Download Chapter 2.2 Game Design

Chapter 2.1
Game Design
Overview
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Folk games [Costikyan]
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“Traditional” games, cultural origins
Examples:
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Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses)
Chess
Go
Backgammon
Poker
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Overview
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There is no one “right” way to design
There are many successful approaches
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Specific requirements and constraints of
each project and team determine what
works and what does not.
This introduction is but a scratch
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The Language of Games
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Game development – a young industry
Standards are still being formulated
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Theory
Practice
Terminology
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The Language of Games
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Debate continues over high-level views
Lack of standard (concrete) definitions
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Game
Play
High-level concepts tricky to articulate
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The Language of Games
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Workplace differences low-level
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Working terminology
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Example
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“actors” instead of “agents”
“geo” instead of “model”
Workflow – how things get done
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Individual responsibilities
Processes under which work is performed
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The Language of Games
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Why do we play?
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What is the nature of games?
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Not a designer’s problem
Not a designer’s problem
How is a game formed of parts?
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A designer’s problem
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Aesthetics and Frame
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Aesthetics
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Emotional responses during play
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Naïve practical approach, not classical
Frame
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The border of a game’s context
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Inside the frame is in the game
Outside the frame is real life
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Approaching Design
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Computer games are an art form
Game design practices can be taught
Game design is a technical discipline like
music, film, poetry
The art of making dynamic models
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Approaching Design
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A model represents something
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Mental/Cognitive
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Concepts
Beliefs
Maps
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Mathematical
Equations
Formulas
Algorithms
Examples:
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Locations
Relationships
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Approaching Design
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Abstract model
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Conceptual and idealized
A tool for investigating specific questions
Simplifies thinking to help understand problems
May include assumptions thought to be false
Abstract game
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One rule
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The piece is moved to the open square
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A Player-Game Model
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A model of the player – game relationship
PLAYER
Mechanics
GAME
Interface
System
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A Player-Game Model
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Mechanics
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Interface
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Things the player does
Communication between player and game
System
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Underlying structure and behavior
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Play Mechanics
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Gameplay
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Feelings of playing a particular game
Activities engaged in a particular game
(Play/game) Mechanics
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Specific to game activities
“What the player does”
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Seven Stages of Action
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
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Execution
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Intention to act
Sequence of action
Execution of action
sequence
Evaluation
Evaluating interpretations
Interpreting perceptions
Perceiving states
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Seven Stages of Action
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A goal is formed
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Models the desired state
The desired result of an action
Examples:
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Have a glass of water in hand
Capture a queen
Taste ice cream
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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Goals turned into intentions to act
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Specific statements of what is to be done
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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Intentions put into an action sequence
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The order internal commands will be performed
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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The action sequence is executed
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The player manipulates control variables
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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The state of the game is perceived
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State variables are revealed via the interface
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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Player interprets their perceptions
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Interpretations based upon a model of the system
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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Player evaluates the interpretations
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Current states are compared with intentions and goals
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
Goals
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T HE GAME
Seven Stages of Action
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Donald Norman’s approximate model
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Actions not often in discrete stages
Not all actions progress through all stages
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Seven Stages of Action
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Scales to…
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…an individual mechanic
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A “primary element”
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Examples:
 Move
 Shoot
 Talk
…an entire game
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A generalized model of interaction
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Designer and Player Models
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Systems are built from designer mental models
Design models may only anticipate player goals
User's
Model
Design
Model
Designer
System
System Image
User
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Designer and Player Models
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Players build mental models from mechanics
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Based upon interactions with the system image
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The reality of the system in operation
Not from direct communication with designers
Player and designer models can differ significantly
User's
Model
Design
Model
Designer
System
System Image
User
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Core Mechanics
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Typical patterns of action
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Fundamental mechanics cycled repeatedly
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Examples:
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Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore
Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit, exterminate
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referred to as the “four X’s”
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Premise
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The metaphors of action and setting
Directs the player experience
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Provides a context in which mechanics fit
Players map game states to the premise
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Premise
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Story is the typical example of premise
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Time
Place
Characters
Relationships
Motivations
Etc.
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Premise
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Premise may also be abstract
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Tetris operates under a metaphor
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The metaphor: arranging colored shapes
Encompasses all game elements
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Player discussions use the language of the
premise
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Premise
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Games are models
Activities being modeled form premise
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Actions may appear similar in model
Usually are fundamentally quite different
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Sports games are good examples
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Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport
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Premise
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Goes beyond setting and tone
Alters the players mental model
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Basis of player understanding and strategy
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Premise
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Possible
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Capable of happening in the real world
Plausible
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Possible within the unique world of premise
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“Makes sense” within the game’s premise
Consistent with the premise as understood
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Choice and Outcome
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Choice
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Outcome
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A question asked of the player
The end result of a given choice
Possibility space
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Represents the set of possible events
A “landscape” of choice and outcome
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Choice and Outcome
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Consequence or Weight
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The significance of an outcome
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Greater consequences alter the course of the
game more significantly
Choices are balanced first by consequence
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Choice and Outcome
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Well-designed choice
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Often desirable and undesirable effects
Should relate to player goals
Balanced against neighboring choices
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Too much weight to every choice is melodrama
Orthogonal choices – distinct from others
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Not just “shades of grey”
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Qualities of Choice
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Terms in which to discuss choices
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Hollow – lacking consequence
Obvious – leaves no choice to be made
Uninformed – arbitrary decision
Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings
Weighted – good and bad in every choice
Immediate – effects are immediate
Long-term – effects over extended period
Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other
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Goals and Objectives
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Objectives
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Designed tasks players must perform
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Rigid requirements – formal
Goals
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An intentional outcome
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Notions that direct player action
Scales all levels of motivation
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From selecting particular strategies…
…to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)
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Goals and Objectives
Find sword
Rescue dragon
Kill princess
Find sword
Kill dragon
Rescue princess
Designer
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System
User
Objectives and goals can differ
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Players goals reflect their understanding of the game
Designers must consider how the game communicates with players
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Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used
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Resources
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Resources
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Things used by agents to reach goals
To be meaningful, they must be…
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Useful – provide some value
Limited – in total or rate of supply
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Economies
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Economies
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Systems of supply, distribution, consumption
Questions regarding game economies:
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What resources exist?
