Download Grammar Essentials of Mandara Language

Mandara Grammar Essentials
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GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS
of the
MANDARA LANGUAGE
of
NEW IRELAND PROVINCE
Steven & Holly Hong
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Papua New Guinea
April 2003
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CONTENTS
1.
Introduction ......................................................................................... 8
2.
Phonology ........................................................................................... 8
2.1
2.2
2.3
Phonemes ............................................................................................ 8
Stress and Syllable Patterns ................................................................. 9
Vowel Harmonization ............................................................................ 9
3.
Word Level and Morphology .............................................................. 9
3.1
Nouns ................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Personal, Locative, and Common Nouns ..................................................... 10
3.1.1.1 Personal Nouns ..................................................................................................... 10
3.1.1.1.1
3.1.1.1.2
3.1.1.1.3
3.1.1.1.4
Personified Non-Human Animate .......................................................................... 10
Job Titles as Personal Nouns ................................................................................ 10
Borrowed Kin Terms as Personal Nouns .............................................................. 11
Personal Nouns in Direct Address ......................................................................... 11
3.1.1.2.1
3.1.1.2.2
Unpossessed Locative Nouns ............................................................................... 11
Inalienable Locative Part Nouns ............................................................................ 12
3.1.1.4.1
3.1.1.4.2
3.1.1.4.3
3.1.1.4.4
Nominalizer Infix -in- .............................................................................................. 13
Derivation by Reduplication ................................................................................... 14
Derivation by the Cognitive Prefix bai- ................................................................... 14
Derivation by Generalizer Prefix ro ........................................................................ 14
3.1.2.2.1
3.1.2.2.2
Intimate Alienable Nouns ....................................................................................... 16
Non-Intimate Alienable Nouns ............................................................................... 17
3.1.1.2 Locative Nouns ...................................................................................................... 11
3.1.1.3 Common nouns ..................................................................................................... 12
3.1.1.4 Derived Nouns ....................................................................................................... 13
3.1.1.5 Compound Nouns.................................................................................................. 15
3.1.2 Inalienable and Alienable Possession .......................................................... 15
3.1.2.1 Inalienable Nouns .................................................................................................. 15
3.1.2.2 Alienable Nouns .................................................................................................... 16
3.2
Articles, Deictics, and Deictic Locations ............................................. 18
3.2.1 Articles ......................................................................................................... 18
3.2.1.2 Referential Articles ................................................................................................ 18
3.2.1.2.1
3.2.1.2.2
Singular Referential Articles .................................................................................. 18
Plural Referential Articles ...................................................................................... 19
3.2.1.3 Non-Referential Article .......................................................................................... 20
3.2.2 Deictics ........................................................................................................ 20
3.2.3 Deictic Locations .......................................................................................... 21
3.3
Numerals ............................................................................................ 23
3.4
Arrangement Classifiers ..................................................................... 24
3.5
Adjectives and Other Nominal Modifiers ............................................. 27
3.3.1
3.3.2
Cardinal numerals ........................................................................................ 23
Ordinal numerals ......................................................................................... 24
3.4.1.1 Arrangement Classifiers for Alienable Common Nouns ....................................... 24
3.4.1.2 Arrangement Classifier for Group of People ......................................................... 26
3.4.1.3 Arrangement Classifier for Mass Nouns ............................................................... 26
3.5.1
3.5.2
Pure Adjectives ............................................................................................ 27
Other Nominal Modifiers .............................................................................. 27
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3.6
Pronouns ............................................................................................ 27
3.7
Prepositions ........................................................................................ 31
3.8
Conjunctions and Complementisers ................................................... 34
3.9
3.10
Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns and Pro-Words............................... 36
Verbs .................................................................................................. 37
4.
Phrase Level...................................................................................... 41
4.1
Noun Phrase ....................................................................................... 41
3.6.1 Independent Pronouns................................................................................. 28
3.6.2 Object Pronouns .......................................................................................... 28
3.6.2.1 Third Person Singular Object Pronoun ................................................................. 29
3.6.3 Subject Reference Pronoun ......................................................................... 29
3.6.4 Possessor Suffix Pronouns .......................................................................... 29
3.6.5 Possessive Pronouns .................................................................................. 30
3.6.5.1 Intimate Alienable Possessive Pronouns .............................................................. 30
3.6.5.2 Non-Intimate Alienable Possessive Pronouns ...................................................... 30
3.6.6 Emphatic Pronouns...................................................................................... 30
3.7.1.1 Locative Preposition ‘si’......................................................................................... 31
3.7.1.2 Reason Preposition ‘surie’ ..................................................................................... 31
3.7.1.3 Instrumental and Manner Preposition ‘ngan’ ......................................................... 32
3.7.1.4 Accompaniment Preposition ‘meie’........................................................................ 32
3.7.1.5 Malefactive Preposition ‘veie’ ................................................................................ 32
3.7.1.6 Benefactive Preposition ‘nia’ ................................................................................. 33
3.7.1.7 Source Preposition ‘ni’ .......................................................................................... 33
3.7.1.8 Path Preposition ‘ka’.............................................................................................. 33
3.7.1.9 Examples of verbs that are used as prepositions ................................................. 33
3.8.1
3.8.2
3.8.3
Phrase Level Conjunctions .......................................................................... 34
Clause Level Conjunctions........................................................................... 35
Sentence Level Conjunctions ....................................................................... 36
3.10.1 Stative Verbs ............................................................................................... 37
3.10.2 Action Verbs ................................................................................................ 38
3.10.2.1 Intransitive Verbs ............................................................................................... 38
3.10.2.2 Transitive Verbs ................................................................................................. 38
3.10.2.3 Object Incorporation into Verbs ......................................................................... 39
3.10.3 Reciprocal Prefix ve- .................................................................................... 40
3.10.4 Stative Derivational Prefix ka- ...................................................................... 40
3.10.5 Stativizer Prefix ma- ..................................................................................... 40
4.1.1 Basic noun phrase ....................................................................................... 41
4.1.1.1 Preposed Nominal Modifiers ................................................................................. 41
4.1.1.2 Postposed Nominal Modifiers ............................................................................... 42
4.1.1.2.1
4.1.1.2.2
4.1.1.2.3
4.1.1.2.4
4.1.1.2.5
The Noun Phrase Headed by ni as a Post-Nominal Modifier ................................ 44
The Relative Clause as a Post-Nominal Modifier .................................................. 44
Negation Marker ‘kap’ heading a Post Nominal Modifier Phrase .......................... 44
Reduplicated Verb as a Post-Nominal Modifier ..................................................... 44
Topicalization of Post Modifiers ............................................................................. 45
4.1.2 Pronominally Headed Noun Phrases ........................................................... 45
4.1.3 Possessive Noun Phrases ........................................................................... 45
4.1.3.1 Inalienably Possessed Noun Phrases .................................................................. 45
4.1.3.2 Alienably Possessed Noun Phrases ..................................................................... 46
4.1.3.3 Locative Possessive Noun Phrase ........................................................................ 47
4.1.4 Complex Noun Phrases ............................................................................... 47
4.1.4.1 Coordinate Noun Phrase ....................................................................................... 47
4.1.4.2 Alternative Noun Phrase........................................................................................ 47
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4.1.4.3 Appositional Noun Phrase ..................................................................................... 47
4.1.4.4 Coordinated Pronoun Phrase ................................................................................ 48
4.2
Verb Phrase ........................................................................................ 48
4.2.1 Definition and Structure of the Verb Phrase. ................................................ 48
4.2.2 Head of the Verb Phrase ............................................................................. 48
4.2.2.1 Minimum Verb Root ............................................................................................... 48
4.2.2.2 Serial Verb Constructions (SVC) ........................................................................... 50
4.2.2.2.1
4.2.2.2.2
4.2.2.2.3
4.2.2.2.4
SVC 1 .................................................................................................................... 50
SVC 2 .................................................................................................................... 50
SVC 3 .................................................................................................................... 51
Subject Reference ................................................................................................. 51
4.2.3.2.1
4.2.3.2.2
4.2.3.2.3
Distant Past Tense: ............................................................................................... 52
Near-Past to Present Tense Events ...................................................................... 52
Future Events ........................................................................................................ 52
4.2.3.4.1
4.2.3.4.2
4.2.3.4.3
4.2.3.4.4
4.2.3.4.5
4.2.3.4.6
4.2.3.4.7
4.2.3.4.8
4.2.3.4.9
4.2.3.4.10
4.2.3.4.11
4.2.3.4.12
Irrealis/Realis ......................................................................................................... 53
Intention - be .......................................................................................................... 54
Counter Expectation Possibility - masi ................................................................... 54
Counter Expectation - si ........................................................................................ 55
Assurance - ba ....................................................................................................... 55
Counter Approval - ger........................................................................................... 55
Persistent - ngas .................................................................................................... 56
Desired Result - mang ............................................................................................ 56
Relief - nangaba ..................................................................................................... 56
Comparative –ki ................................................................................................... 57
Politeness: - ve ..................................................................................................... 57
Frustration – pilang .............................................................................................. 57
4.2.3.5.1
4.2.3.5.2
4.2.3.5.3
4.2.3.5.4
4.2.3.5.5
4.2.3.5.6
4.2.3.5.7
4.2.3.5.8
Completive - te ....................................................................................................... 58
Repetitive - buer ..................................................................................................... 58
Habituative - ko ...................................................................................................... 59
Immediate - so ....................................................................................................... 59
Ready to - visi ........................................................................................................ 59
Progressive - vor.................................................................................................... 59
Continuative/durative - mono.................................................................................. 59
In the Morning- vo .................................................................................................. 60
4.2.3 Pre-Nuclear Auxiliaries................................................................................. 51
4.2.3.1 Co-occurrence of the Pre-nuclear Auxiliaries ....................................................... 51
4.2.3.2 Tense ..................................................................................................................... 52
4.2.3.3 Negation................................................................................................................. 53
4.2.3.4 Modality Adverbs ................................................................................................... 53
4.2.3.5 Aspect Markers ...................................................................................................... 58
4.2.4 Object Reference Pronoun .......................................................................... 60
4.2.5 Post-Nuclear Auxiliaries ............................................................................... 60
4.2.5.1 Intensifier ............................................................................................................... 60
4.2.5.2 Manner Adverbs .................................................................................................... 61
4.3
Prepositional Phrase........................................................................... 62
5.
