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International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning, Vol. 2, No. 6, December 2012
An Exploratory Study of Online Environmental Statements
and Claims in Web-Based Tourism Marketing
Tung-Zong Chang and Andrea Insch

environmentally friendly alternatives. As a result, destination
managers have started to embrace the concept of sustainable
tourism by exploring approaches that help them select and
evaluate sustainable indicators that tourism destinations can
use to achieve a balance among the interests of various
constituencies [2].
With intense competition among destinations,
considerable marketing effort has been employed to
differentiate one from others to build a strong, loyal customer
base. A positive destination image could assist not only a
destination, but also a country’s export brands [3].
Worldwide, many municipal governments have employed
marketing campaigns to build their cities as destinations of
choice [4]. Alternative approaches and models have been
developed to measure the pre-visit and post-visit perceptions
of a destination. ES factors, such as natural resource
conservation, have been included as factors that have been
incorporated to form a destination’s image. One widely
adopted communication approach is the use of online
medium, specifically, a company’s website [5]. With the
broad acceptance of the Internet as a communication vehicle,
firms, including travel destinations, have learned to develop
online content that conveys important messages.
The present study sets forth to examine the types and
effects of online ES messages in the context of destination
marketing. Two types of ES messages, ES statements and ES
promotional claims, are examined based on their objectivity.
The research results are expected to shed some light on how
online sustainability messages are employed and how
consumer perceptions are influenced by such online
messages.
Abstract—Environmental sustainability has become an
important public policy and marketing issue due to increasing
concerns with the natural environment. As a result,
environmental messages and claims have been widely used to
produce positive product and corporate images. We
investigated the use of web-based objective and subjective
environmental statements and promotional claims by means of
reviewing the websites of 153 golf resorts worldwide. The
results indicate that a variety of environmental statements
and/or promotional claims have been used by 71 golf resorts. Ad
hoc comparisons based on how such statements and claims are
used reveal significant effects on perceptions. Resorts with
objective statements or claims seem to enjoy more favorable
perceptions than resorts with only subjective statements or
claims. Important implications for management and future
research directions are provided.
Index
Terms—Environmental
sustainability,
marketing, promotion claims, survey.
online
I. INTRODUCTION
Environmental sustainability (ES) has emerged as an
increasingly important consideration among consumers who
are concerned with the impact of human activities on the
natural environment. Consumers are paying more attention to
how product uses might affect the natural environment as
well as to actionable measures that could alleviate such
effects. Due to consumers’ growing attention to green issues,
companies have increased their effort to address these
important issues by modifying their product offerings and
communication strategies. In addition to statements and
claims appearing on product packaging and advertisements,
many firms have incorporated online media to relay ES
messages via corporate websites. As more consumers turn to
the Internet for information, it is imperative to examine the
effectiveness of such online ES messages.
Of the range of consumer products and services, travel
destinations are at the forefront of embracing ES measures
into decision making process. In this domain, a number of
related environmental issues have become apparent.
Traveling to a destination leads to energy use and pollution.
Second, traffic count at a destination has direct impacts on
the natural environment. Growth in traffic count at a
destination is likely to directly affect the welfare of local
residents as their quality of life can be severely affected [1].
Environmentally sensitive consumers may seek out
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Environmental Sustainability in Tourism Marketing
With increasing awareness of various environmental
issues, there is an escalating demand for greener technologies,
products and services. A major reason for resistance in
embracing ES efforts is often the added costs of operations.
The added costs of designing and developing an eco-friendly
destination could be seen as barriers in the immediate future
to greater investment and adoption of greener systems and
technologies. Based on an empirical study of consumer
products in the UK, Wong, Turner, and Stoneman [6] cite
costs as key barriers for green product diffusion. Nonetheless,
the acceptance of the concept of environmental sustainability
has vastly improved since the rapid rise in energy prices in
2007, growing agreement on the global climate change
phenomenon, and the increasing economies of scale of
Manuscript received September 10, 2012; revised November 6.2012.
T. Z. Chang is with the Metropolitan State University of Denver,
Colorado 80217 (e-mail: [email protected]).
A. Insch is with University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand (e-mail:
[email protected]).
DOI: 10.7763/IJEEEE.2012.V2.172
503
International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning, Vol. 2, No. 6, December 2012
environmentally friendly products. The general belief is that
investments in environmental sustainability could lead to
improved consumer perceptions and patronage intentions.
