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11주차. Compounds
지난강의
• Derivation vs. inflection
• Inflection, grammatical words, lexemes
• Grammatical meanings of inflection
- number, person, tense and aspect,
gender and noun class, case, voice,
mood/modality
• Inflection in English
• Irregular inflection
• Why English has so little inflection?
학습내용
• Compounds, phrasal words, lexicalized
phrases
• The internal structure of compounds
• The right-hand HEAD rule
• Common patterns of compounding
학습내용
• Types of compounds
- endocentric, exocentric, copulative
compounds
- root (= primary), synthetic
(= verbal or secondary) compounds
- compound nouns, compound
adjectives, compound verbs
- neoclassical compounds
• Compound stress
11주차. Compounds
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Which syntactic units comprise a compound?
• biology, electroscopy; biochemistry,
astrophysics
• parks commissioner, systems analyst
• over-the-fence gossip, off-the-rack dress
• gossip over the fence, dress off the rack
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Which syntactic units comprise a compound?
- The left-hand member of a compound
must be a root, a word, or a phrase.
- The right-hand member must be a root or a
word; it cannot be a phrase.
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8
Phrasal compounds
• A phrasal compounds is a word that is
made up of a phrase as its first element
and a noun as its second element.
- stuff-blowing-up effects
- bikini-girls-in-trouble genre
- comic-book-and-science-fiction fans
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Phrasal compounds
• It is impossible to insert a modifying word
in-between the phrase and the HEAD of
the compound.
- exciting stuff-blowing-up effects
- *stuff-blowing-up exciting effects
(*girl pretty friend)
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Phrasal compounds
• Even a whole sentence can take up the
left-hand position.
- God-is-dead theology
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Phrasal words
(1) jack-in-the-box (cf. book on the shelf)
(2) good-for-nothing, dyed-in-the-wool
1 11주차. Compounds
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Phrasal words
• What are the internal structures of (1) and
(2)?
• The right-hand member is a phrase:
[[jack] [in the box]],
[[good][for nothing]] ,
[[dyed][in the wool]] → phrase-like
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8
Phrasal words
• What is the plural form of (1)?
• The plural form is marked on the whole
expression:
jack-in-the-boxes, not *jacks-in-the-box.
(cf. [books on the shelf]NP) → word-like
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8
Phrasal words
• (2) can act like an adjective: your goodfor-nothing husband, a dyed-in-the-wool
Republican → word-like
• These are phrasal words.
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8
Lexicalized phrases
• brother-in-law, grant-in-aid
• What is the internal structure?
• The right-hand member is a phrase:
[[brother] [in law]] → phrase-like
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8
Lexicalized phrases
• What is the plural form?
• The plural form is marked on the head
noun, not on the whole expression:
brothers-in-law, not *brother-in-laws (cf.
[books on the shelf]NP) → phrase-like
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Lexicalized phrases
• But still, brother-in-law is idiosyncratic
(or unpredictable) in meaning, and hence,
is a lexical item.
• Thus, brother-in-law is a lexicalized
phrase.
1 11주차. Compounds
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Exercises
- Exercise 6.1, Plag, p.163
Classify the following words as being
products of either inflection, derivation, or
compounding. Justify your analysis in the
potentially problematic cases.
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Exercises
-
blackboard eraser
unacceptability
flowerpots
movie monster
broad-shouldered
hard-working
speaking
developmental
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The internal structure of compounds
• Which one is correct?
- [bathroom towel designer]
- [[bathroom towel]] designer]
- [bathroom [towel designer]]
• What is the meaning difference?
- [[top hat] rack]] vs. [top [hat rack]]
• We will get back to this next week.
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The right-hand HEAD rule
• If the right-hand member of a compound
is a verb, the compound will be a verb
(e.g. deep-fry, proof-read)
• If the right-hand member of a compound
is a count noun, the compound will be a
count noun (e.g. drophammer,
greenhouse)
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The right-hand HEAD rule
• If the right-hand member of a compound
has feminine gender, the compound will
be feminine (e.g. head waitress)
• If the right-hand member of a compound
is plural, the compound will be plural
(e.g. parks commissioner vs. parks
commissioners).
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The right-hand HEAD rule
• The compound as a whole inherits its
syntactic information from its right-hand
member.
• Thus, the right-hand member of a
compound is its ‘syntactic’ head (=HEAD).