Clause Level syntax.......................................................................... 65
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6
4.3.7
4.3.8
Temporal prepositional phrase..................................................................... 62
Locational prepositional phrase ................................................................... 63
Reason prepositional phrase ....................................................................... 63
Instrumental and Manner Prepositional Phrase ........................................... 63
Accompaniment Prepositional Phrase ......................................................... 63
Malefactive Prepositional Phrase ................................................................. 64
Benefactive Prepositional Phrase ................................................................ 64
Source Prepositional Phrase........................................................................ 64
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5.2
5.3
5.4
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Word Order ......................................................................................... 65
Grammatical relations ......................................................................... 66
Topic and Focus ................................................................................. 67
Clause Types Defined by Predicate Type and Transitive Issues ........ 68
5.4.1 Non-Verbal Clauses ..................................................................................... 68
5.4.2 Verbal Clause .............................................................................................. 69
5.4.2.1 Stative Clause........................................................................................................ 69
5.4.2.1.1
5.4.2.1.2
Descriptive Clause ................................................................................................. 69
Numerical Clause .................................................................................................. 70
5.4.2.2.1
5.4.2.2.2
5.4.2.2.3
Intransitive Clause ................................................................................................. 71
Transitive Clause ................................................................................................... 71
Ditransitive Clause ................................................................................................. 71
5.4.2.2 Active Clause ......................................................................................................... 71
5.4.2.3 Negation in Verbal Clauses ................................................................................... 72
6.
Sentence Types by Modal Features ................................................ 72
6.1.1 Imperative and Hortatory Sentences ............................................................ 72
6.1.1.1 Imperative Sentence .............................................................................................. 72
6.1.1.2 Hortatory Sentence ................................................................................................ 73
6.1.1.3 Prohibitive Sentence.............................................................................................. 73
6.1.2 Interrogative Sentences ............................................................................... 73
6.1.2.1 Polar questions ...................................................................................................... 73
6.1.2.2 Rhetorical questions .............................................................................................. 74
6.1.2.3 Content-information questions .............................................................................. 74
6.1.2.3.1
6.1.2.3.2
6.1.2.3.3
6.1.2.3.4
6.1.2.3.5
6.1.2.3.6
Ese ‘who’ questions .............................................................................................. 74
misa ‘what’ questions ............................................................................................ 75
misana ‘which’ question ........................................................................................ 75
sisa or venenges ‘when’ question ........................................................................... 75
ivie - en ‘where’ question ..................................................................................... 75
vasa - ven ‘how’ question ...................................................................................... 76
7.
Complex Sentences .......................................................................... 76
7.1
Subordinate Clauses .......................................................................... 77
7.2
Coordination ....................................................................................... 87
7.1.1 Relative Clause ............................................................................................ 77
7.1.2 Nominalized Clauses ................................................................................... 77
7.1.3 Complement Clauses................................................................................... 78
7.1.3.1 Complement Clauses with the complementiser va ............................................... 78
7.1.3.2 Complement Clause headed by nia ...................................................................... 80
7.1.4 Temporal Clause ......................................................................................... 81
7.1.5 Conditional Structures.................................................................................. 81
7.1.6 Result-Reason Construction ........................................................................ 81
7.1.7 Concessive Sentence .................................................................................. 82
7.1.8 Purpose Clause ........................................................................................... 82
7.1.8.1 Purpose Subordinate Particle nia .......................................................................... 82
7.1.8.2 Purpose Clause with va ......................................................................................... 84
7.1.9 Quotations ................................................................................................... 85
7.1.9.1 Indirect Quotation .................................................................................................. 85
7.1.9.2 Direct Quotation ..................................................................................................... 85
7.1.10 Complex Subordinate Clause ...................................................................... 86
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
Coordinate Sentence ................................................................................... 87
Sentences Encoding Contrast...................................................................... 87
Sentences Encoding Alternatives................................................................. 88
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8.
Residual Issues................................................................................. 88
8.1
8.2
Verb ra ‘go’ & me ‘come’.................................................................... 88
Irrealis Marker ta ................................................................................. 89
9.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................ 89
10.
Appendix ........................................................................................... 90
10.1
10.2
E Us mi banga bor ‘Us, a good pig’ by Joseph Tulok ......................... 90
Ken kina bor e Tames ‘Tames’ female pig’ by Susana Vivnero........ 119
List of Abbreviations
1
first person
2
second person
3
third person
ACCM accompaniment preposition (meie)
ARR
arrangement classifier
ART
Article
ASSU assurance modality marker (ba)
C common noun
CA modality marker for counter approval (ger)
CAUS causativizer prefix for a verb (va-)
CE counter expectation modality marker (si)
CEP
counter expectation possibility modality marker (masi)
CINS consonant insertion
CMPL completive aspect marker (te)
COMP comparative
COGN cognative prefix (bai-)
CONT continuative/durative aspect marker (mono)
CR
SUB
subordinating conjunction (va)
DEIC deictic
DEM deictic location
DIST1 distal (ian)
DIST2 distal further away (die)
DL
dual
EMPH emphatic
EXC
exclusive
GEN
general area or time prefix (ro-)
HAB
habituative or customary aspect marker (ko)
HOW1 first manner question word (vasa)
HOW2 second manner question word (ven)
IMM immediate aspect marker (so)
INC
inclusive
INST instrumental and manner preposition (ngan)
INT intention modality marker (be)
INTS intensifiers (beitsak, rovoriu)
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IRR
irrealis marker (ta)
L
locative noun
LOC
locative preposition (si)
MASS mass nouns
MLFC malefactive preposition (veie)
N
noun
NEG
negation
NOM nominalizer
NP
noun phrase
NR
non-referential article
OP
object reference clitic
P
personal noun
PASS stative derivational prefix (ka-)
PAST past tense marker (nga)
PC
paucal
PERS persistent modality marker (ngas)
PI
possessive pronoun for intimate alienable nouns
PL
plural
PN
possessive pronoun for non-intimate alienable nouns
POL
politeness modality marker (ve)
PROG progressive aspect marker (vor)
PROX proximate
PURP benefactive/purposepreposition (nia, na)
QTAG polar question tag morpheme
READY aspect marker for ready to do something (visi)
RCPR reciprocal prefix (veve-, ver-, ve-)
RDP
reduplication
RELF relief modality marker (nangaba)
REP
repetitive aspect marker (buer)
RES
desired result modality marker (mang)
RSON reason preposition (surie)
S
singular
SPEC-LOC specific-location
SR
subject reference clitic
SRCE source preposition (ni)
STAV stativizer
SUP
(pg. 16- ki)
TR
transitivizer suffix
VCON verb conjunction
VIS
visible
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1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is a preliminary description of the grammar of the Mandara language in New Ireland Province of
Papua New Guinea. Mandara is an SVO Austronesian language. According to Malcolm Ross (1988) in his
grouping of Proto-Oceanic languages in Western Melanesia, Mandara (which he refers to as Tabar) belongs to
the Tabar chain of the New Ireland network of the Meso-Melanesian cluster. Notsi and Lihir are the other two
languages that belong to the Tabar chain.
The Mandara language is noteworthy for its complex noun classification system, based on both gender and
possession classes. It has two classes of nouns distinguished by direct and indirect marking of possession.
Indirectly possessed nouns are further divided into two sub-classes based on the intimacy of the item to the
possessor. The two possession classes of noun are interwoven into a gender system with three classes (personal,
locative, and common nouns.). There are also a dozen sub-classes within common nouns that take arrangement
classifiers to identify the quantity groupings of the nouns.
Mandara is spoken by the residents on the group of islands called the Tabar Islands, which are the most
northeasterly islands off of the mainland of New Ireland. This group is composed of four islands: Simberi, Tatau,
Mapua, and Big Tabar. There are approximately 3,000 people in the language group occupying 28 villages,
which are scattered along the coasts of the four islands.
Although the Mandara that is spoken in each of these 28 villages has minor variations, the language can be
divided into three major dialect groups: the Big Tabar dialect, the Mapua-Southern Tatau dialect, and the
Simberi-Northern Tatau dialect. The dialects differ mainly in phonological patterns such as vowel shifting,
vowel harmonization and one or two consonants consistently changing. The difference for lexical items is
minimal. The Big Tabar dialect usually retains the underlying forms of morphemes in its surface structure
representation. However, in the final syllable of words, the vowel is devoiced, [e.g. sina → sinA] The SimberiNorthern Tatau dialect manifest vowel harmony with the verb stem vowel influencing all the other vowels. (See
section 2.3 for examples.) It also evidence metathesis of the final vowel and consonant [e.g. mate → maet], if
one assumes that the Big Tabar dialect indicates the underlying forms of morphemes in its surface structure.
