Download Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian`s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.

Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Edexcel
for Unit 3
Edexcel Unit 3 Option B
A2 Notes
Guidance
Option B
The focus of
this topic is
on France
during a
tumultuous
period of
change with French men and women evolving from subjects to citizens in a maelstrom of
revolutions, war and constitutional experiment. The key areas of study required for Section A are
summarised in the four bullet points and the two associated controversies to be examined in
Section B are clearly delimited underneath in the unit content section of the specification.
Collectively, they offer a framework for understanding the period as a whole.
Although the content bullet points have been clarified separately here, students should appreciate
the possible links between them and may be called upon to draw on material from more than one
bullet point in answering a question. For example, students answering a question on the restored
Bourbons might be expected to understand something of the tensions over religion during the
Terror, covered in bullet point 2 or the religious settlement under the Concordat (bullet point 3).
The onset of revolution and the collapse of absolute monarchy, 1786-89.
The first bullet point relates to the last years of absolute monarchy in France and its collapse in
1789. Students should have knowledge and understanding of the political and social structure of
France and the criticisms of both, current in the 1780s. They should have a knowledge of Louis
XVI and his court and the financial problems of the crown and the various attempts at reform,
culminating in the summoning of the Estates General in May 1789. They should understand the
loss of royal control over both Paris and the Estates General in June and July and the evolution of
the latter into the National Assembly. They should be aware of the significance of the decrees of
August abolishing feudalism and the promulgation of the Rights of Man, and the return of the King
and royal family to Paris in October.
Terror and reaction, 1793-99: war and terror; the Thermidorean reaction and the Directory.
The second bullet point relates to the six years of the Republic from the execution of the King until
the coup of Brumaire 1799 and students should have an understanding of the bitter divisions within
the new Republic between its supporters and opponents in 1793. Questions will not be set
exclusively on foreign policy but the domestic impact of the changing fortunes of war should be
studied. Students should understand how the Jacobin terror evolved and the work of the
Committees of General Security and Public Safety in securing the revolution against its internal
foes and invading foreign enemies in 1793-94. They should understand the reasons for the
downfall of Robespierre and St Just and the establishment and instability of the Directory,
culminating in the coup of Sieyes and Bonaparte in 1799.
France under Napoleon, 1799-1807: from Consulate to Empire; Napoleon’s domestic
reforms.
The third bullet point relates to the birth of Napoleonic France and its development to 1807.
Students should understand the process by which Napoleon consolidated his power between 1799
and 1804, the reasons for the Concordat in 1801 and the significance of the spate of reforms
affecting administration, the economy, education and the law. Students will not be expected to
study the wars against the Second and Third Coalitions, but should be aware of their domestic
impact, for example the value to Napoleon of his victory at Marengo in strengthening his grip on
power.
The Bourbons restored: Louis XVIII and the Charter; Charles X and the Revolution of 1830.
The fourth bullet point relates to the years of the restored Bourbon monarchy under Louis XVIII
and Charles X. Students should understand the reasons for Louis’ restorations in 1814 and 1815
and the problems faced by him then and during his reign. They should be aware of the nature of
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
the Charter and the conduct of government under it by Richelieu, Decazes and Villele. They should
understand the situation Charles X inherited, his personality, the policies pursued by his
governments, the impact of the economic downturn and the reasons for the revolution in July 1830.
Associated controversies
In part B, students will use their knowledge of the period as a whole to provide broad contextual
knowledge of the forces which sustained or challenged governments and regimes, but in addition
they will need detailed knowledge of the two issues selected as subjects of historical controversy.
a) Why did constitutional monarchy fail in the years 1789-92?
The first controversy requires a study of the breakdown of the constitutional monarchy of Louis XVI
between October 1789 and January 1793. Students should be aware of the historical debate which
surrounds this issue with some arguing that Louis’ personality and the flight to Varennes were
central to the breakdown, as opposed to the impact of war or the accelerating economic crisis.
b) Why did the Napoleonic Empire collapse in 1814?
The second controversy requires a study of the reasons for the defeat and collapse of the
Napoleonic Empire between 1807 and 1814 and an appreciation that there has been debate about
the relative significance of these. This will involve understanding the impact of the struggle with
Britain on the seas and in the Iberian peninsula, the decision to invade Russia, the improving
qualities of opponents’ armies and their enhanced cooperation, and the quality of Napoleon’s
decision making and leadership.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
The onset of revolution and the collapse of absolute monarchy, 1786-89.
Louis and Antoinette
The William and Kate of their day?
1774 Louis XVI was crowned age 19.
Kind, generous, formal, introspective, unprepossessing, very physical (loved hunting) very
religious brought up- to beware Austria and the evils of women.
Hated being king asked a minister “Why can’t I resign?”
Hobbies included Locksmith, wood carver, and reading the Encyclopaedie
Louis’s Typical day
6AM Valets de chambre awake him, shave and dress in clothes presented.
Have star of Holy Spirit (highest order in France) pinned to him. Hair is
curled, powdered and decorated. Goes for walk.
8AM Breakfast with ministers and officials to discuss business
Private apartments, reading or in workshop
12PM Mass
1.30PM Dinner with Queen and females of the Royal Household in public
Afternoon - watching plays or hunting
Evening - playing cards, billiards, backgammon,
He married Marie Antoinette when he was 15, she was 14 - and it was a marriage of
dynasties designed to lead to alliance. They had not met, and did not meet until after the
formal marriage had taken place.
Marie Antoinette was the 15th of the Empress of Austria-Hungary Marie Theresa’s children
- she was vivacious, very beautiful and Mozart had played and written music for her when
she was younger.
Antoinette’s coach parked with rear wheels in Austria, Front in France so doors opened on
neutral territory.
She was symbolically handed over naked on barge in the middle of the river Rhine and
burst into tears - stripped of Austrian sensibilities, reclothed in French - her servants, and
even her beloved dog had to be left behind.
They did not consummate the marriage for years - popular rumours for this believed there
were no children due to Louis’s deformity and Antoinette’s rumoured adultery and
lesbianism with the Duchesse de Polignac and Princess de Lamballe (who was so
sensitive she fainted at the sight of a lobster in a painting). There was no evidence for any
of these rumours.
In 1773 after 3 years of marriage and an operation allowed consummation of marriage, the
royal couple fell in love over summers at Petit Trianon By 1778 Antoinette and Louis had
four children in total two girls, two boys and she had “adopted” a peasant orphan,
Jacques.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Antoinette hated boredom loved plays, horse races, clavichord, gambling, opera, fashion,
Petit Trianon, shut out of politics, minimum influence. She was very very popular initially political machinations turned on her and she became known as “That Austrian Woman”
thought of as extravagant, lusty and criticised heavily.
The Diamond necklace affair showed Antoinette’s fall from grace. A necklace made for
Antoinette by a jeweler who she had previously commissioned things,offering a looped
diamond necklace (647 diamonds)- she did not like it, he offered it to other queens costing
2 million francs - all said no. A con artist swindled a noble who wished to become friendly
with Antoinette and got a girl to pretend to be Antoinette and encourage him (signs of
encouragement included Antoinette turning her head to him in the crowd). Jewelers gave
necklace to con artists who disappeared and broke it up for the jewels. Public opinion of
Antoinette dwindled - she was seen as extravagant and spendthrift - the necklace affair
reinforced this with no fault of her own.