Ginsberg and Bloom [7] have shown that embracing
eco-friendly measures in resort management could provide
important synergies by enhancing the image of a resort and
leading to more efficient operations. Furthermore, key
players in the global tourism industry have been
incorporating ES concerns into their decision making process.
Major tour operators, such as TUI and Thomas Cook Group,
have incorporated ES as a criterion when evaluating
destinations, hotels, and resorts for marketing and booking
decisions. Similarly, ES features as a key factor in destination
rankings of National Geographic and other global travel
societies. As a result, embracing environmental sustainability
has become an effective means of promoting a destination’s
image.
B. Web-Based Communication in Destination Marketing
Another emerging factor in destination management is the
dominance of web applications, which have two important
effects for travel destinations. First, the customer has taken
over the booking process with the assistance of web
technology. Second, web-based communication could
effectively promote the sustainability concept and facilitate
new forms of consumer citizenship in that sustainable
consumption is valued. Cobos, Wang, and Okumus [8]
suggest the importance of using web-based destination
marketing activities, such as information, communication,
transaction, and assurance, to build a long-term relationship
with potential visitors. Hyun, Lee, and Hu [9] also call for
more attention to the use of virtual experience in tourism. As
internet marketing has become a staple in many developed
economies, utilizing internet technology to communicate
with consumers has become a basic requirement in resort
management. As a result, there is a strategic window for
differentiation to enhance the image of a destination by
connecting with potential customers via the internet [10].
A resort destination’s website is often the first point of
contact with potential visitors who are searching for
alternative travel destinations as well as a means of
maintaining positive relationships with existing patrons.
Online environmental sustainability messages could be a
potential tool for differentiation and a base for segmentation.
The cues on the care of and concern for the environment
could suggest the environmentally friendly experience the
customer would enjoy during their visit. Therefore,
incorporating environmental sustainability messages into
website design could be a valuable marketing tool for resort
managers to build a positive impression with potential
customers [11]. For destination resorts that have significant
investment in sustainability measures, in particular, it would
be beneficial to communicate such ES effort effectively with
site visitors to create positive consumer perceptions.
C. Classifications of ES Messages
Marketing messages have been examined along various
classifications, including directly asserted or implied [12],
data claims (scientific effort been undertaken to produce the
basis for the claim) or puffery (claims without scientific basis)
504
[13], claim extremity [14], search qualities (those claims that
can be determined prior to purchase), experience qualities
(claims that can be determined post purchase), credence
qualities (claims that can never be determined) [15, 16],
substantive or associative [17, 18, 19], and objective or
subjective [16, 20]. For the purpose of classifying online
statements and claims, the last two classification schemes
warrant further consideration. Overall, the objective and
subjective classification is stricter than the substantive and
associate scheme. For example, product orientation terms
such as biodegradable and recycled may have limited
concrete meaning to consumers. Morris, Hastak, and Mazis
[21] found that respondents exhibited limited understanding
of ES terms, “recycled,” “recyclable,” “pre-consumer waste”
and called for stronger regulation of environmental
marketing claims. A stricter classification, such as
objective/subjective, could meet such a call. Objective
statements and claims would include those with concrete
meanings, such as the installment of solar panels, water
recycling systems, low water usage plants, etc. Subjective
statements and claims would include those that lack concrete
meanings and are often subject to interpretation, e.g.,
“eco-friendly,” “recycled,” “certified,” etc. Based on the
theory of economics of information, consumers are more
likely to be skeptical of subjective information, which is
difficult to verify, and less skeptical of objective information,
which can be easily verified [15], [16], [20]. In an empirical
study, Ford, et al., [20] examined the effect of various types
of marketing claims and found that consumers are less
skeptical of objective environmental claims as well as search
attribute claims. The objective information is similar to the
direct “hard” information, which Nelson [16] argues to have
a greater value to consumers. In a related study, Pettus &
Diener [22] show that concrete, objective information has a
greater impact on decision making. As a result, in the present
study, we examine online messages based on the
subjective/objective classification.
D. Informational Statements and Promotional Claims
Online environmental sustainability messages can be
informational statements or promotional claims. Information
ES statements are often placed in a separate web page as an
informational section on environmental sustainability,
including a firm’s commitment to ES efforts and descriptions
of related ES features that have been adopted by the
destination. Information ES statements are usually not
intended to be used to influence behavior directly.