The data for this paper was gathered during the fieldwork done from April 1991 to the present. The authors,
Steven and Holly Hong, are members of Summer Institute of Linguistics and have lived in four villages in
different dialect groups. The analysis for this paper was mainly based on the texts gathered in Simberi-Northern
Tatau dialect. Some examples that are used in this paper may resemble the Big Tabar dialect as we have written
with underlying forms of the words.
We express our sincere appreciation to the people of the Tabar Islands who have allowed us to reside among
them and have patiently taught us their language.
2. PHONOLOGY
2.1 Phonemes
Table 2.1 Consonant Phonemes
p
t
k
b
d
g
v
s
m
n
ts
ng
l
r
Mandara has 14 consonant phonemes and 7 vowel phonemes in the Simberi-Northern Tatau dialect.
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The phonemes / p, t, k / are non-aspirated voiceless stops. The phonemes / b, d, g / are prenasalized voiced
stops. The phoneme /r/ is a flap. The phoneme /v/ represents the voiced bilabial fricative, /ts/ is an alveolar
affricate, and /ng/ is a velar nasal.
Table 2.2 Vowel Phonemes
i
u
˜→e
o→o
›→e
š→o
a
The vowel phonemes /›/ and /š/ phonetically contrast with the phonemes /˜/ and /o/ but the occurrence of these
phonemes is rare in the language and the majority of the mother tongue writers prefer writing them with the
letter <e> for phonemes both /˜/ and /›/ and the letter <o> for phonemes both /o/ and /š/. is chosen . Therefore
this convention of orthography has been adapted.
2.2 Stress and Syllable Patterns
Word stress is not a salient feature; there is no phonological evidence for its being phonemic. The final
syllable in a word is stressed. Intonational contours, however, do play a part in expressing different moods.
Unlike many Austronesian languages, the Simberi-Northern Tatau dialect of Mandara has many vowel
clusters. Many of these vowel clusters are perceived by the native speakers to fill in a single vowel slot in a
syllable. All vowel clusters with the shape: low vowel [e, o, a] + high vowel [i, u] are considered diphthongs,
not complex syllable nuclei , ex: ei [eI], ou [ou].
There are four syllable patterns in the language: V, CV, VC, CVC.
2.3 Vowel Harmonization
The vowel harmonization within words and a phrase is a dominating feature in the Simberi-Northern Tatau
dialect. The vowel of the initial syllable of the root morpheme before the affixation controls the vowel
harmonization and influences the vowels in the preceding syllable(s). Many of the examples used in this paper
are written with underlying forms in order to show the process of affixation.
For example, as shown in the table below, the vowel of the causative prefix va- is vowel harmonized in the
process of affixation by the vowel of the initial syllable of the stems.
Table 2.3 Examples of Vowel Harmonization
verb stem & its meaning
after affixation
Pronounced
Meaning after affixation
tsak ‘bad’
vatsaktie
‘atsaktÞe
to damage
pan ‘awake’
vapanda
‘apa‡da
to wake up (someone)
kor ‘fall’
vakorngie
‘okorƒÞe
to drop
maturu ‘lay down’
vaturungie
‘uturuƒÞe
to put (something down)
liki ‘small’
valikitie
‘ilikitÞe
to humble (oneself)
3. WORD LEVEL AND MORPHOLOGY
3.1 Nouns
All Mandara nouns can be categorized in two different classification systems. First, nouns are divided into
three gender classes: personal, locative, or common. This is marked by the kind of article that precedes the
noun.
Second, nouns are categorized according to the marking of possession. Some nouns occur with a possessor
suffix whilst others occur with a possessive pronoun preceding the noun. This structural distinction reflects a
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semantic distinction between inalienable and alienable possession. There is no correlation between the gender
and possession systems of categorization, so a noun is classified within one system independently of its class
within the other. However, nouns in the alienable possession class are mostly common nouns with the exception
of few kin relation terms and many abstract nouns,
3.1.1 Personal, Locative, and Common Nouns
Each of these three noun genders is indicated by an obligatory article preceding the noun in its singular
form. The articles for each gender are e, i, and mi for personal, locative, and common nouns respectively.
Gender class is not overtly marked, because the paucal article ba or the plural article bu replace the singular
articles regardless of the gender class of the noun. These non-singular articles are usually applied to personal
and common nouns since locative nouns represent a specific location and are therefore semantically singular.
Gender class is also unmarked when non-referential articles replace the gender articles. (see Section 3.2.1)
3.1.1.1 Personal Nouns
Personal nouns include personal proper names and inalienable kin/relation terms. The personal article e
preceding the noun when referring to one individual marks the gender. It is not overtly marked when the noun is
plural, because the singular article is replaced either by the paucal article ba or the plural article bu, neither of
which differentiates gender class.
1)
Ine
mi ka
e
tama-ung.
DEIC.PROX this man ART.P father-1S.PS
‘This man is my father’
2)
E
Tulok a
ART.P Tulok 3S.SR
‘Tulok is sleeping’
3)
e
palapala-n a
nga
peven,
ART.P friend-3S.PS 3S.SR PAST talk
‘his/her friend said,’
4)
Ba
kina-ung
kokouk guor
nga
mesei.
ART.few mother-1S.PS together 3DL.SR PAST die
‘Both of my mothers died.’
5)
bu
kasi-ung
a
nepeririem
ART.PL same.gender.sibling-1S.PS 3S.SR five
‘my brothers are five’
muang.
sleep
3.1.1.1.1 Personified Non-Human Animate
A common noun may become a personal noun when a non-human animate is personified in a story. For
example, in a story which personifies a pig and a dog, the article used for these animals is e instead of mi
6)
E
Bor a
nga
pengan
si
e
ART.P Pig 3S.SR PAST tell
LOC
ART.P
‘Pig told Dog.(In a story where a pig and a dog are personified)’
Kopuen.
Dog
3.1.1.1.2 Job Titles as Personal Nouns
When someone is identified by a job title, the noun used is classified as a personal noun. This occurs when
an individual’s job title is used in place of the individual’s name and the person in reference is commonly known
both to the speaker and the listeners.
7)
E
Robinson eie mi
hetmasta.
ART.P Robinson 3S ART.C headmaster
‘Robinson he is a headmaster.’
8)
E
Hetmasta a
ART.P Headmaster 3S.SR
‘The Headmaster got angry.’
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te
pitser.
CMPL angry
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3.1.1.1.3 Borrowed Kin Terms as Personal Nouns
Some kin terms that are loanwords from outside the language group also function as ‘job titles’. They are
marked with the personal gender class article and have no marking for possession class.
9)
10)
Ine
mi
ka e
Papa si-eou.
DEIC.PROX ART.C man ART.P father LOC-1S
‘This man is my father’
e
tata
si-eou
ART.P mother’s.brother LOC-1S
‘my mother’s brother is a tall man.’
mi
ka kuar.
ART.C man long
3.1.1.1.4 Personal Nouns in Direct Address
For direct address, a personal noun is stripped of its article and its possession suffix (the latter, if it is an
inalienably possessed kin term).
11)
“Tama, Tama, entau
nta
ta
peuk
i
rou.”
father, father, 1DL.Inc 1DL.Inc.SR IRR go.down ART.L sea
“Father, father, let us two go to the sea.”
12)
“Tulok, be
lapus!”
Tulok, INT come
“Tulok, come!”
13)
A
nga
peven, “Kopuen, e
ta
te
mo ros-ie
iou.”
3S.SR PAST say,
“Dog,
2S.SR IRR CMPL only wait-TR 1S.OP
‘He/she said, “Dog, you just wait for me.”’
3.1.1.2 Locative Nouns
The gender class of locative nouns includes specific locations in relation to an item, proper place names, and
nouns denoting large territories surrounding people’s living area such as the sea, residential areas, areas in the
bush, beach, and bush trails. There are two categories of locative nouns: the unpossessed locative nouns and the
inalienable locative part nouns. Due to their characteristic of referring to a particular location, locative nouns are
seldom pluralized and when a locative noun occurs with the plural article bu, it refers to the people from that
location.
3.1.1.2.1 Unpossessed Locative Nouns
The unpossessed locative nouns include proper place names and large territories surrounding people’s living
area. Each of the unpossessed locative nouns that is not a proper place name has a derived counterpart in the
common noun class which refers to a large non-specific area of the environment. (see Section 3.1.1.4.4)
14)
A
mon
i
Tatau.
3S.SR stay ART.L Tatau(village)
‘He(she) stays in Tatau village.’
15)
A
ra kien i
ot.
3S.SR go go.up ART.L bush
‘He(she) goes up to the bush.’
16)
A
sisi
i
rou.
3S.SR bathe ART.L sea
‘He(she) is bathing in the sea.’
The words for the inside and outside of a building are also locative nouns.
17)
E
Timot a
palu i
marar.
ART.P Timot 3S.SR play ART.L outside
‘Timot is playing outside.’
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E
Timot a
muang die
i
ART.P Timot 3S.SR sleep
DEIC.DIST2 ART.L
‘Timot is sleeping way over there inside(of the house)’
12
rom.
inside
3.1.1.2.2 Inalienable Locative Part Nouns
Inalienable locative part nouns are the only locative nouns which can be possessed.. There is a closed set of
lexical items which function as locative part nouns in Mandara. popo- ‘on top of’, peke- ‘underneath of’, gege‘on side of’, babare- ‘next to’, mua- ‘in front of’, muir- ‘on the back of’, aro- ‘inside of’, binga- ‘on side of’
and etc.
i
gege-n
ART.L next.to-3S.PS
19)
E
ta
magos
2S.SR IRR sit
‘Sit next to Timot.’
e
Timot.