How and when will resources be used?
How and when will resources be supplied?
What are their limits?
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Player Strategy
Situation
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Result
People usually reason with commonsense
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Action
A view of linear causation – cause and effect
Complex systems do not behave linearly
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Players need information to support linear strategy
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User Interface
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Interface
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Input
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Game controls
Presentation, and feedback
Player to game
Output
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Game to player
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User Interface Elements
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Contains both hardware, software, and
performance elements.
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Hardware such as game pads and touchscreens
Software such as engines
Performance such as pressing a button
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Interface – main display
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Typical perspectives:
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First-person
Over-the-shoulder (OTS)
Overhead (top-down)
Side
Isometric
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Interface - audio
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General categories of audio
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Music
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A powerful tool for establishing mood and
theme
Sound effects
Dialog
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Interface
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Controls
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Physical input devices
Control inputs
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User manipulations of the controls
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They are not strategies
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Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo
Strategies involve deciding when to perform,
and which to perform
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Interface
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Keymaps and Control tables/diagrams
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Show input, action, and context
Action
Control
Context
Left
all
Right
all
Forward
all
Backward
all
Sprint
all
Pass
Offense
Lob
Offense
Shoot
Offense
Steal
Defense
Block
Defense
Hit
Defense
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Interface
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Front-end
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In application software
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The visible portion of the application
In games
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GUI elements not displayed during play
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Interface
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HUD (Head-Up Display)
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Displays during play
Shows and other information difficult to present
directly in the game environment
Examples
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Scores
Resource levels
Mini Map
Chat
Alerts
Level
>need backup!!!
>No
>...
2
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Interface
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Mapping
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An understood relationship between two things
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Especially the relationship of a model to its subject
Examples
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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics
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HCI – Human-Computer Interaction
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Study of…
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Communication between users and computers
How people design, build, and use interfaces
Better support for cooperative work
Cognitive Ergonomics
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Analyzes the cognitive representations and
processes involved with performing tasks
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Design of Everyday Things
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Norman’s five principles of design
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Visibility
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Mappings
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The perceived uses of an object
Constraints
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Understandable relationships between controls and
actions
Affordances
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Making the parts visible
Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t
Feedback
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Reporting what has been done and accomplished
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Systems
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Emergent complexity
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Emergence
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Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply
from the rules of a system
Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873
See: John Conway’s Game of Life
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Genres
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Genre – a category describing
generalities of conventions, style, and
content
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Genres
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Action
Adventure
Arcade
Casual
Education
Fighting
First-person shooter
Platform
Racing
Rhythm
Role-Playing (RPG)
Simulation
Sports
Strategy
Puzzle
Traditional
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Audiences
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Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro
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Internal experience
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Hard fun
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Challenge of strategy and problem solving
Easy fun
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Enjoyment from visceral activities
Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure
Social experience
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Stimulating social faculties – competition, teamwork,
bonding, and recognition
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Creativity
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Ability to create
Ability to produce an idea, action, or
object considered new and valuable
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Creativity
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Classic approach - Graham Wallace
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Preparation
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Incubation
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Sudden illumination – Eureka!
Evaluation
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Mulling things over
Insight
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Background research and comprehension
Validating revealed insights
Elaboration
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Transforming the idea into substance
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Creativity
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Brainstorming
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Generating ideas without discrimination
Evaluation after elaboration
Can be unfocused
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Creativity
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Six Thinking Hats
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White Hat – neutral and objective
Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction
Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer
Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic
Green Hat – growth and creativity
Blue Hat – process and control
Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the
creative endeavor
Edward de Bono
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Inspiration
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Board games
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Card games
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Dynamic narratives
Books
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Resource management
Paper RPGs
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Spatial relationships
Fantasy and agency
Sports
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Team competition
Film
Continuity techniques
Television
Serialized stories
Music
Temporal systems
Martial arts
Discipline in action
Children
Invention
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Psychology
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Working Memory
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Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time
while other cognitive operations on them
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Psychology
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Attention
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Method of enhancing perceptions relative
to other stimuli in the same environment
How we focus on important things
Limited capacity
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Psychology
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Classical conditioning
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Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another
stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally
Before conditioning
Conditioning
After conditioning
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Psychology
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Unconditioned stimulus – Meat
Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat
Conditioned stimulus – Tone
Conditioned response – Salivation over tone
Before conditioning
Conditioning
After conditioning
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Psychology
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Operant conditioning
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Learning by encouraging or discouraging
Operant
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A response; the action in question
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Example: pressing a button
Reinforcement contingency
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Consistent relationship between the
operant and a result in the environment
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Psychology
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Reinforcers
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Increase the probability an action will be repeated
Positive reinforcement
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Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior
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Negative reinforcement
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The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus
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Ex. Use umbrella and be dry
Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet
Punishment
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Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus
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Ex. Being burned by a hot stove
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