France
France was one of the five Great Powers of Europe - Austria, France, Prussia, Russia,
Britain. It had a population of 26 million - 21 million farmers, majority of these peasants the nobility was only 400,000.
Mass poverty and grievances were endemic - poor harvests, aggravated by taxes and
feudal dues that noble classes were immune to.
Society split into three estates, or groups.
1st Estate - CLERGY Catholic Church
100,000 - owned one tenth land in France
They paid no tax instead decided amount for a 5 yearly grant to the State
and received the TITHE 1/10 earnings went to Church but creamed off by rich clergy, not
poor parish priests (Cures) that needed it.
They controlled information (as the only literate body) and often censored information.
Anti-clericalism existed and had been boosted by the Philosophes who said clergy were
corrupt, unfeeling and intolerant.
Main complaints were Church run like a business i.e. for profit, absentee abbots (collect
large salaries for big dioceses but hold more than one and cures do all actual work in that
parish. All Bishops were nobles, decline in belief spreading as was middle class sceptism.
2nd Estate - Nobility
3 orders -
Noblesse de Court - those of the Royal court, the ancient Nobles
Noblesse d’ epee - those of the sword, awarded nobility for talent, valour,
service to the King and whose families carry on the nobility
Noblesse de robe - the “newest” nobles who could buy the right
400,000 together, owned one fifth of all land in France.
Only Nobles could - reach highest offices in Church
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
- be ambassadors
- get “droits” feudal rights as landlords
- command army regiments
(From 1781 you could not receive an army commission without proving all 4 generations of
aristocratic birth)
Nobles were exempt from certain taxes including the hated Royal Corvee and taille
Peasants hated feudal droits and the exemption from taxes particularly, the bourgeoises
hated their exclusion from the top ranks and the bar on merit.
3rd Estate - The Masses 25.5 million
Two groups - the emergent middle classes the bourgeoisie who had social grievances and
the Peasantry with economic grievances - both divided.
The Economic Problems - the bankruptcy of the monarchy
Background
Seven Years War 1756-63 was major defeat and very expensive- left crown humiliated,
eager to reverse humiliation and in debt. Had to spend on army & navy to avoid further
war. When Louis XVI succeeded new King, new era, beautiful wife... restored Paris
Parlement that his father had exiled due to them ignoring him.
Turgot Finance minister until 1776 when dismissed for tactless, interfering behaviour.
Forced to resign as Louis would not back him in passing his tax reforms in the face of
opposition
Jacques Necker 1776 -1781 appointed Director - General of Finance, a special post
created for him as he was Swiss and a foreigner could not hold a ministerial post. he was
considered a financial genius, self made millionaire. Very popular
He managed to cut court expenditure but the tax system was real problem so unfair was
main cause of unrest but expense of Wars (inherited 7 years War, and new American War
of Independence) prevented this (American War cost 200 million livres which he raised
through borrowing) meant he had to keep taxes but he raised most of the money by
borrowing as he saw france was “Past taxable capacity” only flexibility was in public debt.
Published the complete account of the oNational Finances “compte Rendu” 1781 - the
State account books, but were ridiculously “cooked” to look better he turned a deficit of 46
million livres into a surplus of 10 million. Forced to resign.
Calonne 1783
recognised need to urgently reform or monarchy would collapse under financial
breakdown. Realised that could not go on borrowing against other loans (pay one off with
other). Blamed Necker’s compte rendu Suggested LAND TAX - tax by the amount of land owned therefore very fair, and raise
money needed. As permanent new tax would bypass Parlements - the 13 appeal courts
that registered laws and aspired to veto. Paris Parlement very influential (10 million pop).
Few commoners sat on them. If they vetoed Crown could use a “Lit de justice” ceremony
to force the law through. Had been exiled and suppressed by Louis XV. Louis XVI recalled
them in 1774 at the start of his reign.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
But Nobles scared this Land Tax would begin erosion of privilege so had to call an
“Assembly of Notables” to submit the tax to in Feb 1787. Idea was to call “yes-men” but
they refused to pass it - Nobles would not access
Heavy resistance from the King’s brothers the Comte de Provence and the Comte d’Artois
and Marie Antoinette.
Archbishop of Narbone “Calonne wishes to bleed France to death” and he asks us where
to make the incision.
Dismissed - they believed he must be lying as Compte Rendu, & new royal property
purchases.
Brienne 1788 Revolt of the Nobles
louis thought a change of minister would make them more amenable to the tax.Tried a
moderate version of the Land tax and dismissed the Assembly but Parlement determined
not to let new legislation through and declared any new taxes require the ESTATES GENERAL (A body of representatives from all 3 estates that last met in 1614 under Louis
XIII) and they demanded the right not to be imprisoned without trial Louis even tried lit de
justice ( royal forcing through of law) and protests from the Duc d’Orleans led to his exile. King appeared to be a despot.
Agitation grew until Louis enforced his right and dispersed Parlements in 1788 after
parlements - courts of appeal - Paris very popular & powerful, last called 1614 under Louis
XIV. They could pass laws - Louis called them at the start of his reign to signify new
intentions. They wanted to have the veto and refused to pass his laws saying only an
estates - general could pass tax laws....
Riots through the summer - Brittany, Burgundy, Bearn, Provence and violent fighting in
Paris and Grenoble. (Day of the Tiles) Widespread public support for revolt and August
1788 King forced to call E-G
Money situation now desperate, Brienne asked Clergy to “grant” it and Clergy refused!
Brienne’s situation was untenable - forced to call the E-G to Versailles for summer 1789
and had to resign
Necker reappointed as he was the only one who could sustain credit for long enough until
the E-G gathered.
Revolt of the Nobles over?
1787 - Assembly of Notables fails to sanction royal tax reforms
June - July 1788 revolt of the Nobles
August - hailstones destroy harvest...
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
The Estates - General
1788 onwards arguments grew over the composition of the E-G. Equal numbers of Estates
members mean 1+2/3 or should the 3rd be as big as 1+2
(MA was seen as the person who allowed the 3rd to equal the other two.)
Rise of orators and political clubs and pamphlets meant politicised society.
In the cities the lower classes lived on lower floors and the middle classes above them so
ideas spread very quickly.
Who were the leaders of the Third Estate?
Abbe De Talleyrand- Perigord Bishop of Autun, later known as Prince Talleyrand
Marquis de Lafayette Great leader in American war, wanted to be “George Washington
under Louis XVI”
Abbe Sieyes wrote “What is the third Estate?” answer Everything, What has it been up to
now - nothing, what should it be - something
Comte de Mirabeau
great orator and politician, questionable morals. Slept with his sister, scandal imprisoned
for adultery, debt ran away to Switzerland with Sophie from Pontalier (where he was
beheaded in effigy for his “rapt et vol”
wrote political works when in prison including attack on lettres de cachet and an erotica
biblion. Out of prison dumped Sophie, she committed suicide.
3 scandalous lawsuits fled to Holland, then England but very noble politically “I am the
mad dog from whose bites despotism and privilege will die”
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Another Assembly of Notables refused to allow 3rd Estate double representation but
fearing provincial violence Necker persuaded Royals and Ministers to agree - BUT they did
not clarify if voting was to be done by head or by order so problem still there.
voting took place - everyone who was in taxation rolls could vote
291 Nobles ( including 90 liberals - Lafayette) 300 clergy, mostly parish priests
(Encyclopedie)200 in favour of change. 610 3rd mainly professional middle classes, lots of
lawyers
After voting electors drew up Cahiers de Doleances, lists of grievances and suggestions mainly wanted constitution, regular E-G, elected provincial estates, freedom of press etc.