ART.P Timot
20)
Mi
buk a mon
i
peke-ung.
ART.C book 3S.SR stay ART.L under-1S.PS
‘The book is underneath me.’
21)
A
nga
mogos i
muri-ung.
3S.SR PAST sit
ART.L rear-1S.PS
‘He/she sat behind me.’
Several of these inalienable locative part nouns can communicate a location in time.
22)
i
muri-en
e
ta
ba
veiv
ART.L rear-3S.PS 2S.SR IRR ASSU hot.stone.bake
‘you bake with hot stones after that’
If a body part is referred to as the location where the action of a verb is taking place, then it becomes a
locative noun rather than a common noun and is preceded by the locative article.
23)
A
te
kor i
ngutsu-Ø.
3S.SR CMPL fall ART.L mouth-2S.PS
‘It dropped from your mouth.’
24)
Ke
kovamon a
mon i
rima-ung.
2S.PN hat
3S.SR stay ART.L hand-1S.PS
‘Your hat is in my hand.’
3.1.1.3 Common nouns
Common nouns are all other nouns that do not belong to either of the genders above. This gender of noun
includes inalienable nouns (e.g. body parts), general place nouns, abstract nouns, sun, moon, sky, etc. Singular
common nouns are marked by the article mi. This article can be replaced by the same paucal and plural articles
ba and bu that are used with the personal noun gender class. It can also be replaced by the non-referential
articles. (see Section 3.2.1).
25)
mi
ma
ART.C
bird
‘bird(singular)’
26)
mi
ART.C
‘my hand’
rima-ung
hand-1S.PS
27)
mi
vura
ART.C moon
‘the moon’
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28)
ba
mata-ung
ART.few eye-1S.PS
‘my two eyes’
29)
bu
madar
ART.PL boy
‘(more than 4) boys’
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Although the sky is a large area in the environment, it does not fall into the class of locative noun, but is
marked by the article mi as a common noun. This may be because the sky is not a part of a person’s living area.
30)
E
Raban a
ART.P God
3S.SR
‘God lives in heaven.’
mon si
mi
ringit.
stay LOC ART.C heaven
When appearing in a possessive construction led by the possessive pronoun, the singular common noun
article is omitted.
31)
kong madar
1S.PN boy
‘my boy’
32)
mong ba
vuin
1S.PI ART.few banana
‘my few bananas’
3.1.1.4 Derived Nouns
All the derived nouns belong to the common noun class and occur with the common noun article, mi. There
are five ways to derive nouns: by reduplication, by affixation (either with a nominalizer infix, a cognitive prefix
or a generalizer prefix), or by compounding.
3.1.1.4.1 Nominalizer Infix -inMany abstract nouns are derived from verbs. Affixation with the infix -in- after the first consonant of the
verb stem is the most common pattern for deriving abstract nouns. The infix -in- changes to -en- in some words
as a result of the morphophonemic change caused by low vowel in the root.
33)
veis
=>
mi
v-in-eis
walk =>
ART.C NOM-walk
‘to walk’ => ‘journey or trip’
34)
palo => mi
p-in-alo
play =>
ART.C NOM-play
‘to play’=> ‘game, drama’
35)
ro-rong =>
mi
r-en-orong
RDP-ear =>
ART.C NOM-hear
‘to hear intensely’
=> ‘obedience’
Some abstract nouns are derived by affixing the metathesized infix -in- which then swaps position with the
first consonant of the verb stem. No phonological rules have been found to explain this phenomena.
36)
res
=> mi
ni-res
happy
=>
ART.C NOM-happy
‘happy,enjoy’ => ‘happiness, joy’
37)
ve-ve-ken
=>mi
ni-veveken
RCPR-RCPR-hit => ART.C NOM-fight
‘fight’
=> ‘war’
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3.1.1.4.2 Derivation by Reduplication
Reduplication is used to generate a class of instruments and abstract nouns from verbs. In many words only
the first syllable of the verb is reduplicated (ex. (38) and (41)), while in others the whole word is reduplicated
(ex. (39) and (40)).
pa-palu
RDP -play
38)
palu
=> mi
play
=> ART.C
‘to play’ => ‘toy’
39)
ngeis =>mi
ngeis-ngeis
strong => ART.C RDP-strong
‘strong’ => ‘power’
40)
voto
=>mi
voto-voto
’to.finish’ => ART.C RDP-finish
‘to finish => the ending’
41)
vasengei
show
‘to show’
=>
=>
=>
va-vasengei
RDP-show
‘to teach’
=>
mi
va-vavasengi
=>
ART.C RDP-teach
=> teacher(S.)
Some common nouns are derived from the reduplication of locative part nouns.
42)
i
muo =>mi
muo-muo
ART.L front => ART.C RDP-front
‘at front’ => ‘leader’
3.1.1.4.3 Derivation by the Cognitive Prefix baiThere are a few abstract nouns which are derived by affixing the cognitive prefix bai to a reduplicated verb
which carries a meaning of intense action.
43)
de-deng
=>kong
bai-de-deng
RDP-watch => 1S.PN COGN-RDP-watch
‘to watch intensely’ => ‘my view(sight, opinion)’
44)
ro-rong => kenga bai-ro-rong
RDP-hear
=>
2PL.PN COGN-RDP-hear
‘to listen intensely’ => ‘your(plural) interpretation(hearing)’
45)
veis-veis =>
mi
bai-veis-veis
RDP-walk =>
ART.C COGN-RDP-walk
‘to walk intensely’ => ‘path’
3.1.1.4.4 Derivation by Generalizer Prefix ro
Affixing the prefix ro- to some locative nouns changes the meaning from a specific location to the general
broad area of a particular environment. The gender of these nouns changes from locative to common as a result
of the derivation.
46)
i
marar =>mi
ro-marar
ART.L outside => ART.C GEN-path
‘outside or a location in the residential area’=>‘general residential area’
47)
i
rou
=>
ART.L sea
=>
‘a location in the sea’
mi
ro-rou
ART.C
GEN-sea
=> ‘ocean’
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48)
i
ar
=>mi
ro-ng-ar
ART.L men’s.courtyard => ART.C GEN-CINS-men’s.courtyard
‘a location in men's courtyard’ => ‘men's sacred area including the courtyard, men's house, and the grave yard’
49)
i
ot
=>mi ro-ni-ot
ART.L bush
=> ART.C GEN-CINS-bush
‘a location in the bush’=> ‘forest’
Affixing the prefix ro- to some temporal nouns changes the meaning from a specific to a general temporal
reference.
50)
mi
kiti =>mi
ro-kiti
ART.C night => ART.C GEN-night
‘night’ => ‘all night’
51)
mi
sisiat
=>bu
ro-sisiat
ART.C mid-day => ART.PL GEN-midday
‘midday’ => ‘(many) mid-days’
3.1.1.5 Compound Nouns
Some nouns are compound words made up of words from different classes.
52)
i
mua + mi
riem
=>
mi
ART.L front + ART.C hand
=>
ART.C
‘front’ + ‘hand’
=> ‘first born off.spring’
muariem
first.born
53)
ve
+i
muir =>mi
vemuir
MLFC +
ART.L
rear
=> ART.C last.born
‘against + rear’ => ‘last born off.spring’
54)
bara + mi
teis
=>mi
barateis
wide + ART.C current => ART.C sea.water
‘wide+current’ => ‘sea water or salt’
55)
e
tama- + mi
tinum =>mi
tamatinum
ART.P father + ART.C sorcery => ART.C witch.doctor
‘father (of) + sorcery’ => ‘a witch doctor’
3.1.2 Inalienable and Alienable Possession
Nouns in Mandara are divided into two classes according to the way possession is marked. Inalienable
nouns are nouns which take a possessor suffix to mark the possession, and alienable nouns are nouns that mark
possession by the use of a possessive pronoun which precedes the noun.
3.1.2.1 Inalienable Nouns
Nouns that are inalienably possessed include body parts, many kinship terms, and locative part nouns. These
noun stems take an obligatory suffix which agrees in person and number with the possessor. (See Section 3.6 for
the set of possessor suffixes.)
56)
mi
mata-ung
ART.C eye-1S.PS
‘my eye’
57)
e
kasi-ung
ART.P same.sex.sibling-1S.PS
‘my brother’
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58)
i
peke-n
ART.L under-3S.PS
‘under the house’
59)
Mi
ma a
te
rov ka i
popo-ung
ART.C bird 3S.SR CMPL fly by ART.L top-1S.PS
‘A bird flew above me.’
16
mi
vono
ART.C house
3.1.2.2 Alienable Nouns
The nouns that can be alienably possessed are marked by possessor pronouns. These alienable nouns are
divided into two classes: intimates and non-intimates and each class has its own set of possessive pronouns
which precede the head nouns in the possessive noun phrase. (See Section 6.3 for the sets of pronouns.)
60)
mong
1S.PI
‘my bananas’
61)
kegi
vono
3Pl.PN house
‘their house’
62)
man pemet
3S.PI mother’s.brother
‘his/her mother’s brother’
63)
ke
koko
2S.PN wife’s.mother
‘your wife’s mother(your mother-in-law)’
sar
ART.PL
vuin
banana
All alienable nouns belong to the common noun gender class except for several kinship terms. These
kinship terms can only be used in the genitive noun phrase construction for alienable nouns and cannot occur
with any gender articles. They are the brother of ego’s mother, ego’s husband, ego’s wife, brother of ego’s wife,
husband of ego’s sister, the children of a female ego’s brother, and the mother of ego’s wife.