Promotional claims are prominently displayed on a
destination’s website with the clear intention of generating
positive perceptions and inducing patronage. Informational
ES statements may be considered passive and indirect,
whereas the promotional claims are forceful and direct with
the explicit purpose of influencing perceptions, attitude, and
behavior.
With ever increasing ES concerns, both informational ES
statements and ES claims are often present on a website. Yet,
the effects of online ES informational statements and online
ES promotional claims have not been adequately studied. In
the present study, we examine the effects of different types of
International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning, Vol. 2, No. 6, December 2012
sustainability claims.
online environmental statements and promotional claims,
distinguished by the subjective/objective criterion, on
consumer perceptions among informed consumers. The
following four possible combinations of online
environmental sustainability messages are examined:
 subjective ES statements; subjective ES claims
 subjective ES statements; objective ES claims
 objective ES statements; subjective ES claims
 objective ES statements; objective ES claims
The effect of each of the four combinations on consumer
perceptions is hypothesized in the following section.
IV. METHODOLOGY
Use Golf resorts are selected as research subjects because
they have faced mounting environmental concerns and
increasing sensitivity toward golf course development.
Embracing environmental sustainability in resort
management represents a potential business opportunity for
this global leisure industry. Golf resorts have been cited as
one of the major environmental offenders due to their
substantial land and water use. As an example, Donald
Trump encountered considerable resistance and criticisms for
a plan to develop a $2B golf resort on an environmentally
sensitive stretch of coastline in Scotland in 2008. In the same
year, Tiger Woods’ golf course projects in the Bahamas drew
complaints due to the impact on freshwater supply and other
environmental concerns.
Sample worldwide golf resorts were selected from listings
provided by various resort information websites, including
Resort Online, Golf.com, among others. The inclusion of
golf resorts from different countries allows ad hoc
cross-country comparisons. Upper-level college marketing
students were recruited and trained as website reviewers.
Each reviewer went through a one-hour orientation and
information session to become expert reviewers. The use of
expert reviewers has been used in previous studies [24].
Reviewers were given introductory information regarding
golf resorts, golf course development, and related
environmental issues. At the end of the required training
session, reviewers were introduced to a resort review
questionnaire. They were told to use the questionnaire to
evaluate three pre-selected benchmarking destination golf
resort websites in order to gain familiarity and experience
with the review process. The three resort websites vary in the
inclusion of a separate web page on environmental
sustainability, the use of promotional environmental claims
prominently displayed on the home page or on pages within
second-level links (two clicks away from the home page, not
including site map) or less, and/or the use of ES claims,
objective and subjective.
On resort websites, a number of resorts have included a
separate section that provides general ES statements and
ES-related actions undertaken by the resort. Such
information varies widely as some provided specific actions
taken with examples of built-in ES features; while others
only provide general statements of its ES accomplishments,
commitments, or concerns. Promotional ES claims are
identified independently. Reviewers were instructed to
search for ES claims made on a resort’s home page or on a
webpage that is no more than two clicks away from the home
page. Site map is excluded from this consideration because
such map provides a one-click away convenience for
experienced users. Such ES claims could be part of a general
promotion messages prominently displayed on web pages.
Finally, the differences between objective ES claims and
subjective ES claims were delineated to interviewers.
III. HYPOTHESIS
Online environmental sustainability statements may signal
a resort destination’s commitment to the improvement of
one’s natural environment. Such positive signal has the
potential to influence the consumer’s evaluations. As a result,
the inclusion of such environmental sustainability
information on a resort’s website could enhance the quality
perceptions by the consumer. Furthermore, presenting
objective sustainability statements may have a stronger effect
on quality perceptions because objective features convey
such information more effectively among informed
consumers [23]. Based on the theory of economics of
information, consumers are more likely to be affected by
objective information than by subjective information because
objective information is more specific and verifiable [16],
[20]. On the other hand, subjective statements are often
subject to puffery and such claims cannot be readily verified.
As a result, consumers might ignore or discount such
subjective statements. This leads to the following
hypotheses:
 H1a: The presence of environmental sustainability
statements enhances quality perceptions.
 H1b: Objective environmental sustainability statements
have a stronger effect on quality perceptions than
subjective environmental sustainability statements.