1st great outbreak of revolution, last outbreak under the Ancien Regime.
Reveillion Riots, Reveillon, a wallpaper manufacturer remarked about high-cost of wages,
riots lasted days, several killed. April 1789. Parlement now favoured vote by house,
therefore becomes enemy of 3rd.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
The Tennis Court Oath 20th June 1789
Meetings of the E-G began 4th May (1st Meeting hat farce p.51 Hibbert)
Orders met in separate halls to “examine credentials of each other” 3rd believed all should
meet in same to examine all credentials.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
dean in charge of 3rd Jean-Sylvain Bailly decided to get parish priests to join them - invited
clergy who deliberated.
Necker intervened and reminded each order separate BUT
4th June Dauphin, King’s eldest son and heir died age 8, King withdrew from Versailles at
same time as Parisian deputies (delayed elections) arrived including Sieyes - more radical
- all join commons or forfeit right as representative. Cures broke and joined 3rd.
renamed The National Assembly more clergy joined.
Next day meeting hall found locked, King to hold a seance royal - meeting of all three to
announce Third Estate’s actions as illegal.
Dr Joseph Ignace Guillotin suggested going to a nearby indoor tennis court. An oath of
never separating until the establishment of a constitution was brought about - only 1
deputy opposed.
22nd June rest of clergy joined and a new meeting place in a Church was found after the
Comte d’Artois booked the tennis court for a game.
Some nobles began to join.
23rd June Seance Royal chamber locked to 3rd initially, admitted after wait. All cheered for
the King except a silent 3rd.
King agreed certain concessions
Fiscal reforms. abolition of lettres de cachet, no taxes without consent of representatives.
Worded threateningly, King still grieving - ORDERED TO SEPARATE.
Mirabeau reminded Nat Ass of oath “we will not stir from our seats unless forced to do so
by bayonets ‘
Louis response either “Damn it let them stay” or use force
27 June 47 Nobles led by Duc D’Orleans joined National Assembly.
Louis gave in and asked remainder of 1st and 2nd to join them.
1st stage of revolution over - bloodless but
King ordered 10 regiments to Paris and versailles
Price of bread rose - doubled in 2 months and Necker was dismissed in favour of the
conservative Baron de Breteuill, when Necker went Stock Exchange closed in fear.
National Guard
Electors of Paris met - unofficial municipal authority organised a militia. All bourgeoisie respectable citizens that could serve one day in 4 (w/c could not afford that).
Duc D’Orleans opened the gardens of the Palais Royal as a meeting place - orators and
crowds gathered.
Customs barriers surrounding Paris destroyed
Camille Desmoulins, lawyer, demagogue present
The Bastille
Tuesday 14th July 1789, overcast, rain threatened and rumours of thousands of troops
marching towards Paris.
At the Hotel de Ville Electors issued orders for National Guard - on the side of citizens,
erect barricades, protect banks etc.
60,000 gathered at Invalides demanding guns. Governor refused, had already been told to
do nothing without word from Versailles. He ordered pensioners to unscrew the hammers
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
from guns making them useless. Pensioners sympathised with people and went on a go
slow in 6 hours they unscrewed 20 of the 32,000 guns.
Mob forced their way in guards stood by and watched as rioters picked up 28,000 guns
and 10 cannon but no gunpowder...
Headed to the Bastille - a State prison where gunpowder was kept - also symbolic of
Ancien Regime. 8 Round towers, 80ft high wall which was 15ft thick and held 250 barrels
of gunpowder. Rarely held more than 10 prisoners - 7 on 14th July 4 forgers, 1 who had
attempted to assassinate Louis XVI, Comte de Solarges for incest and Julius Caesar.
Governor was Marquis de Launay
32 swiss soldiers and garrison of 82 invalides. Guns were pointing at streets - taken as a
threat. Electors of Paris arranged to have guns withdrawn but crowd turned up and
assumed guns were being moved to be loaded! They also assumed the Electors must be
prisoners.
Drawbridge raised - 2 of crowd cut drawbridge down - the impact killed one.
Someone fired - unknown who fired first.
City sent delegates to stop fighting but Governor thought it was a plot by crowd to trick
him. Governor Launay surrended after threatening to blow entire stock up.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Three Invalides killed three of Governor’s staff and eighty three of crowd (fifteen died later
from wounds) 954 awarded Vainquers de la Bastille.
Louis was awakened and told - “is this a rebellion?” “No sire it is a revolution”
Effects of Bastille
Thomas Jefferson, ambassador to France advised “surrender at discretion”
Louis withdrew troops from Paris but refused to recall necker. King & Queen were
applauded. July 17th
Bailly was elected mayor of Paris and Lafayette given control of National Guard.
For the first time cockades of red and blue (colours of Paris) were joined with the white of
the bourbons.
Tension remained high and barricades reappeared when Necker was not recalled - King
forced to give way, his brother Artois fled and Louis made his will.
He fastened a revolutionary cockade to his hat and gave the National Assembly the power
to form a constitution...
The Great Fear 20th July - 6th August
Because news takes so long to arrive - took over 2 weeks for news of Bastille to reach
provinces!
Rumours of a foreign invasion appeared - royalist troops and armies of brigands were said
to be massing - Provincial riots appeared
Taxes were withheld, the Kings Intendant’s fled The price of bread rocketed - lieutenant of
St Denis, Paris refused to reduce Bread price and so was chased to the top of his own
steeple, stabbed and decapitated!
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Castles, manor houses, abbeys, tax offices were invaded and burnt, unpopular mayors
were removed. Burnt to remove the legal documents recognising the feudal rights.
- National Assembly had to act - Liberal nobles removed feudalist dues “Spontaneously”
4th August Abolition of feudalism Catch - to free yourself had to pay 20 times annual
fee in a lump sum.
Only one deputy voted to abolish death penalty - Robespierre.
All church & nobles privileges removed
and later in August came the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
All men are born free and equal
All government power is derived from the people
freedom of speech & press
Careers & office open to talent
taxation should be fair
King was given power of suspensive veto - could stop laws for up to 4 years, basic
constitution formed - single chamber with all law-making rights, king could not initiate law
and ministers were accountable.
BUT louis refused to ratify these and the King was too far away to force the issue....
29th September Flanders regiment arrive in Versailles, as traditional a banquet held in
their honour
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Soldiers tore off the revolutionary cockade, handed out bourbon cockade - reported as an
“orgy”
Huge bread shortages - average citizen ate 3 lb. of bread a day - 50% of wages were
going on bread - acute shortage, people accused of hoarding, violence broke out and
women seized grain. Angry about Flanders regiment & bread
The march of the fishwives Journee
5th Oct - fishwives, prostitutes, working women and market stall holders gathered
demanding bread. Stormed the Hotel de Ville and then set off to Versailles.
Some women may have been forced to participate.
6,000 including several men some dressed as women acting as agent provocateurs paid
by Duc d’Orleans. Pillaged shops on way to Versailles, went into national Assembly and
demanded “Our little mother Mirabeau”
Quote “We don’t give a fuck for order, we want bread”
King saw some women and agreed BUT lafayette had been forced to lead 20,000 National
Guard to Versailles and arrived as things had been calming down.