64)
man pemet
3S.PI mother’s brother
‘his/her mother’s brother’
65)
kong vevin
1S.PN female
‘my wife’
66)
kong vinuor
1S.PN law
‘my(female ego) nephew/niece from my brother’
3.1.2.2.1 Intimate Alienable Nouns
The intimate alienable nouns generally include edible items for personal consumption, a few very close
possessions, and two relationship terms. The few personal possessions which belong to this class are a person’s
canoe, boat, bicycle, shirt, blouse, and pants. Interestingly, one’s laplap belongs to the non-intimate alienable
noun class and shoes belong to either class.
67)
mong ka
buo
be.
1S.PI ART.NR betel.nut INT
‘Give me a betel nut (which I will consume by myself).’
68)
ma
kolos
2S.PI meri-blouse
‘your meri-blouse’
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69)
man
geleu
3S.PI
canoe
‘his/her canoe’
70)
mong vuilvuil
1S.PI bicycle
‘my bicycle’
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Essential Part of Things
An essentially needed part of something is also included in the intimate alienable nouns.
71)
man naots mi
botol
3S.PI stopper ART.C bottle
‘the stopper of a bottle’
Intimate Alienable Noun Relationship Terms
The nouns pemet ‘mother’s brother’ and nguts ‘lord or the orator of a clan’ are the only two relationship
terms that fall into this class. Historically these relationships are considered the two most important people in
one’s life, since they have the authority to make decisions for both the clan and the individual.
72)
magiet
nguts
1PL.Inc.PI lord
‘our lord’
73)
mong
pemet
1S.PI
mother’s.brother
‘my mother’s brother(maternal uncle)’
Intimate Alienable Abstract Nouns
Many abstract nouns, such as vinavaso ‘beauty, glory’, belong to the class of the intimate alienable noun.
74)
man
mat v-in-avaso e Soloman
3S.PI
look NOM-beautify ART.P Solomon
‘The glory/beauty of Solomon’
75)
man vuevue mi
nama
3S.PI meaning ART.C word
‘the meaning of the word’
3.1.2.2.2 Non-Intimate Alienable Nouns
Any alienable common noun which does not belong to the intimate alienable noun class belongs to the nonintimate alienable noun class. As mentioned above in Section 3.1.2.2, several kinship terms belong to this class
of non-intimate alienable noun.
76)
kong vono
1S.PN house
‘my house’
77)
ken
bor e
Timot
3S.PN pig ART.P Timot
‘Timot’s pig’
All edible items which are not intended for personal consumption by the possessor fall into the non-intimate
class.
78)
gi
te
nga
voir vaton ken
sar
3PL.SR CMPL PAST buy finish 3S.PN ART.PL
‘They bought out her wrapped foods’
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tsoik
wrapped.food
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kong ka
buo
be.
1S.PN ART.NR betel.nut INT
‘Give me a betel nut (which I will give away to others).’
Some personal clothing items belong to the non-intimate alienable class.
80)
ken
lavlav
3S.PN
laplap
‘his/her laplap’
Some abstract nouns are included in the non-intimate alienable class.
81)
ken
vina-v-in-don
3S.PN
RDP-NOM-think
‘his/her thought’
82)
ke.Ø s-in-avei
2S.PN NOM-know
‘your knowledge or personality’
3.2 Articles, Deictics, and Deictic Locations
3.2.1 Articles
Mandara articles mark noun gender class and number as well as distinguishing between nouns that are
referential and those that are non-referential. The articles are an obligatory constituent of a noun phrase except
in alienable possessive noun phrases, terms of direct address, and several temporal references.
Table 3.1 Mandara Articles
Gender
Used in
Genitive
NP
Personal
Referential
Locative
Common
NonReferential
3.2.1.1.1.1 Paucal
Singula
(2-4)
r
Plural (5
or more)
e
ba
bu
i
ba
bu
No
mi
ba
bu
Yes
-Ø-
ba
sar
ka
kaba
kovo
All Three Genders
3.2.1.2 Referential Articles
The two sets of referential articles are used for identifiable nouns. These two sets of articles make
distinctions in gender-class membership for singulars and also in numbers. As described in the noun section, the
singular referential articles e, i, and mi each precedes personal nouns, locative nouns, and common nouns
respectively. These are the only articles which mark gender class.
3.2.1.2.1 Singular Referential Articles
The singular article e is used for singular personal nouns.
83)
e
kina-giet
ART.C mother-1PL.Inc.PS
‘our mother’
84)
e
mama si-eou
ART.C mother LOC-1S
‘my mother’
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The article i is used for locative nouns. Locative nouns do not take any plural articles as they only refer to a
location or an area in the environment.
85)
i
popo-ung
ART.L top-1S.PS
‘on top of me’
86)
i
Kavieng
ART.L Kavieng
‘Kavieng (town)’
The singular article mi is used for common nouns.
87)
mi
rima-ung
ART.C hand-1S.PS
‘my hand’
88)
mi
bor
ART.C pig
‘a pig’
The singular common noun article mi is omitted in a genitive noun phrase construction with alienable
nouns.
3.2.1.2.2 Plural Referential Articles
There are two plural articles: ba and bu. The article ba is paucal which represents numbers between two
and four while bu is plural which is five or more. They do not indicate gender.
89)
ba
kina-giet
ART.few mother-1PL.Inc.PS
‘our few mothers’
90)
ba
bor tour
ART.few pig three
‘three pigs’
91)
kong ba
bor
1S.PN ART.Few pig
‘my (2-4) pigs’
92)
ba
Marvio
ART.few Marvio.island
‘two Marvio islands (twin island)’
The plural article bu is used for both common and personal nouns that are 5 or more in number.
93)
bu
kasi-ung
ART.PL brother-1S.PS
‘my (more than 4)brothers’
94)
bu
bor
ART.PL pig
‘(many) pigs’
95)
Bu
bor palan gi
nga
tsimbour i
rou.
ART.PL pig many 3Pl.SR PAST jump.into ART.L sea
‘Many pigs jumped into the sea.’
In genitive noun phrase constructions with alienable nouns, the article bu is replaced by the particle sar.
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Kong sar
bor a
palan.
1S.PN several pig many
‘My pigs are many.’
3.2.1.3 Non-Referential Article
There are three non-referential articles in Mandara: ka for singular, kaba for few, and kovo for more than
four in number. A non-referential article is used for unspecified items, unknown items or unpossessed items
which the speaker desires to possess or to get information about. Therefore a non-referential article only occurs
in polar questions (example (100)), direct or indirect requests (example (99)), negative clauses (example (97)),
and unrealized events (examples (99) and (101)). In an alienable possessive noun phrase the non-referential
article directly follows the possessive pronoun (examples (97), (99)and (100)).
97)
O
kap suvuon kong
kaba
bateri.
1S.SR NEG possess 1S.PN ART.NR.Few battery
‘I don’t have any batteries that are mine.’
98)
Gi nga
vor
dedeng
ngan ka
3PL PAST PROG RDP-see INST ART.NR
‘They looked for a reason to accuse Jesus.’
99)
Tina, mong kovo
buo
be.
Tina, 1S.PI ART.NR.PL betel.nut INT
‘Tina, give me some betel nuts to be mine.’
vunan va
gi
ta
vorte e
Iesu.
reason SUB 3PL IRR accuse ART.P Jesus
100)
Ma
ka
da
a
monsi
evoi?
2S.PI ART.NR
water(bottle) 3S.SR stay
LOC
2S
‘Do you have any (bottles of) water that are yours?’
101)
Giet
ta
rakot si
ka
enamon
2PL.INC IRR go.to LOC ART.NR village
‘Let’s go to (some)other villages.’
mene.
other
Compare above example with the next.
102)
Giet
ta
rakot si
mi
enamon.
2PL.INC IRR go.to LOC ART.C village.
‘Let’s go to the village.’
3.2.2 Deictics
Mandara has four deictics: arie, ine, ian, and die. These deictics are based on how close or distant the
referred item is temporally or locationally to the speaker. Deictics precede the head noun phrase or the
prepositional phrase of which the noun phrase is the object.
The arie refers to a very current event, time, person, object, location, or manner. It is usually used with
much emphasis.
103)
Arie
mi
vevin o
nga
DEIC.exact ART.C female 1S.SR PAST
‘This is the woman I told you about.’
104)
Eou
1S
arie
DEIC.exact
pengan
tell
ken
vevin ian
3S.PN female DEIC.DIST1
kada.
kill
‘I am (precisely) the wife of that snake you killed.’
105)
Arie
a
te
mo.
DEIC.exact 3S.SR CMPL only
‘This is all (when ending a story).’
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si evoi.
LOC 2S
mi
ART.C
tsotsoi
snake
e
2S.SR
ta
IRR
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The deictic ine refers to a proximate time, event, person, location, or an object from the point of reference
of the speaker.
106)
Ine
mi
madar
DEIC.PROX ART.C young.man
‘This young man answered.’
107)
Surie
ine
mi
vunan, o
nga
kada kong vevin.
RSON DEIC.PROX ART.C reason 1S.SR PAST hit
1S.PN female
‘For (because of) this reason, I hit my wife.’
108)
Teie tomekan ine
i
pull throw
DEIC.PROX
ART.L
‘Pull and throw (it) to here on the ground.’
109)
Ine
giet
oit nia
pere palan bu
ngeitngeit.
DEIC.PROX 1PL.SR able PURP see many ART.PL mosquitos
‘Now we are able to see many mosquitos.’