Using environmental sustainability features in
promotional claims should improve quality perceptions of a
resort. Employing environmental claims is likely to lead to
superior quality perceptions. Furthermore, objective
environmental sustainability claims will communicate with
informed consumers more effectively, and thus will receive
superior quality perceptions than subjective environmental
sustainability claims. Among various types of marketing
claims, Ford, et al. [20] concluded that consumers are more
confident with objective environmental claims. On the other
hand, consumers might have limited understanding of
subjective ES terms [21]. The following are corresponding
hypotheses:
 H2a: The presence of environmental sustainability
features in promotional claims enhances quality
perceptions.
 H2b:
Objective
environmental
sustainability
promotional claims have a stronger effect on quality
perceptions
than
subjective
environmental
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International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning, Vol. 2, No. 6, December 2012
that objective ES claims yield stronger positive effects in
perceptions. The results show a strong positive effect due to
objective claims and a general lack of significant effect due to
subjective sustainable claims (Table II).
Objective claims describe concrete actions or features
employed, such as water recycling systems, solar power
panels, energy-saving LED lighting etc. Subjective ES
claims are slogan-like statements, such as “eco-friendly,”
“we care,” and “certified,” that do not specify concrete
actions or features. If both objective and subjective claims are
used, it is deemed objective. Trained students are expected to
mimic informed travelers who possess adequate knowledge
in ES issues and are reviewing potential golf resort
destinations via the internet.
Upon completing the training session, reviewers were
randomly assigned to pre-selected resorts and made their
evaluations using the resort review questionnaire, which
includes measures related to the degree of involvement in
sustainability, the inclusion of ES information statements,
and the use of promotional ES claims. Key measures include
the inclusion of informational ES statements, the use of
promotional ES claims; objectivity of such statements or
claims, reviewer’s assessment on the resort’s degree of
engagement in sustainability, and reviewer’s subjective
assessment on quality, appeal, and recommending to others.
A total of 153 resorts were successfully evaluated,
including 86 North America golf resorts and 67 resorts
outside North America. Among the resorts reviewed, 60%
located within or near a major metropolitan area, 77% near a
national/state park or recreational areas, 67% near a
well-known natural wonder, 10% could not be reached by
mass transportation or motor vehicles, and 37% attract
mainly international visitors.
TABLE I: THE EFFECT OF ONLINE ES STATEMENTS
W/out With
Subj Obj
Diff.
t
n=
80
45
22
p
48
A. Resorts without online ES statements vs. resorts with online ES
statements:
Overall
7.50
Quality
4.84
Appeal
Recmmnd
4.82
to others
8.22
0.72
2.37
< 0.01
5.61
0.77
3.17
< 0.01
5.51
0.69
2.54
< 0.01
B. Resorts with only online subjective ES statements vs. resorts with
online objective ES statements:
Overall
7.36
Quality
4.50
Appeal
Recmmnd
4.32
to others
8.54
1.18
2.62
< 0.01
6.09
1.54
5.50
< 0.01
6.02
1.70
5.25
< 0.01
C. Resorts without ES statements vs. resorts with only online
subjective ES statements:
Overall
7.50
7.36
Quality
4.84
4.50
Appeal
Recmmnd
4.82
4.32
to others
-0.14
-0.28
Insig
-0.34
-0.92
Insig
-0.50
-1.28
Insig
TABLE II: THE EFFECT OF ONLINE ES CLAIMS
W/out With Subj Obj
Diff.
t
n=
109
45
12
p
33
A. Resorts without online ES claims vs. resorts with online ES
claims:
Overall
7.52
8.56
1.03
3.33
< 0.01
Quality
4.94
5.80
0.86
3.66
< 0.01
Appeal
Recmmnd
4.89
5.76
0.87
3.19
< 0.01
to others
B. Resorts with only subjective online ES claims vs. resorts with
objective online ES claims:
Overall
8.00
8.76
0.76
1.44
< 0.01
Quality
Appeal
4.92
6.12
1.20
0.88
< 0.01
Recmmnd
4.42
6.24
1.83
1.30
< 0.01
to others
V. RESULTS
Hypothesis 1a states that the presence of environmental
sustainability statements on a resort’s website enhances the
quality perceptions of a destination. To test the hypothesis,
t-tests were conducted on the three subjective quality
measures, rated on a 10-point scale with 10 being good. All
tests showed significantly superior perceptions for resorts
with such statements than for resorts without (see Table 1).