King told to flee but dithered, he was then forced to ratify the August decrees and
declaration of rights, hesitant on going to Paris.
6th oct The King went to bed -Marie Antoinette was woken by cries of “Death to the
Austrian.. where is the whore..”
2 guards were decapitated as crowd rushed into palace. An Officer guarding Antoinette
was hit so hard with a musket the trigger penetrated his skull.
Threats to MA and Lafayette - King and Queen went out onto the balcony with children crowd demanded children went back inside and MA stood for 2 minutes with all guns
pointed at her until the crowd grew respectful of her.
The Royal family accompanied by Lafayette, the National Guard, Flanders Regiment,
wagon loads of wheat and flour and with the women at the rear now marched to Paris.
The “baker, the baker’s wife and the baker’s boy” were now to live in the Tuileries, an
ancient royal palace in the centre of Paris. Now subject to public pressure, scrutiny and
intimidation but bread prices fell so effects not felt of this for a year.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Test yourself - you have now completed the first bullet point - this content will be needed in
Section A (essays) .
Can you explain these points to others? Do you fully understand them? Have you read at
least one other text on these?
Students should have knowledge and understanding of the political and social structure of France
and the criticisms of both, current in the 1780s.
They should have a knowledge of Louis XVI and his court and the financial problems of the crown
and the various attempts at reform, culminating in the summoning of the Estates General in May
1789.
They should understand the loss of royal control over both Paris and the Estates General in June
and July and the evolution of the latter into the National Assembly.
They should be aware of the significance of the decrees of August abolishing feudalism and the
promulgation of the Rights of Man, and the return of the King and royal family to Paris in October.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Why did constitutional monarchy fail in the years
1789-92? Section B
In part B, students will use their knowledge of the period as a whole to provide broad contextual
knowledge of the forces which sustained or challenged governments and regimes, but in addition
they will need detailed knowledge of the two issues selected as subjects of historical controversy.
a) Why did constitutional monarchy fail in the years 1789-92?
The first controversy requires a study of the breakdown of the constitutional monarchy of Louis XVI
between October 1789 and January 1793. Students should be aware of the historical debate which
surrounds this issue with some arguing that Louis’ personality and the flight to Varennes were
central to the breakdown, as opposed to the impact of war or the accelerating economic crisis.
Reforms of the Constituent Assembly
Excellent harvest in 1789 - no cries for bread so Assembly could concentrate on reform
King’s title changed from King of France to King of the French
National Assembly becomes Constituent Assembly - how to replace the Ancien Regime system laid foundations for future French govt.
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
Based on King - he has “supreme power” only a four year veto on law and elected National
Assembly.
Right to vote restricted active / passive citizens
Active receive vote in 1st stage of local and national elections - males over the age of 25,
lived in one place for at least a year and who pay 3 days labour in taxes.
To stand for office or vote in 2nd stage pay 10 days labour in taxes
To become deputy in national Assembly pay 50 days labour in taxes.
ONLY 51 % of Frenchmen and NO women have right to vote. Only 1/100 eligible to stand
as deputy
BUT great leap forward, although became a problem for the san culottes WIDEST
FRANCHISE OF VOTING IN EUROPE
French government reorganised and decentralised under three tier system of departments,
districts and communes (83 departments - 547 districts- 43,360 communes)
Officials elected at each level by active citizens.
Councils responsible for law and order in their area - also assessed and collected tax,
constructed public amenities (roads etc) maintained churches and supervised local
National Guard.
LOCAL GOVT IN BGZ HANDS - some problems, in rural areas not enough wealthy /
educated/ even literate to fill posts.
LAW
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Single unified, national law system (previously had been regional and confused)
Torture, branding and hanging forbidden, fewer crimes punishable by death (by
decapitation only)
Parlements and feudal courts replaced by departmental tribunals, central court of appeal
and high court for treason. Judges and magistrates were to be elected from a panel of
candidates
Criminal cases trial by jury
ONE OF THE MOST ENLIGHTENED SYSTEMS OF JUSTICE IN EUROPE
Financial reform
NEED TO REBUILD ECONOMY
assembly failed - too many thought taxes had gone for good, forced to rely on short term
measures after resistance.
Until 1791 attempted to collect old taxes to keep solvent - failed, gabelle (salt tax)
withdrawn in March 1790
Unpopular indirect taxes removed 1790-1, direct taxes of taille replaced by land tax similar
to Calonne’s
August 1789 Free trade in grain introduced, other products a year later. Unified weights
and measures, internal customs tariffs disappeared
Guilds disappeared, trade unions declared illegal.
- Need to find short-term finance Nov 1789 - The State would pay church salaries, take
over the Church’s role in education and relief for the poor in return for selling off all Church
property.
Nobles who had fled (emigrees) would have property confiscated and sold.
Land known as bien nationaux
assignats - a paper government bond that could be bought and then exchanged for
church land as it became available. Came to be used as a paper currency TOO MANY
WERE PRINTED -- INFLATION AND LATER UNREST.
Those who bought assignats had interest in maintaining revolution “everyone who holds
them will be a defender of the revolution”
Civil Consitution of the Clergy - A revolutionary reformed Church 1790
Tithes and right of clergy to decide its own tax abolished
Pluralism banned (can only hold one office)
Monastic orders doing no education or charity abolished
CIVIL RIGHTS & TOLERANCE granted to Protestants (Dec 1789) and Jews 1792)
Sale of lands and direct salaries meant poor cures wages increased.
July 1790 Church reorganised in same pattern as local govt. - Every department had a
bishop
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Bishops elected, Pope could not confirm ( and therefore accept/reject) them
Changes in authority of church led to struggle Who had authority - Church did not have it over NA, NA did not have it over Church
Louis forced to accept it in August 1790.
Assembly demanded clergy take an oath to agree to this - only 7/83 bishops (and 3 were
agnostic) and 55% did so.
Country split - non-jurors (non-swearers) “Enemies of the revolution” good support in west
& north - peasants fear of hell greater than desire for revolution D.G. Wright “ a gaping
breach over the Church”
Why did France become a republic in 1792?
Civil Constitution of the Clergy...
Political clubs - no parties, clubs important in keeping public informed, and influencing
assembly. Jacobins were radical left wing & anti-war (Robespierre), Cordeliers radical left
wing (Desmoulins, Marat, Danton), Girondins (Brissot, Madame Roland) less radical left
wing and pro-war. Feuillants were right wing, led by Lafayette
Jacobin club formed 1789, supported by wealthy liberal constitutional monarchists.
ROBESPIERRE led radical Jacobins. By 1791 over 90 political clubs. Jacobins sat on the
extreme left of the Constituent Assembly ... hence the saying ”left wing.”
Cordeliers, founded 1790 more radical, did not restrict admission, led by bourgeoisie Danton, Desmoulins - big w/c following Marat, chief spokesman edited “The People’s
friend” newspaper. Hebert also had a paper “Pere Duchesne”.
FLIGHT TO VARENNES
Why?
Constituent assembly undermined in two ways
1) increasing pressure from political clubs
2) unreliability of King - accepted change but gave impression he was doing so reluctantly
and waiting until he could undo the work.