110)
Ma a
kelei ine
o
ta
tere ke
v-in-atorois.
and 3S.SR good DEIC.PROX 1s.SR IRR give 2s.PN NOM-punish
‘And it is good, this fact that I am giving you your punishment.’
a
3S.SR
nga kuil
PAST
nama.
help word
keim.
bottom
The deictic ian refers to a location, time, person, or an object which is a bit distant in time and space from
the point of reference of the speaker.
111)
Ian
si
mi
ra,
DEIC.DIST1 LOC
ART.C day,
‘On that day, many people came.’
112)
Duis
right
guor
ian
DEIC.DIST1
nga
si
LOC
bu
mene palan
ART.PL person many
mi
ART.C
keipkeipde
fragment
ra,
day
gi
3PL.SR
eguor
3DL
nga
PAST
nemei.
come
kokouk
all
kudier.
3DL.SR PAST
be.surprise
‘At that moment, they(dual) together were surprised.’
113)
ian
DEIC.DIST1
‘that boy’
mi
ART.C
114)
ian
DEIC.DIST1
si
LOC
natu
off.spring
mi
ART.C
madar
young.man
korot
place
ivie
WHERE
gi
3pl.SR
ta
IRR
nga
PAST
beit
arrive
kouk
en
together Spec.Loc
‘that place where they gathered’
The deictic die refers to a distant location or a distant time in the past or the future. For a geographical
location, it specifically refers to a location on the other side of a point of land on the coastline.
115)
O
nga
beit
die
1S.SR PAST arrive DEIC.DIST2
‘I arrived long time ago.’
116)
O
ta
te
ra
teter
die
i
Napakur.
1S.SR IRR CMPL go
go.over
DEIC.DIST2 ART.L Napakur
‘I am going to go to Napakur (a distant village pass a point of an island).’
ngas
PERS
te.
EMP
3.2.3 Deictic Locations
The deictic locations in Mandara communicate the direction of a geographical location in relation to the
speaker. There are five deictic locations in Mandara: nokot, nusuo, nisei, notso, and nikien.
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The deictic location nokot refers to a visible geographical location relatively near to the speaker. It not only
refers to a location only few steps away but also a village in a neighboring island which the speaker and the
hearer can see.
117)
E
pere ? E
tama-Ø
a
mon nokot
si
mi
ameir.
2S.SR see Q ART.P father-2S.PS 3S.SR stay DEM.VIS LOC ART.C boi.haus
‘You see? Your father is over there in the servant’s quarters.’
118)
A
mon nokot
i
Totou.
3S.SR stay DEM.VIS ART.P Totou
‘He/she is over there at Totou village( a village on a neighboring island which is visible).’
The deictic locations nisei and nusuo are mainly used with the name of a village or a hamlet within an
island or language group. Both words refer to a location which is the same distance from the beach as the
speaker. And since all the hamlets in the language group are located along the coast, all of them on the same
island are referred to by these terms. People also use nisei to refer to the villages on the other islands in the
language group except for the ones which the speaker can see across the ocean.
The deictic location nisei refers to a geographical location which is not visible to the speaker and is
relatively farther away from a point of an island than the location of the speaker.
119)
A
te
ratan
nisei
3S.SR CMPL go.away.point DEM.far
‘He went to Saba(hamlet)’
i
Saba.
ART.L Saba
The deictic location nisuo refers to a geographical location which is not visible to the speaker and relatively
nearer to a point of an island than the location of the speaker.
120)
O
ratun
nusuo
si
mi
mission.
1S.SR go.near.point DEM.near LOC ART.C mission
‘I am on my way to the mission ground.’
The deictic location notso refers to a location closer to the ocean or lower in altitude relative to the location
of the speaker. The referred location can be as close as only a few feet away. All the places outside of the
language group are also referred to with this deictic location.
121)
O
ta
ba
peuk
notso
i
1S.SR IRR ASSU
go.down DEM.Down ART.L
‘I’m going to go down to New Ireland tomorrow.’
122)
Gi
te
vatar
notso
i
koen.
3pl.SR CMPL come.shore DEM.Down ART.L beach
‘They arrived on the beach.’
Nuailan
sivo.
New.Ireland tomorrow
The deictic location nikien refers to a location further inland or higher in altitude relative to the location of
the speaker. The referred location can be as close as only a few feet away. All the places in the language group
are referred to with this deictic location when the speaker is speaking from any place outside of the language
group.
123)
E
Timot a
mon nikien
i
ot.
ART.P Timot 3S.SR stay DEM.Up ART.L bush
‘Timot is up in the bush.’
124)
E
Raban a
mon nikien
si
ART.P God
3S.SR stay DEM.Up LOC
‘God is up there in heaven.’
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mi
ringit.
ART.C heaven
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3.3 Numerals
3.3.1 Cardinal numerals
The numerals in Mandara manifest a combination of quinary and decimal systems. The numbers 6 to 9 are
phrases with the word napaririem ‘five’ preceding the joining word potsu ‘to bring out’, followed by the
numeral words for numbers 1 to 4. The word napaririem is derived from the compound word of napa ‘a flat
object’ and ri-riem ‘a duplicated form of riem ‘hand’’. When describing a complex number beyond ten, the
word napaririem may optionally be deleted.
The noun mi sinangavour is used for numeral ten. The word sinangavour is a compound word of sinang
‘work(noun)’ and vour ‘new’. The multiples of tens are described with sinangavour plus the morpheme for one
to nine. For numbers between eleven and ninety-nine of which one digit is between one and nine, the ten’s digit
number and the one’s digit number is conjoined by the conjunction word ma and with the phrase i popon ‘on top
of (it)’ following the phrase describing the one’s digit number.
Though rarely used, two phrases mi sinangavour solova ‘complete ten’ or mi sinangavour koboit ‘full
ten’ are used for the numeral one hundred. The complex numerals beyond one hundred are rarely spoken in
Mandara because they use English instead. Many people use the morpheme mar for the multiples of hundred.
But this appears to be a borrowed word from Kuanua language, the previous church language.
Following are some examples of numerals described in the Mandara language.
1
kes
2
luo
3
tour
4
voveit
5
paririem
6
napaririem potsu kes
7
napaririem potsu luo
8
napaririem potsu tour
9
napaririem potsu voveit
10
mi sinangavour kes
11
mi sinangavour kes ma kes i popon
27
mi sinangavour luo ma (napaririem) potsu luo i popon
90
mi sinangavour (napaririem) potsu voveit
100
mi sinangavour kes solova
423
mi sinangavour voveit solova ma ba sinangavour luo ma tour i popon
777
mi sinangavour potsu luo solova ma sinangavour potsu luo ma potsu luo i popon.
Numerals function as a postmodifier for a nominal head in noun phrases and also function as stative verbs in
stative predicates.
125)
bu
natu-madar
napaririem
ART.PL off.spring-young.man five
‘seven children’
126)
Kong sar
avareit a
napaririem
1S.PN ART.PL year
3S.SR five
‘I am eight years old./My years are eight.’
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potsu
luo
bring.out two
potsu
tour.
bring.out three
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3.3.2 Ordinal numerals
The ordinal numeral vour-vour ‘RDP-new’ is used for the first item in a sequence. The last item in order is
specified by the use of the word veve-muir ‘RCPR-rear’. The ordinal numbers between the first and last are
constructed in a verb phrase with a ‘3S.SR’ preceding a cardinal number followed by ngan the instrumental
preposition.
127)
mi
kepineits vour-vour
ART.C thing
RDP-new
‘the first thing’
128)
mi
madar
a
luo ngan
ART.C young.man 3S.SR two INST
‘the second boy’
129)
mi
ra vevemuir
ART.C day RCPR-rear
‘the last day’
The numerals that are used for birth orders are identical to numerals that are used with other items except in
the case of the first born off-spring. mua-ngan ‘front-INST’ or mua-riem ‘front-hand’ are used to refer the first
born. These two words for the first born and vemuir ‘RCPR-rear’ which is used for the last born are compound
nouns. Birth order numerals are generally followed by a prepositional phrase to specify the possessor.
130)
E
Timot mi
mua-ngan.
ART.P Timot ART.C front-INST
‘Timot is the first born (of )’
131)
Eou mi
mua-riem si
1S ART.C front-hand LOC
‘I am the first born of us.’
132)
Eie a
luo ngan si
egie bu
baser
tama-n
e
Kavok.
3S 3S.SR two INST LOC 3PL ART.C ARR.people father-3S.PS ART.P Kavok
‘He is the second born of the family of Kavok.’
133)
E
Tulok mi
ve-muir
si
eou.
ART.P Tulok ART.C RCPR-rear-INST LOC
1S
‘Tulok is the last born of me.(Tulok is my youngest child)’
egei.
1PL.EXC
3.4 Arrangement Classifiers
The arrangement classifiers are preposed to the head noun in a noun phrase. In Mandara there are two
categories of the arrangement classifiers: the ones that are used with alienable common nouns and the other one
which is used only with inalienable personal nouns.
3.4.1.1 Arrangement Classifiers for Alienable Common Nouns
There are several arrangement classifiers that are used with limited number of alienable common nouns.
The arrangement classifier pout is used for ‘bundle’ of greens, bamboos, sago leaves, or tree branches.
134)
mong sar
pout
bie
1S.PI ART.PL ARR.bundle greens
‘my several bundles of greens
The arrangement classifier varin is used for a herd of large animals like pigs which move in groups.
135)
mi
varin
ART.C ARR.anim
‘a herd of pigs’
bor
pig
The arrangement classifier ou is used for a flock of birds.