The follow-up hypothesis proposes that objective statements
are more effective than subjective statements. Test results
reveal that resorts with objective sustainable statements
receive more positive perceptions than resorts with only
subjective statements. To further examine the effects due to
sustainable statements, we compare resorts with only
subjective sustainable statements with resorts without
sustainable statements at all. Surprisingly, none of the t-tests
were significant. In fact, upon further examination, it
revealed that resorts without sustainable statements receive
higher mark than resorts with only subjective statements
(Table I).
Hypothesis 2a tests the effectiveness of the use of
promotional ES claims. Overall, the inclusion of promotional
ES claims results in significantly favorable perceptions (see
Table II). The follow-up hypothesis, 2b, proposes that
objective ES claims are more effective than subjective ES
claims. The hypothesis is upheld by the result, which shows
VI. DISCUSSION
The present study provides evidence of the effects of
online environmental sustainability statements and claims on
quality perceptions among informed consumers. The results
show palpable support for the positive effect of online
environmental sustainability statements and claims on
consumer perceptions, which might provide resort managers
incentive to employ environmental sustainability features to
enhance resort image and increase travelers’ visit intentions.
Furthermore, it shows that there is a lack of effect when only
subjective environmental sustainability statements or claims
are used. For environmental sustainability statements and
claims to be effective, objective information should be
provided.
Prior research shows that the mass market has a general
lack of willingness to pay for environmental sustainability
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International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning, Vol. 2, No. 6, December 2012
features [25]. The positive effects due to the presence of
online environmental sustainability statements and claims
could provide a reason for managers to embrace
environmentally friendly factors. With the increasing
environmental concerns among the general population, more
destinations are expected to incorporate ES factors. As a
result, it will be increasing important for destination
managers to determine which ES features should be built into
its destination offering portfolio and how effective the ES
components are in attracting travelers. Future research may
identify discriminating ES factors in product differentiation
and market positioning decisions. Despite mixed results on
the financial return from ES activities, past research has
shown that more firms have adopted proactive environmental
strategies to raise their internal efficiency and external
legitimacy in achieving competitive advantage [26]. The
management could be interested in the contributions of
various ES factors to a firm’s profitability and
competitiveness.
In addition to differentiation and positioning decisions, a
carefully selected target market may be needed for a
destination to recoup its investment in ES efforts at the early
stage. For example, there is a potential niche of informed
consumers who might be willing to pay more for greener
alternatives. Chitra [27] reports that the majority of subjects
in a green consumer study are aspirants who send out a
positive signal to an eco-friendly marketing mix. Based on a
study at six eco-lodges in the Cayo District of Belize, Kwan,
Eagles, and Gebhardt [28] found that such consumers are
middle-aged, highly educated, and employed with high levels
of income. Using informed reviewers, the present study
shows that such consumers form positive perceptions on golf
resorts with online ES statements and claims. Further, such
effect is even strong when objective ES information is used.
Therefore, destinations that incorporate ES features may aim
to attract niche customers who are affluent, concerned for
environmental issues, and willing to pay more.
There are limitations associated with the present study.
The observed effects are expected to be more evident among
informed travelers as reviewers were trained so that they
could be more likely to be influenced by sustainable
statements and claims. The use of students is a weakness.
Furthermore, the evaluation was based on the presence of
sustainable features on resort websites. A resort could have
significant investments in sustainable features, yet did not
provide such information online. Therefore, the results
observed in the present study might not be related to the level
of effort in environmental sustainability. Further research is
needed to better understand the significance of
environmental sustainability in resort management in terms
of consumer quality perceptions, visit intentions, return on
investment, etc.
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Andrea Insch, Ph.D. in Marketing, is from
Griffith University. She is senior lecturer, School
of Business, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand. Her research expertise is focused on
place-based marketing, with an emphasis on
understanding and measuring the ways that place
identity can create stakeholder value. Dr. Insch has
been awarded a School of Business Emerging
Researcher Award and has published a number of
research papers in destination marketing.
Tung-Zong (Donald) Chang is from University of
Missouri-Columbia, USA, 1988 with Ph.D. in
Marketing. He is senior full professor with the
Metropolitan State University of Denver and
working on research in e-business management,
leadership behavior, corporate marketing culture,
destination marketing, and service quality
management. Dr. Chang has published in
Psychology and Marketing, Journal of Academy of
Marketing Science, Supply Chain Management,
International Marketing Review, Journal of Global Marketing, etc.
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