→ The right-hand HEAD rule
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Common patterns of compounding
left/right
noun
verb
noun
bathroom
brainwash sky-high
verb
pickpocket
stir-fry
adjective
greenhouse dry-clean
grey-green
preposition
afterbirth
inbuilt
outrun
(V+A compounds are rare.)
adjective
(fail-safe)
1 11주차. Compounds
8
• Compounds, phrasal words, lexicalized
phrases
• The internal structure of compounds
• The right-hand HEAD rule
• Common patterns of compounding
• Types of compounds
-
-
endocentric, exocentric, copulative compounds
root (= primary), synthetic (= verbal or
secondary) compounds
compound nouns, compound adjectives,
compound verbs
neoclassical compounds
• Compound stress
1 11주차. Compounds
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Types of compounds
• Depending on the category of the right-hand
member:
- compound nouns (= nominal compounds)
- compound verbs (= verbal compounds)
- compound adjectives
(= adjectival compounds)
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Types of compounds
• Depending on the status of the semantic
head:
- exocentric compounds
- endocentric compounds
- copulative compounds (endocentric
compounds with multiple semantic
heads)
1 11주차. Compounds
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Types of compounds
• Depending on whether the right-hand
member is derived from a verb:
- root (= primary) compounds
- synthetic (=verbal or secondary)
compounds
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Endocentric compounds
• There is a semantic head in an
endocentric compound.
• The referent of the compound (= the
semantic head) is the same as the
referent of the right-hand member of the
compound.
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Endocentric compounds
- a laser printer is a kind of printer
- a book cover is a kind of cover
- a letter head is a kind of head
• semantic head = the right-hand member
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Exocentric compounds
• ‘Exocentric compounds’ literally means
that the semantic head is outside the
compound (i.e. there is no semantic head
in the compound).
• The referent of the compound is not the
referent of the right-hand member of the
compound.
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Exocentric compounds
• There is no semantic head, but there is a
syntactic head, usually the right-hand
member, that determines the category of
the compound.
- turncoat, egghead, highbrow, redskin,
redhead, redneck, bigfoot, loudmouth,
greybeard, faintheart
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Exocentric compounds
• But see to pickpocket, to cutthroat, to
spoilsport, to killjoy, to cutpurse. → But
examples like these are not common.
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Exocentric compounds (cont)
• Most exocentric compounds are forms
denoting human beings (e.g. loudmouth)
or higher animals (e.g. saber tooth).
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Exocentric compounds
• The productive exocentric compounds are
also called possessive compounds,
because they denote an entity that is
characterized (sometimes metaphorically)
by the property expressed by the
compound.
- a loudmouth is a person that possesses
‘a loud mouth’
- a saber tooth is an animal with a saberlike tooth
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Exocentric compounds
• Possessive exocentric compounds usually
have an adjective as their left-hand
element.
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Plural forms of endocentric vs.
exocentric compounds
• How do we make plural forms?
• Endocentric compounds
- wisdom tooth → wisdom teeth
- club foot → club feet
- oak leaf → oak leaves
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Plural forms of endocentric vs.
exocentric compounds
• Exocentric compounds
- saber tooth → saber tooths
- bigfoot → bigfoots
- Toronto Maple Leafs (an NHL ice
hockey team)
• An exocentric compound inflects regularly
even when its right-hand member inflects
irregularly.
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Copulative compounds
• Copulative compounds have multiple
semantic heads, neither of them being
subordinate to the other. → endocentric
compounds with multiple semantic heads
- singer-songwriter, scientist-explorer,
poet-translator, hero-martyr, producerdirector, fighter-bomber, bitter-sweet,
- the doctor-patient gap, the naturenurture debate, a modifier-head
structure, the mind-body problem
1 11주차. Compounds
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Copulative compounds
• appositional compounds → denote one
entity
• coordinative compounds → denote
multiple entities
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Copulative compounds
• What is the plural form of ‘poettranslator’?
• There are two semantics heads, but the
syntactic properties of the compound is
nonetheless determined by the right-hand
member (e.g. poet-translators, *poetstranslator, *poets-translators)
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Root vs. synthetic compounds
• Synthetic (= verbal or secondary)
compounds:
- The right-hand member is derived
from a verb, and the left-hand member
is interpreted as an argument of that
verb.
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Root vs. synthetic compounds
- dog walker, slum clearance, crime
prevention, home invasion, cost
containment → compound nouns
- university-controlled, home made,
Washington-based, hand-washing,
hair-raising, awe-inspiring
→ compound adjectives
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Root vs. synthetic compounds (cont)
• Root (= primary) compounds:
- The right-hand member is not derived
from a verb.
- The interpretation of the semantic
relationship between the right-hand
member and the left-hand member in
root compounds is quite free.
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Root vs. synthetic compounds (cont)
• Root (= primary) compounds:
- What are the possible two meanings of
marble museum?