King shown to be untrustworthy as
Made up his mind when tried to go to communion at St Cloud crowd refused to let royal
family leave and blocked gates.
What happened?
21st June 1791 tried to flee - secret plans, seemed likely he was trying to get to Montmedy
(Lorraine) Luxembourg border - gain protection from emigree armies and in new strong
position renegotiate constitution. Artois claimed Louis was to flee France and return with
Austrian army (brother in law Leopold II) and could worship as he wanted - very
religiousAntoinette favoured second plan.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Went in disguise, crowd found out morning of 21st - put “house to let” signs on Tuileries
and send postman away with “left no forwarding address” Lafayette stated royals taken by
enemies of the rev - bring em back to Paris
Reached Varennes (30 miles short of border) Brought back to Paris in disgrace recognised by Postmaster Drouet from King’s picture on bank note!
Hostile silent crowds on return- destroyed remains of his support and led to first talk of
republic! Crowd extremely hostile National Guard reversed arms (funeral position) Official
notices - anyone who applauds the King will be flogged, anyone who insults him will be
hanged
Constituent Assembly divided - thought republic meant mob rule, scared of civil war & of
other European monarchies. BUT king proved unreliable & against revolution constitutional monarchy unworkable. Confirmed Louis against Rev as he left a letter
rubbishing the reforms & encouraging intervention from other nations by requesting help
from Austria.
16 July 1791 Assembly voted to suspend King - split political clubs, some wanted trial for
the King (radical Jacobins) moderate Jacobin majority formed Feuillant club.
Champ Du Mars 17 July 1791
Organised petition meeting on Champ Du Mars meeting ground in Paris - sign petition of
Cordeliers Club to depose King.
50,000 there - 2 suspected government “spies” discovered
Paris Commune scared - declared martial law - law by army. Sent lafayette and NG to
disperse crowd. He opened fire -killed 50. victory for the moderates - as split moderate /
radical. Radical set back - Marat fled.
Constituent Assembly disbanded 1791 - time for elections of new constitution.
Legislative Assembly met 1 Oct 1791
Declared all priests that had not taken the CCC oath suspect - treated as “conspirators”
against the nation. 2nd major law was emigree’s to lose property. King vetoed - more
unpopular.
Origins of War!
April 1791 Mirabeau died - last link between assembly and King Mirabeau when dying said
"I carry away with me the last shreds of the monarchy"
Marseillaise - new national revolutionary anthem - written 5 days after war broke out!
Originally a marching song for the Strasbourg garrison, received its name
In centre was the Plain.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Why had Europe not acted? British sympathetic, Prussia glad to see France weakened BUT plight of King grew - challenge to monarchy could not go - particularly for Austria
(Emperor Leopold II, brother of Antoinette).
Leopold II & Frederick William II of Prussia issued joint Declaration of Pillnitz - August
1791 - ready to join other powers to restore Louis XVI! Antoinette desperate for war.
War April 1792 - everyone saw war as a solution Lafayette etc disillusioned by rev & wants to strengthen monarchy. - Brissotins, (Girondins)
believed war would strengthen revolution - expose counter revolutionaries and spread
liberty to Europe.
King had chosen Girondin ministers (Dumoriez as foreign minister). Only radical Jacobins
against War!
Francis II refused to withdraw leopold’s Declaration of Pillnitz so France declared war
when Leopold died and Francis - young untested came to power 20 April 1792! War
approaching since previous year!
Belgian campaign did not go well - Army weakened by lack noble generals , no
organisation, defeated in AprilFrance in danger... By May Lafayette begging assembly to
make peace.unpopular War divides nation further - nobles, non-jurors etc accused of
being against France. May laws passed to deport refactory priests, disband King’s Guard
and set up camp for 20,000 National Guard Federes from provinces. - LOUIS VETOED!
Louis seen as undermining rev
Louis kept using veto to protect refactory priests & prevent camp for radical militant
federes outside Paris. Sacked Girondin ministers for bad handling of war....
20th June Tuileries invaded by 8,000 - headed to Assembly first, entered carrying a calf’s
heart impaled on a pike with the label “the heart of an aristocrat”.
, entered Tuileries smashed down door to get to the King - who had been so depressed he
had not spoken for a week.King seemed embarrassed.
King stood his ground but very vulnerable - forced to wear the (Phoenician slave) red cap
of liberty and to drink to its health, trapped for 2.5 hours - but would not back down on his
vetoes.
28th July Brunswick Manifesto - Louis made more unpopular.
Robespierre and other militants began asking for end to the monarchy - calls for a republic
strengthened.
10th August 1792 MOST IMPORTANT JOURNEE OF THE REVOLUTION
20,000 attacked Tuileries- King & family had fled to the Assembly to take shelter
Attackers were san culottes, National Guard and “federes” from other towns Only 900
swiss guards were there to resist. 600 swiss were hacked to death. 300 san culottes and
90 federes killed in most bloody journee. Most of san culottes were craftsmen etc.
Consequences huge - Robespierre “the most gorgeous revolution” Reinhard “the bloody
dawn of a second revolution”
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
King’s authority gone and in the evening he was suspended from office. By November
France was a republic.
Forced Assembly to give in to Jacobins.
Why? Flight to Varennes - after King kept as virtual prisoners in Tuileries, Champ du Mars,
Pressure for war came from France - events were relatively welcomed! Happy france was
no longer a Great Power.
War revolutionised the revolution! War to defend against
Reasons for the Fall of the Monarchy - try to give 9-10
King’s inflexibility
king’s willingness to listen to wife and sister, his flight, his use of the veto, his
apparent willingness to go against the revolution.
Split between revolutionaries - former supporters of the King fled, radicals won
support as war went badly.
Economic problems, fear and hardship from war.
The Birth of the Republic
Marseillaise patriotic song appeared.
10th August - Journee - King imprisoned in the Temple (medieval castle previously owned
by Comte d’Artois) - san culotte were in control
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Results of 10th August
- New elections with universal male suffrage for a new assembly (National Convention)
until they could be elected Paris Commune took control - more moderates fled
Decisions taken Refactory priests deported
Emigree lands sold
remaining feudal dues abolished
11th August assembly granted special power to arrest “counter-revolutionaries” such as
refactory priests and noblemen
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Terror and reaction, 1793-99: war and
terror; the Thermidorean reaction and the
Directory. Section A
The second bullet point relates to the six years of the Republic from the execution of the King until
the coup of Brumaire 1799 and students should have an understanding of the bitter divisions within
the new Republic between its supporters and opponents in 1793. Questions will not be set
exclusively on foreign policy but the domestic impact of the changing fortunes of war should be
studied. Students should understand how the Jacobin terror evolved and the work of the
Committees of General Security and Public Safety in securing the revolution against its internal
foes and invading foreign enemies in 1793-94. They should understand the reasons for the
downfall of Robespierre and St Just and the establishment and instability of the Directory,
culminating in the coup of Sieyes and Bonaparte in 1799.
Danton
Middle Class lawyer like many of the revolutionaries. from the provinces, scarred lip said to
be due to being gored by a bull when he was sucking the teat of a cow! great orator.