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mi
ou
ma
ART.C ARR.bird bird
‘a flock of birds’
The arrangement classifier nav is used for a school of fish.
137)
mi
nav
ie
ART.C ARR.fish fish
‘a school of fish’
The arrangement classifier kevkev is used for a bunch of fruits from the branch of a tree. It is also used for
schools of small fish which travel very tightly together.
138)
mi
kevkev
noung
ART.C ARR.fruit anchovy
‘a school of anchovies’
139)
mi
kevkev
ta
ART.C
ARR.fruit fruit.type
‘a bunch of fruit (Pometia pinnata)’
The arrangement classifier kiev is used mainly for a group of banana shoots from a mother banana tree. The
phrase mi kiev vuin ‘a banana family’ also refers to a lineage.
140)
mi
kiev
vuin
ART.C ARR.family banana
‘a cluster of banana trees’
The arrangement classifier eti is used for a hand of banana,
141)
ba
eti
ART.Few ARR.hand
‘two hands of bananas’
vuin
banana
The arrangement classifier keu is used for a bunch of nuts from a branch of a tree..
142)
mi
keu
buo
ART.C ARR.nut betel.nut
‘a bunch of betel nuts’
The arrangement classifier da is used for a paired bundle of edible items like coconuts.
143)
mi
da
niu
ART.C ARR.pair coconut
‘a pair of bundled young coconuts’
The arrangement classifier bua is used for a molded shape made from powdery substances like sago or
sand.
144)
mi
bua
leseik
ART.C ARR.mold sago
‘a hand molded lump of sago powder’
The arrangement classifier napa is used for flat objects like timber, thongs etc
145)
mi
napa
so-sos
ART.C ARR.flat RDP-trash
‘a traditional dust pan made from the bark of sago palm’
The arrangement classifier poko is used for measurable items like garden area, fabric, time, plastic sheet,
roofing iron, etc.
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146)
mi
poko
lavlav vour
ART.C ARR.measurable fabric new
‘a new (piece of ) fabric’
147)
kong sar
poko
lavlav vour
1S.PN ART.PL ARR.measurable fabric new
‘my several new (pieces of) fabric (or laplaps)’
148)
kong poko
tu
1S.PN ARR.measurable garden
‘my (small area ) garden’
149)
mi
poko
keipkeipde
ART.C ARR.measurable fragment
‘a moment’
26
ra
day
3.4.1.2 Arrangement Classifier for Group of People
bu.
The arrangement classifier baser is used for groups of people and co-occurs with the plural articles ba and
150)
ba
baser
kasi-en
ART.Few ARR.people brother-3S.PS
‘a group of (2-4) brothers’
151)
bu
baser
tama-n
ART.PL ARR.people father-3S.PS
‘a father and his family’
152)
ba
baser
tamat rei
ART.Few ARR.people male marriage
‘a married couple’
153)
ba
baser
palapala-n
ART.PL ARR.people friend-3S.PS
‘a group of (2-4) friends’
154)
ba
baser
tura-n
mogoits
ART.Few ARR.people companion-3S.PS brother.in.law
‘a group of (2-4) people who are married into same lineage’
3.4.1.3 Arrangement Classifier for Mass Nouns
The arrangement classifier puk is used for mass nouns. It communicates a portion of something. The
morpheme puk is also used as one of the true adjectives which takes the preposed modifier slot in a noun phrase
and communicates the meaning of smallness in size.
155)
mong puk
da
1S.PI ARR.MASS
water
‘my (portion of) water’
156)
ka
puk
ART.NR
ARR.MASS
‘a little (bit of) light’
157)
kovo
puk
nginonginou
ART.NR.PL ARR.MASS
food
‘some portions of good food’
158)
keguor puk
leing
3DL.PN ARR.MASS
fire
‘Their(dual) fire’(hot coals for starting a fire)
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light
lili
small
26
kelei
good
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si
puk
ngingi
LOC ARR.MASS
darkness
‘some time in the night’
3.5 Adjectives and Other Nominal Modifiers
3.5.1 Pure Adjectives
There is a small closed set of pure adjectives: ni ‘tiny’, banga ‘good’, bira ‘excellent’, puk ‘small’, and
tsaka ‘bad’. These occur only in the slot designated preposed nominal modifier in a noun phrase. They do not
occur in any other slot in any other phrase. There is no trace of derivation from other classes for the adjectives
ni, banga, bira, and puk.. But tsaka appears to be derived from the stative verb root tsak ‘bad’. These
adjectives carry the sense of the supreme quality of the description.
160)
mi
ni natu-natu
doer
ART.C tiny RDP-off.spring earthworm
‘a (very) tiny young earthworm’
161)
mong banga
nguts
1S.PI good
Lord
‘My (very) good lord’
162)
mi
bira
nginonginou
ART.C very.excellent food
‘an (very) excellent food’
163)
kong puk leke
1S.PN small basket
‘my (very) small basket’
164)
man puk geleu
3S.PI small canoe
‘his (very) small canoe’
165)
mi
tsaka
vevin
ART.C bad
woman
‘a (very) bad woman’
3.5.2 Other Nominal Modifiers
Some inalienable nouns without the possessor suffix fill in the preposed noun modifier’s slot. (See Section
4.1.1.1.) Stative verbs, numerals, relative clauses, noun phrases, preposition phrases, and a limited set of words
which can modify both nouns and verbs can function as post nominal modifiers. (see Section 4.1)
3.6 Pronouns
The Mandara pronominal system marks a contrast between first, second and third person. The first person
plural pronouns distinguish inclusive from exclusive reference. It also makes a distinction in number for four
categories: singular, dual, paucal(three or four or few), and plural (more than 4). Pronouns in Mandara are used
for any objects regardless of the animacy.
The pronouns are organized into six sets based on their distribution and function, as in the following
descriptions.
Table 3.2 Mandara Pronoun Chart
number
1st INCL
Independent Singular
eou
Dual
entau
Paucal
ento
Plural
egiet
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2
evoi
engodo
engato
enga
egor
egato
egei
27
3
eie
eguor
egito
egie
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Obj. Pron.
Poss.Suffix
Poss.Pron .
Intimate
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Singular
Dual
Paucal
Plural
o
nta
nto
giet
Singular
Dual
Paucal
Plural
-eu/ iou
-ntau
-nto
-giet
Singular
Dual
Paucal
Plural
-ung
-ntau
-nto
-giet
Singular
mong
Dual
Paucal
Plural
mantau
manto
magiet
Poss.Pron.
Singular
Non-Intimate
Dual
Paucal
Plural
gor
gato
gei
e
ngodo
ngato
nga
a
guor
gito
gi
-gor
-gato
-guor
no
-ngodo
-ngato
-nga
-n / -Ø-guor
-gito
-gie
-gor
-gato
-gei
-Ø
-ngodo
-ngato
-nga
-n/en/an
-guor
-gito
-gie
ma
man
mangodo
mangato
manga
maguor
magito
magi
ke
ken
kengodo
kengato
kenga
keguor
kegito
kegi
magor
magato
magei
kong
kentau
kento
kegiet
28
kegor
kegato
kegei
3.6.1 Independent Pronouns
Independent pronouns can function as the subjects of clauses (ex. (166), as topics in topic-comment
constructions and as nouns in prepositional phrases that communicate the indirect object of a clause (ex. (167).
Eie
166)
a
ko
3S
3S.SR
HAB
‘He(she) always works hard.
167)
tsatsang
work
ngeisngeis.
strong
Tere mi
buk
si
eie!
give ART.C book
LOC 3S
‘Give a book to him/her.’
3.6.2 Object Pronouns
Object pronouns in Mandara are a set of postverbal clitics indicating the person and the number of the direct
object. Except for the second and the third person singular, the object pronouns are the same as the independent
pronouns, but without the personal article e. (Refer to the pronoun chart.) The second person singular object
pronoun is no. The third person singular object pronoun is either –n or null and is further discussed in the
section 3.6.2.1.
The object pronouns are mandatory constituents of transitive verb phrases and can co-occur with an optional
object noun phrase.
168)
O
pere guor.
1S.SR see 3DL.OP
‘I see them(two).’
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169)
O
nga
vorota guor
kokouk ke
ba
su.
1S.SR PAST find
3DL.OP together 2S.PN ART.few shoe
‘I found both of your shoes.’
170)
O
lalaro no.
1S.SR want 2S.OP
‘I want you.’
3.6.2.1 Third Person Singular Object Pronoun
The third person singular object pronoun is either -n, or null. Some transitive verbs require the suffix -n for
the third person singular object (example (172)), while some other verbs encode the third person singular object
with a zero morpheme (examples (171) and (173)).
nga
kada –Ø
PAST hit 3S.OP
171)
E
Tulok a
ART.P Tulok 3S.SR
‘Tulok hit Timot.’
e
Timot.
ART.P Timot
172)
E
Tulok a
nga
vorota-n
e
Timot.
ART.P Tulok 3S.SR PAST find-3S.OP ART.P Timot
‘Tulok found Timot.’
173)
E
Tulok a
nga
bitie-Ø e
ART.P Tulok 3S.SR PAST deceive ART.P
‘Tulok deceived Timot.’
Timot.
Timot
3.6.3 Subject Reference Pronoun
There is a set of obligatory preverbal clitics that reference the subject of a clause. These clitics show the
person and number of the subject. Several TAM markers and the negation morpheme may be inserted between
the subject reference pronoun and the verb root. (See Section 4.2 on verb phrases.)
174)
Eou o
motou.
1S 1S.SR afraid
‘I am afraid.’