- Also compare the meanings of hairnet,
butterfly net, and mosquito net.
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Exercises
- Exercise 6.3, Plag, p.163
Classify the following compounds as
exocentric, endocentric, possessive,
appositional, or coordinative.
frying pan
maidservant
redhead
author-reader
(exchange)
1 11주차. Compounds
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Exercises
Classify the following compounds as
exocentric, endocentric, possessive,
appositional, or coordinative.
Austria-Hungary
silkworm
bootblack
actor-manager
hardtop
man-machine
(interaction)
German-English
gas-light
1 11주차. Compounds
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Exercises
• Exercise 8, Lieber, pp.56-57
- oil burner
- light house
- blue blood
- hell raiser
- scholar athlete
- blue eyed
- pickpocket
- house-hunting
1 11주차. Compounds
8
• Compounds, phrasal words, lexicalized
phrases
• The internal structure of compounds
• The right-hand HEAD rule
• Common patterns of compounding
• Types of compounds
-
-
endocentric, exocentric, copulative compounds
root (= primary), synthetic (= verbal or
secondary) compounds
compound nouns, compound adjectives,
compound verbs
neoclassical compounds
• Compound stress
1 11주차. Compounds
8
Common patterns of compounding
left/right
noun
verb
noun
bathroom
brainwash sky-high
verb
pickpocket
stir-fry
adjective
greenhouse dry-clean
grey-green
preposition
afterbirth
inbuilt
outrun
adjective
(fail-safe)
1 11주차. Compounds
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Compound nouns
• swearword, drophammer, playtime →
V+N
• hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair
restorer → N+N
• blackboard, greenstone, faintheart → A+N
• in-group, outpost, overcoat → P+N
1 11주차. Compounds
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Compound adjectives
• knee-deep, dog-lean; universitycontrolled, Washington-based; sugar-free,
girl-crazy → N+A
• fail-safe → V+A (rare)
• bitter-sweet, sweet-sour; French-German
(cooperation), public-private (partnership)
→ A+A
• inbuilt, incoming, outgoing → P+A
1 11주차. Compounds
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Compound adjectives (cont)
• N+A: The left-hand member as a modifier
with various interpretations
- capital-insensitive → intensive with
respect to capital
- knee-deep → deep to the height of
one’s knee
- dog-lean → as lean as a dog
- blood-red → red like blood
1 11주차. Compounds
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Compound adjectives (cont)
• N+A: The left-hand member as an
argument
- university-controlled, Washingtonbased, hair-raising → synthetic
compounds
- sugar-free, girl-crazy, class-conscious
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Compound adjectives (cont)
• A+A: copulative compounds
- bitter-sweet, sweet-sour
appositional
- a French-German cooperation, the
high-low alternation, a public-private
partnership → coordinative
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Compound verbs
• to deep-fry, to shortcut, to blindfold, to
broadcast → A+V
• to proof-read, to ghost-write, to chainsmoke → N+V
• to stir-fry, to dry-clean, to freeze-dry, to
drink-drive → V+V
• to download, to outsource, to upgrade
→ P+V
1 11주차. Compounds
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Compounds with a preposition
• Compounds with a preposition as the
right-hand member violate the right-hand
HEAD rule.
- hanger-on, passer-by, sundown
- Preposition is a closed class, which is
reluctant to accepting new members.
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Neoclassical compounds
• pathology, pathogen, psychopath;
dermatitis, dermatology, pachyderm,
bronchitis; electroscopy, (two combining
forms)
• electrometer, electromagnet,
electrochemistry; Sino-Korean,
Sinophobia, Sino-Japanes (one combining
form)
1 11주차. Compounds
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Neoclassical compounds
• Neoclassical compounds are similar to
compounds: Just like a blackboard is a
kind of board, pathology is a kind of study
and dermatitis is a kind of disease.
1 11주차. Compounds
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Neoclassical compounds (cont)
• Unlike ordinary compounds, neoclassical
compounds are nearly all technical terms
of scientific vocabulary, coined out of
non-English elements (mostly from Latin
and Greek) called “combining forms.”
1 11주차. Compounds
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Neoclassical compounds (cont)
• Combining forms are bound morpheme,
more root-like than affix-like, usually of
Greek or Latin origin, that occurs only in
compounds, usually with other combining
forms (e.g. bio, ology in biology).
1 11주차. Compounds
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Neoclassical compounds (cont)
• If a word made up of combining forms is
in common use, the morphemes within it
tend to acquire the status of free
morphemes (e.g. photo from
photograph).