Dominating influence in the Cordeliers Club, after 10th August became Minister for Justice
- the voice of the san culotte? He was a major controlling factor of the san culotte, and a
great radical. He controlled the commune - itself more powerful than the assembly or
convention would be. “The voice of the revolution” the “Mirabeau of the mob”
September Massacres
August onwards war went badly and grew increasingly worse
Lafayette deserted to the Austrians Prussians crossed frontier after the battle at Longwy
and early september had reached Verdun (last place before Paris)
Danton begged for volunteers “boldness, boldness again and more boldness”- thousands
left Paris to help the war effort - left san culotte in fear. Posters appeared “To arms,
citizens! The Enemy is at our gates”
Rumours spread that counter revolutionaries were trying to escape and hand Paris to the
Prussians. Pamphlets spread “The Great Treason of Louis Capet (King)” - setting out the
discovery of a plot to assassinate all good citizens on the 2nd-3rd sept.
Jean Paul Marat (leader of the commune) called for the conspirators to be killed in his
paper “the people’s friend” “Let the blood of the traitors flow”
March against the prisons was expected as early as 17 august - easy to get in and out,
very corrupt, bribes accepted.
2nd sept pm Convoy of refactory priests attacked by a mob and killed
Held kangaroo courts “trying” them fairly before executions (p.172 Hibbert)
2-6 September in the atmosphere of fear, rhetoric and suspicion San culottes took matters
into their own hands (having been pointed in the right direction) and “visited” prisons, also
a hospital for the poor and insane
The san culotte were known septembriseurs, their women brought them food and wine to
sustain them! A prisoner tried to escape up the chimney and his chaser was told if he didn’t
get him he would be killed in his place. They lit the fire and when he fell down (gunshots
had failed to dislodge him) he was stabbed to death in the fire place.
Aristocrats forced to swear an oath of loyalty while standing on a pile of corpses
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Marie Gredeler in prison for mutilating her lover was mutilated, her breasts were cut off,
feet nailed to the ground and a fire lit between her legs.
dead, naked bodies used as tables and chairs. Ate bread dipped in the blood of aristocrats
Princess de Lamballe had worse treatment - see Hibbert!
Between 1400-2000 of the 2600 inmates of prisons in Paris were massacred, despite the
fact that the majority were common criminals and the lack of evidence for a counter
revolution. This was all done by 150-200 san culottes assassins. They were not ordered to
stop.
Girondins were disgusted and turned against jacobins and their san culotte supporters
calling the san culotte “buveurs de sang” drinkers of blood.
Massacres stopped with French victory at Valmy - saved Paris. elections had taken place
during this time. 20th Sept 1792 Valmy & opening of new Convention “liberty, equality &
fraternity” seemed to be working
National Convention
Majority of royalist sympathisers had vote removed - all 24 Parisian seats were given to
Jacobins and republicans, Robespierre led them, supported by Jacobins from provinces
(Montagnards) - the mountaineers, called so because sat in seats on high left of assembly,
on high right were the Girondins, centre was moderate group - the Plain.
782 deputies mainly bgz - wanted a republic, wanted to win war and wanted”enlightened
reform” but very suspicious of each other
Jacobins supported by san culotte, and popular clubs in paris Wanted central control in
Paris, Girondins supported by provinces wanted federalisation
First decree
21st September 1792 Abolition of the Monarchy France was now a republic
New calendar Year 1!
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
But Jacobin / Girondin differences increased and Girondins alienated Paris and san culotte
and did not attempt to cultivate the Plain.
Civil War in the Vendee
1792-3 Winter counter revolution had disappeared. BUT mass conscription and expansion
of war revived it. 4 departments south of Loire - the Vendee.
Why was there a revolt against the Revolution in the Vendee?
Aulard - “The Republic was stabbed in the back”
- paying more land tax under the Revolution than under the Ancien Regime
- Very religious - and hated the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1791), many
nonjuroring priests in the area.
- Sale of Church Lands very unpopular - because they were usually bought by
bourgeoisie of towns who raised rents.
- Nobles, who were looked to as leaders, monarchist
- Conscription proved the final straw. “The Blood tax”
What happened? 11th March 1793 Civil War
“The republic in deadly peril” D.G. Wright
It opens the Atlantic coast to the enemy!
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Constitutional Priests, officials and National Guard massacred. Between 60,000 - 120,000
fought against the revolution.
By May the Government had to send 30,000 troops from the front - never a serious threat,
ill-disciplined guerilla warfare.
1 August 1793 Convention declared TOTAL WAR on the Vendee.
Mid-sept onwards Vendean troops in retreat.
Huge repression - General Westermann said the Vendee no longer existed “It has died
beneath our sabres, together with its women and children...I have crushed the children
under my horses’ hooves, massacred the women - they, at least will no longer give birth to
any more brigands”
January to May 1794 troops carried out reprisals 15% of population died, 20% of buildings
destroyed.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
The war forces the machinery of terror in place.
All rebels captured would be executed within 24 hours.
Economic problems also hindered the govt. Assignats were over produced to raise money
for the war - the value plummeted. Prices rose.
Convention forced to pass some new measures for emergency war govt. The Jacobins
were moving closer to the san culotte, the Plain was moving closer to the Jacobins
IN ORDER TO FIGHT A WAR YOU NEED THE SUPPORT OF THE PEOPLE
- if they separate from the san culottes they lost the power.
10 March -20 May 1793 Measures with the objective of
1) Watch and punish suspects
2) Make government more effective
3) Meet some of the san culottes economic demands. (The Enrages, led by Jacques
Roux, only group of 5! extreme sans culotte militants demanding economic justice and
food for all. Very vocal group. Roux denounced in the Convention, later killed himself.)
10th March Revolutionary Tribunal set up in Paris to try those suspected of counter
revolution - an attempt to prevent a new September Massacre. “Let us embody Terror so
as to prevent the people from doing so” Danton.
Representatives -on- mission sent to each province (after Dumoriez suspicion of general)
to enforce conscription. Mainly Jacobins, job was to speed up conscription
Surveillance Committees set up in each commune and area to watch suspected traitors
and foreigners. These passed the names to the Revolutionary Tribunal.
6th April Committee of Public Safety set up - this was to be the main instrument of
Terror. Set up to supervise and oversee all ministries. Its powers were renewed monthly by
the Convention. Mainly moderate - Barere, only two Jacobins (including Danton) and no
Girondins.
Marat “ Liberty must be established by violence”
All these measures were to address the problems with the Vendee
4th May Maximum price fixed fixed for grain, later in the month a compulsory loan was
forced on the wealthy.
The Trial of the King
Issue of the King - “the only place to strike Kings is on the head” Danton. Girondins and
Danton wanted to spare him BUT san culotte and Jacobins force issue
On the 11th December the trial of the King for “having committed various crimes to re-reestablish tyranny on the ruins of liberty”
Louis was kept prison in the Temple - treated badly, locked in and had all food searched.
Unanimously voted guilty - had great trouble getting a defence lawyer, one declined on the
grounds he was too fat. Saint Just demanded his execution, all attempts by Girondins to
save him were condemned as them being royalists. Appel Nominal - all votes would be
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
called out so that traitors could be known. All voted guilty. Vote on sentence - 361 death,
319 imprisonment.
21st January 1793 his family cried so loudly they could be heard outside the Temple.
Saint Just - he was executed not for what he had done but for what he was - a menace to
the republic. FIRST JACOBIN VICTORY in convention. Half of the girondin leadership was
now branded royalist.
Expansion of War
November 1792 Edict of Fraternity - extends war - declared assistance would be given to
any people wishing to gain liberty, fraternity and equality by acting against the King.
