelty used?
6. Where were Artaud‟s plays to be staged and why?
7. Describe Artaud‟s ideal play.
8. What contribution did Grotowski make to modern drama?
9. How did Grotowski prepare actors?
10. Where did Grotowski stage his plays? Why?
11. Where did Grotowski use the term „Poor Theatre‟?
12. Define Absurdist theatre.
13. What were Absurdist plays about?
14. List the key features of Absurdist plays.
15. Describe how a performance directed by Grotowski would be
different to one directed by Artaud.
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16. AUSTRALIAN THEATRE - An Overview
Australia‟s first English settlers sought to reproduce the theatre they had
left behind when they arrived here in the late eighteenth century.
Established as a convict settlement, this produced interesting results, as
conditions could not have been more different.
It is believed the first play was held in 1789 in a small mud hut. At that
time, Restoration comedy was popular in England, and that was the
style of drama copied here. Restoration comedy was based on the
manners and lifestyle of the aristocracy, or rich people.
Convict Theatre
During the 1800‟s, convicts engaged in acting and staging many plays,
although they received much opposition. Drama seemed too much like
fun and enjoyment for the convicts.
Although much of the drama was from England, a few Australian plays
were now being written, such as the 1829 play „The Bushrangers‟ by
David Burn. Plays like this about convict conditions, bushrangers and so
on were not allowed to be performed because it described the horrible
conditions of like for the convicts.
In 1833, the Sydney Theatre Royal opened, imitating an English theatre
with a proscenium arch stage setting the standards for other states to
follow. Audiences enjoyed light entertainment. However, the theatre
was poorly organised.
Gold Rushes of the 1850s
Gold was discovered in the 1850s causing a rush of people arriving to
search for gold and make their fortune. More people went to the
theatres, and new theatres were being built. George Coppin, an
entrepreneur invited an American performer J.C Williamson to Australia.
Williamson enjoyed great success.
J.C Williamson
J.C Williamson and his wife, Maggie Moore, acted and managed in
their successful plays - all musicals from overseas. The couple
encouraged overseas stars to tour including the world famous actress
Sarah Bernhadt. Audiences loved the entertainment but this
discouraged the writing and staging of home grown Australian plays.
Vaudeville dominated the stages of the 1890s with variety style musical,
dancing and comedy shows.
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A Slow Acceptance
As radio developed in the 1920s, quiz shows, radio plays (serial and
drama) developed with a uniquely Australian flavour. It was not until the
Australian Elizabethan Trust was set up in 1945 that truly Australian
drama could come to the foreground. The aims of the trust were to
encourage Australian writing, and performers. Ray Lawler‟s play
„Summer of the Seventeenth Doll‟ was a great success critically and
with audiences.
„Summer of the Seventeenth Doll‟ was a realistic play about two North
Queensland cane cutters, Barney and Roo who came down to
Melbourne where they meet and develop relationships with Nancy and
Olive. It was both moving and funny and changed Australian theatre
forever, giving permission for Australians to support their own culture,
rather than as second best compared with American and English work.
Many other Australian plays soon followed.
In 1956, the dawn of television in Australia meant the actors, directors
and writers had a new avenue for their work. Another milestone for
Australian theatre occurred in the 1950s - the establishment of NIDA National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1958. NIDA has profoundly
impacted the training of Australian actors, directors and designers.
Other states followed with their own courses in the Dramatic Arts.
The Sixties
Life was moving rapidly during the 1960s - it was a time of great change
and upheaval. Much experimentation was happening in drama around
the world, as well as Australia, as people struggled to make sense of it
all. Alternative theatre, requiring little money and much innovation and
experimentation, thrived.
New playwrights emerged including John Romeril, Jack Hibberd, David
Williamson, Barry Oakley, Tim Roberts and Barry Dickins. By the seventies,
every State had its own theatre company (e.g. Melbourne Theatre
Company) which received government subsidies.
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Australian Theatre Today
After initial experimentation and searching for an identity, Australian
theatre has become diverse. Writers have broadened their views and
their world. Louis Nowra, Stephan Sewell, Ron Elisha, Michael Gow as
well as others, have been praised for their plays. Many community
theatres have been established, created to meet the needs for and
with particular groups. Limited grants are distributed by various
government bodies to support the Arts. Moreover Aboriginal drama,
dance and art has received much attention over the last twenty years.
Although the big American and English blockbuster musicals (like
Phantom of the Opera) still receive the greatest box office support - the
richness and diversity of mainstream and alternative Australian theatre
continues to survive.
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14. AUSTRALIAN THEATRE - An Overview
A. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. When the English arrived in Australia, what type of theatre did they set
up?
2. What role did the convicts play in the early theatre?
3. Why was David Burn‟s play „The Bushranger‟ not allowed to be
performed?
4. Describe Sydney‟s Theatre Royal when it first opened.
5. What was the impact of the gold rushes?
6. How did J.C Williamson change Australian Theatre?
7. What was the effect this had on Australian plays?
8. Explain what the Australian Elizabethan Trust achieved.
9. Describe the impact „Summer of the Seventeenth Doll‟
10. Why was the establishment of NIDA important?
11. List all the live theatre experiences you have had. Are they Australian
or from overseas?
12. Do you think Australians still compare the locals with the overseas
stars?
13. Do you think Australian theatre, television, music and art is as good
as overseas products? Explain?
14. In your mind, how would you describe „ Australian Culture‟ or
tradition? Is there such a thing? Explain your opinion.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brockett, Oscar G. The Essential Theatre. Sixth Edition. Harcourt
Brace, U.S.A., 1996
Brooke, Peter. The Empty Space. Penguin, London, 1968
Crawford, Jerry. Acting in person and in style. Fourth Edition.
William C. . Brown, W.A., 1991
The Encyclopaedia of Illustration. Complied by Gerard Quinn,
Studio Editions, London, 1990
Gadaloff, Judith. Australian Drama. Jacaranda Press, QLD, 1991
Grotowski, J. Towards a Poor Theatre. Methuen, London, 1984
Hartnall, Phyllis. The Theatre: A Concise History. Revised Edition.
Thames & Hudson, London, 1985
Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre. Edited by John Russel Brown.
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995
Stanislavski, Constantin. An Actor Prepares. Methuen, London, 1984
Wilson, Edwin. The Theatre Experience. Sixth Edition. McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1994