January 1793 claimed Natural frontiers for France - Rhine, Alps Pyrenees. - Unfortunate
for Nice and Savoy in South, and Belgium and Netherlands in North.
Pitt, PM in Britain very anxious - secure trading routes, and seen as key to UK security for
Channel and route to India (Dutch held Cape of Good Hope & Ceylon) now Sri Lanka.
French re-opening of the River Scheldt (had been closed since 1648 - led to Antwerp
declining, growth of London)
French misunderstood British - thought the reform movement was revolutionary - was not!
Also thought Britain would back down as Austrians and Prussians had done after Valmy
British misunderstood - thought France was bankrupt and on verge of civil war.
EACH SIDE THOUGHT WAR WOULD BE SHORT
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Convention declared war on Britain and Holland Feb 1793, Spain in March.
WAR WENT BADLY
Dumoriez defeated at Neerwinden in March - he decided to march on paris, dissolve
Convention , restore constitution of 1791 and the monarchy.
Army refused to follow him and along with Duc de Chartres - future King deserted to
Austrians.
Dumoriez had been greatly supported by Girondins - further weakened their position.
French lost Belgium and left bank of the Rhine - fighting in French soil again!
The Terror 1793-4
The san culottes demanded that the revolutionary government immediately
increase wages,
fix prices,
end food shortages,
punish hoarders and
most important, deal with the existence of counter-revolutionaries. In other words, and this
is important to grasp, the social and economic ideas of the san culottes were politicized by
the Revolution itself.
CPS
Only strong leadership could save the Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety
assumed leadership,as a war dictatorship in April 1793. As a branch of the National
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
Convention itself, the Committee of Public Safety had broad powers which included the
organization of the nation’s defenses, all foreign policy, and the supervision of ministers.
The Committee also ordered arrests and trials of counter-revolutionaries and imposed
government authority across the nation. What is amazing is that only twelve men
controlled the CPS, although the CPS was ultimately led by MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE
(1758-1794).
Robespierre
“We must smother the internal and external enemies of the Republic or perish with it; now
in this situation, the first maxim of your policy ought to be to lead the people by reason and
the people's enemies by terror. “
Expulsion of the Girondins
In June 1793, factional disputes with the Convention resulted in the replacement of the
Girondins with the Jacobins, a far more radical group. The Jacobins and Girondins were
both liberal and bourgeois, but the Jacobins desired a centralized government (in which
they would hold key positions), Paris as the national capital, and temporary government
control of the economy. The Jacobin platform managed to win the support of the san
culottes. The Jacobins were tightly organized, well-disciplined and convinced that they
alone were responsible for saving and "managing" the Revolution from this point forward.
On June 22, 1793, 80,000 armed san culottes surrounded the meeting halls of the
National Convention and demanded the immediate arrest of the Girondin faction. The
Convention yielded to the mob and 29 Girondin members of the Convention were arrested.
A republic of Virtue
The committee was among the most creative executive bodies ever seen - and rapidly put
into effect policies which stabilized the French economy and began the formation of the
very successful French army. It also directed it energies against counter-revolutionary
uprisings, especially in the south and west of France. In doing so it unleashed the reign of
terror. Here Robespierre, in his speech of February 5,1794, from which excerpts are given
here, discussed this issue. The figures behind this speech indicate that in the five months
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
from September, 1793, to February 5, 1794, the revolutionary tribunal in Paris convicted
and executed 238 men and 31 women and acquitted 190 persons, and that on February 5
there were 5,434 individuals in the prisons in Paris awaiting trial.
Robespierre knew that a republic of virtue could not become a reality unless the threats of
foreign and civil war were removed. To preserve the Republic, Robespierre and the CPS
instituted the Reign of Terror - the ends would justify the means, the republic would be
saved no matter the cost.
Danton and Robespierre dominated the government, and personality factions emerged.
The Committee of Public Safety ordered the arrests of any suspected counter
revolutionaries, but required little proof. Thousands were sent to the guillotine to purify the
republic. The economy was stabilised through the law of the maximum - maximum prices
were set, and san culotte requisition armies were sent to annex grain for the city of Paris,
to prevent speculators causing starvation through financial greed. The Terror stepped up
and the Great Terror began.
Suspected counter revolutionaries, priests and eventually, the Girondins were all sent to
the guillotine. Thousands were killed and the Law of suspects - which lessened the burden
of proof, and allowed tribunals only two verdicts - liberty or death - radicalised the Terror
even further.
The Cult of the Supreme Being and Reason
Hebert was the most extreme san culotte leader and he was the first Jacobin victim of the
Terror. Robespierre ordered his death, and that of his followers, sanctioned by the
Committee of Public Safety in March 1794. Danton and Desmoulins became the most
vocal critics of the prolonged Terror, stating that as the military situation had turned in
France’s favour and the civil war in the Vendee crushed, there was no longer any need for
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
the Terror. Robespierre. Fearing Danton was attempting to seize power he ordered them
arrested and in April they went to the guillotine. In June Robespierre proclaimed the cult of
the Supreme Being and a policy of dechristianising france continued with churches
becoming “temples of reason.” France's military successes lessened the need for strong
domestic measures, but Robespierre called for new purges. Fearing that the Terror would
be turned against them, members of the Convention arrested Robespierre on July 27,
1794 (see Thermidor), and had him guillotined; a majority of Commune members were
also executed.
About 17,000 people died as a result of the Terror. The choice instrument, was the
guillotine -- it was quick and humane. In 1794, there were mass executions at Lyons.
Boats were fired upon and sunk at Nantes -- 500 were killed in one execution. About
15,000 people perished officially and over 100,000 people were detained as suspects.
Causes of the Terror
- Federalist revolts - anti -jacobin revolts in provinces, Marseillaise, Lyons ... Toulon invited
the British in! 28th August 1793 Napoleon Bonaparte led artillery counter attack and British
forced out in December.
- War effort - France invaded by Austrians in North, Spanish in South - mass panic, army
overhauled. Carnot “organiser of victory” given control
Levee en masse introduced mass conscription Carnot’s August 1793 Blood tax. State
factories set up for arms, women and children scrape out cement for saltpeter (for
gunpowder)
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
FIRST TOTAL WAR - all citizens involved elderly make uniforms etc.
But situation still fluid - Sept - December 1793 Convention
Law of suspects 17 September 1793 - anyone “suspected” to be a danger to the
revolution could be imprisoned or sent to the REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNALs.
“What was new after Sept 1793 was that the terror was organised and became for the first
time a deliberate policy of government.” D.G. Wright
October 1793 series of Show Trials to demonstrate revolutionary justice - most famous
was 16 October- Marie Antionette, 31 Girondin deputies - 31st October and the Duc
D’Orleans was executed 6 November.
At this time the Vendee was also being attacked viciously.
New Revolutionary decimal calendar
Decimalisation of everything
New “revolutionary” measurements - metre!
Terror in the Provinces
Nantes Noyade Mass drownings
Toulon 800 shot, 282 guillotined.
Lyon was burnt and suspects shot by cannon.
Robespierre - tried to create a “republic of virtue”, nicknamed the Incorruptible by the san
culottes. Believed that the Terror was justified by the end results - a safe, pure republic.
Ran the Committee of Public Safety as part of a triumvirate along with Couthon and SaintJust (nicknamed the Angel of Death).
December 1793 CPS given more power
War was going much better, economy improved BUT CPS now took over responsibility for
foreign policy - disbanded revolutionary armies & representatives-on-mission.
Spring 1794 Dechristianisation
Churches closed, campaign to remove all religion from society - Notre Dame became the
“Temple of Reason” - popular in Paris, very unpopular in Provinces.
March 1794 San culottes angry Terror fading. Hebert began attacking Robespierre on their
behalf and due to his failure to secure high office - he had accused the CPS of tyranny and
became a champion of opposition. Robespierre send Hebert and his followers to the
guillotine.
Robespierre then disbanded all areas of potential opposition - Cordeliers Club etc.
Danton and Desmoulins sent to the guillotine as they argued for the end of the Terror.
Financial scandal provided the excuse - Danton was another focus for opposition to
Robespierre and over 400,000 livres from the Ministry of Justice (Danton’s) was
unaccounted for. It was believed he was corrupt and against the Incorruptible he was
vulnerable.
“The terror now seemed to have a momentum of its own” Duncan Townson
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
This SILENCED ALL OPPOSITION TO ROBESPIERRE.
The Great Terror Summer 1794
May 1794 Cult of the Supreme Being Robespierre tried to institute a replacement
religion with Reason as the Supreme Being. Very unpopular with irreligious and Catholics
alike.
LAW OF Priarial (June)
Huge increase in executions, many rounded up - trials were for liberty or death.
During summer 1794 over a thousand killed each month, almost all those on trial were
sentenced to death. It removed any semblance of a fair trial. More people were sentenced
to death during the ten weeks afterwards than in the 14 months previously.
Fall of Robespierre and the End of the Great Terror - The Coup of Thermidor (July)
May - two assassination attempts on Robespierre’s life.
After turning on Danton and the Hebertists people were terrified.
The Cult of the Supreme Being made people feel as if Robespierre was trying to set up as
the “high priest of a new religion” D.G. Wright
End of July his grip loosened - accused members of the Committee of General Security
and the CPS of turning against the revolution but he refused to give names. Those
accused were terrified and began organising his arrest. 27 July shouted down and
arrested in the Convention along with Couthon and Saint-Just. Robespierre had been shot
in the chaos. He, along with 21 others, were the final victims of the guillotine.
“The Great Terror now sickened the population” D.G.Wright
Robespierre “We still do not know how this man, who never really help power, managed to
build up such a reputation that his name was familiar all over France” Colin Lucas.
The Plain now dominated the Convention and the Terror was over - estimates of how
many were killed vary between 17,000 and 60,000.
The End of the Revolution
Why did the Revolution end?
The Terror, the final period of violent revolution, burnt out. Thousands were killed in this
final phase which lasted from 1793 until 1794. The Terror came to an end in July 1794 with
the execution of Robespierre. Robespierre had begun to lose support from his insistence
on the Cult of the Supreme Being on 7th May 1794, the new religion led to the feeling that
R was setting himself up as high priest. His support from the san culotte dropped with the
execution of the Hebertists and by inflation. The Great Terror had sickened everyone. In
fighting in the CPS also caused problems, until on 26th July (Thermidor) Robespierre made
a speech attacking his critics. Carnot, Fouche moderates and extremists all felt threatened
and voted the following day for the arrest of Robespierre, Couthon and Saint-Just. On 28
July he was executed. Over the next few days over 120 members of the Commune were
also executed.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
The Thermidorean Reaction
Thermidorean was the name given to those who helped overthrow Robespierre
The Commune was abolished, the Constitutional Church abandoned and the Committees
scaled down.
Risings of Germinal and Prairial
December 1794 price controls were abolished, as a result assignats dropped further and
to make matters worse a poor harvest followed. 1794/5 had an incredibly severe winter –
famine followed and 1st April (Germinal) saw a demonstration of 10 000 unarmed
demanding bread and the Consitution of 1793. The demonstration ended with the
appearance of loyal guards.
Prairial (20 May) hunger riots led to the Convention being stormed by housewives and
National guard. By the 3rd of the month rebel suburbs had to be stormed by 20 000 troops.
42 were executed. The sans culottes were no longer a political force.
The White Terror
The White terror was a counter revolution, against those who had been involved, or done
well out of the revolution. To some degree it was a royalist movement, but the majority
were not royalists. It mainly took place in the N/W and S/E of France and was violent, the
Civil War in the Vendee reappeared and an army of 140 000 were used to put them down.
In Paris, it was the middle class youth, with little bloodshed. By 1796 the army had been
successful for the most part only the murder gangs remained.
The Thermidorean Reaction
French Armies now doing very well in war - Austrians defeated at Fleurus, 26 June 1794.
Structures of the Terror greatly
Revolutionary Tribunal abolished 31 May 1795
The Law of Prairial repealed and the majority of those held in prison under it were released
(including Josephine Beauharnais)
Jacobin Club closed and the committees curbed - 25% of members had to be changed
each month.
Paris Commune abolished.
Freedom for all religions established and Constitutional Church dropped.
BUT country in economic trouble. - massive inflation, assignats fell to under 10% of their
value.
1794-5 bad harvests and severe winters
Spring 1795 San culottes food shortages lead to Rising of Germinal 1 April 1795
Was peaceful and not serious. 10,000 demanded bread. “A demonstration rather than a
rising” Townson
Rising of Prairial 20 May 1795 was serious.
Women and National Guard invaded commission, following day 20,000 N.G surrounded
the convention and aimed cannon at the building. The Convention gained control and
6,000 arrested 42 executed.
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.
This divided the San culottes with no power of the National Guard and no Commune.
“The san culottes were a spent force” Townson.
The White Terror
Counter revolutionary revenge!
Companies of the Sun formed in South to attack revolutionaries.
A reaction against the revolution from those that were persecuted by it. Land purchasers,
constitutional clergy, government officials and the san culottes all attacked
Why? Was it an attempt to restore the Ancien Regime? NO
1795-6 Choan a leader in Brittany began a new civil war. General Hoche was sent with
140,000 to subdue him after he invited an army of emigres to help him.
Violence centered in West, murder gangs in the South killed 2000 in south east in 1795
guerrilla warfare in Vendee.
Muscadins (fops) and Jeunesse Dore (gilded youth) attacked Jacobins and San
Culotte. - These killings carried on through 1796 and 1797.
13 Vendemiaire (5th October 1795) 25,000 armed Parisians attacked the Convention.
Govt troops resisted and General Bonaparte dispersed them with a “whiff of grapeshot”
killing 300.
The second bullet point relates to the six years of the Republic from the execution of the King until
the coup of Brumaire 1799 and students should have an understanding of the bitter divisions within
the new Republic between its supporters and opponents in 1793. Questions will not be set
exclusively on foreign policy but the domestic impact of the changing fortunes of war should be
studied. Students should understand how the Jacobin terror evolved and the work of the
Committees of General Security and Public Safety in securing the revolution against its internal
foes and invading foreign enemies in 1793-94. They should understand the reasons for the
downfall of Robespierre and St Just and the establishment and instability of the Directory,
culminating in the coup of Sieyes and Bonaparte in 1799.
To be continued in .....
Napoleon - Son of the Revolution!
Unit 3 Notes J Ewan, St Ninian’s High School, Douglas Isle of Man.