175)
Gi
mon i
ot.
3S.PL stay ART.L bush
‘They are in the bush.’
176)
E
Timot a
nga
mono ta-ta.
ART.P Timot 3S.SR PAST DUR RDP-cry
‘Timot kept crying.’
3.6.4 Possessor Suffix Pronouns
Possessor suffix pronouns on inalienable nouns mark the person and number of the possessor.
177)
mi
kova-ung
ART.C head-1S.PS
‘my head’
178)
mi
kova-Ø
ART.C head-2S.PS
‘your head’
179)
e
tama-ung
ART.P father-1S.PS
‘my father’
180)
i
muo-giet
ART.L front-1PL.INC.PS
‘in front of us’
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3.6.5 Possessive Pronouns
Alienable possessor pronouns may precede an alienably-possessed head noun in a noun phrase. There are
two sets of alienable possessor pronouns: one for intimates and the other for non-intimates. The possessive
pronouns are constructed by adding the obligatory possessor suffix to the morpheme which marks that class of
noun.
3.6.5.1 Intimate Alienable Possessive Pronouns
The morpheme ma- is used to construct a set of possessive pronouns for intimate alienable nouns.
181)
magiet
nguts
1PL.INC.PI
lord
‘our lord (orator)’
182)
man tou mi
ma
3sg.PI nest ART.C bird
‘the bird’s nest’
183)
magie sar
3PL.PI ART.PL
‘their food’
nginonginou
food
The intimate alienable possessive pronoun for first person singular is ma-ung in underlying form but its
vowels fuse to o in a vowel fusion process.
184)
mong
sar
buo
ma-ung sar
buo
1S.PI
ART.PL betel.nut
‘my betel nuts(to be consumed by me)’
3.6.5.2 Non-Intimate Alienable Possessive Pronouns
The morpheme ke- is used to construct a set of possessive pronouns for non-intimate alienable nouns.
185)
ken
vienviendon
1S.PN thought
‘my thought’
186)
kegi
sar buo
3PL.PN ART.PL betel.nut
‘my betel nuts(which I intend to give to others later)’
As in the case of the intimate alienable possessive pronoun, the first person singular is actually ke-ung in
underlying form but its vowels became o due to vowel coalescence process.
187)
kong lavlav
ke-ung lavlav
1S.PN laplap
‘my laplap’
3.6.6 Emphatic Pronouns
Independent pronouns can be made emphatic, reflexive, or express independent action by the addition of the
morpheme kese ‘one’ which is affixed by the possessor suffix of its own.
When a pronoun is filling either a subject or object slot, it may be made more emphatic by the addition of its
emphatic pronoun. An emphatic pronoun is constructed by an independent pronoun followed by the morpheme
kese ‘one’ which is inflected with its person possessor suffix.
188)
Eie
kese-n
a
nga
tsana
ken
vono.
3S
one-3S.PS 3S.SR PAST
make
3S.PN house
‘He himself built his house./ He built his house by himself’
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189)
Ba
natu-mandar
guor
sisi eguor
ART.Few off.spring-young.man 3PC.SR swim 3PC
‘The children swim by themselves.’
190)
E
Timot a
nga
tsoka eie
ART.P Timot 3S.SR PAST pierce 3S
‘Timot pierced himself.’
191)
Gi
nga
ngungulili si
egie
3PL.SR PAST whisper
LOC 3PL
‘They whispered among themselves.’
31
kese-guor.
one-3PC.PS
kese-n.
one-3S.PS
kese-gie.
one-3PL.PS
3.7 Prepositions
There are seven morphemes that head prepositional phrases: They are si ‘LOCATIVE’, surie ‘REASON’,
ngan ‘INSTRUMENT, MEANS’, meie ‘ACCOMPANIMENT’, veie ‘MALEFACTIVE’, nia
‘PURPOSE’, and ni ‘SOURCE’. Another one whose original word class is not clear is ka ‘PATH’.
However, some verbs appear to grammaticise and function as prepositions: oit ‘able→until’, tuiroit ‘stand
able→until’, vemusurie ‘follow’ used to express the path semantic notion, and malan ‘like’. The interrogativeindefinite word ven in vasa…ven ‘how?’ also is used to express ‘similar to, like.’
The prepositions si also functions as a clause level subordinator. The benefactive preposition nia can head
noun phrases and it also gets used to express purpose complements heading a verb phrase.
3.7.1.1 Locative Preposition ‘si’
The preposition si is used for communicating locative and possessive information (example (194)). The
locative phrases can communicate location in either time (example (193)) or space (examples (192) and (195)).
192)
Mi
buk a
mon si
ART.C book 3S.SR stay LOC
‘The book is at our house.’
kegei
1PL.EXC.PN
193)
O
ta
ba
pere
1S.SR IRR ASSU
see
‘I will see you in the afternoon.’
no
si
reivreiv.
2S.OP LOC afternoon
vono.
house
As described in the section 4.3.2, general temporal words of the day do not get the article as in the above
example.
194)
Eie
e
mama si
3S
ART.P mother LOC
‘She is the mother of mine’
195)
O
ta
be
1S.SR IRR INT
‘I am going to school.’
eou.
1S
ra si
go LOC
mi
sikul.
ART.C school
3.7.1.2 Reason Preposition ‘surie’
The preposition surie is used to communicate reason, topic, or a path.
196)
O
rengeir surie no.
1S.SR pray
RSON 2S
‘I pray for you.’
197)
A
te
nga
vatar
surie mi
rovang.
3S.SR CMPL PAST come.ashore RSON ART.C coral.free.passage
‘He came ashore by following the coral free passage.’
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198)
E
ta
tsour
surie mo mi
rima-ung.
2S.SR IRR come.down RSON only ART.C hand-1S.PS
‘You just come down following my arm.’
199)
A
vosore e
Lurang surie mi
piripiri
3S.SR ask
ART.P Lurang RSON ART.C skin
32
vo.
turtle
‘He asks Lurang about the turtle shell.’
3.7.1.3 Instrumental and Manner Preposition ‘ngan’
The preposition ngan is used to head prepositional phrases encoding instrument and manner.
200)
O
tabeve mi
nil ngan mi
ama.
1S.SR hammer ART.C nail INST ART.C hammer
‘I am hammering the nail with a hammer.’
201)
Poro nemei ngan mi
nil.
get
come INST ART.C nail
‘Bring a nail.’
202)
A
nga
tsatsik-ie e
natu-on
ngan mi
kato ei.
3S.SR PAST spank-TR ART.P child-3S.PS INST ART.C piece tree
‘He spanked his child with a stick.’
203)
A
nga
keveir ngan mi
ni-res.
3S.SR PAST sing
INST ART.C NOM-happy
‘He sang with joy.’
3.7.1.4 Accompaniment Preposition ‘meie’
The preposition meie encodes accompaniment. It can directly precede a personal noun phrase, but a
common noun phrase will have meie with the instrumental preposition ngan following.
204)
O
1S.SR
mono mon meie e
Lobo.
DUR stay ACCM ART.P Lobo
‘I am staying with Lobo.’
205)
O
1S.SR
ko
ngene meie ngan mi
piripiri-en.
HAB eat
ACCM INST ART.C skin-3S.PS
‘I (habitually) eat (it) with its skin.’
206)
a
kap nga
ar
kes ngan meie
e
Skoburur...
3S.SR NEG PAST mind one INST ACCM ART.P Skoburur
‘he was not one mind with Skoburur (he did not agree with Skoburur)…’
207)
A
lalaro kien i
ot
meie
no.
3S.SR like
go.up ART.L bush ACCM 2S.OP
‘He wants to go up to the bush with you.’
3.7.1.5 Malefactive Preposition ‘veie’
The preposition veie express the malefactive. The object that follows this preposition is generally human,
but a non-human object may follow this preposition if the actor acts toward the object as if it were a human.
208)
A
petseir veie
no.
3S.SR angry
MLFC 2S.OP
‘He is angry at you’
209)
A
nga
vakokote ine
mi
namapoppo veie
gie.
3S.SR PAST talk
DEIC.PROX ART.C parable
MLFC 3PL
‘He told this parable against them. (The content of this parable he told was negative things about them.)’
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E
Iesu a
nga
eng ngeisngeis
ART.P Jesus 3sr.SR PAST talk strong
‘Jesus talked strongly to the wind.’
33
veie
mi
mour.
MLFC ART.C wind
3.7.1.6 Benefactive Preposition ‘nia’
The preposition nia is used for benefactive or purpose. In the Simberi-Tatau dialect area, nia and na are
used almost interchangeably. The object in a benefactive prepositional phrase can be communicated either by a
noun phrase or by marking the beneficiary on the preposition as an object reference pronoun suffix.
211)
O
tutu nia
nga.
1S.SR cook PURP 2PL.OP
‘I am cooking for you (plural).’
212)
Gei
leik leseik
nia-n
mi
Pitevarpa.
1PL.EXC mix sago.starch PURP-3S.OP ART.C christening.service
‘We are mixing sago starch for (eating at) the christening service tomorrow.’
3.7.1.7 Source Preposition ‘ni’
The preposition ni is used to communicate the source or the point of origin of something.
213)
O
kovu
ni
i
Samba.
1S.SR come.from SRCE ART.L Samba
‘I am coming from Samba (hamlet).’
214)
ken
sar
ra ni
tino
3S.PN ART.PL day SRCE NOM-live
‘his days for living (his life time)’
215)
mi
nama ni
Madara
ART.C word SRCE Madara
‘the word for Madara (Mandara language)’
216)
keng ka ni
va-vato
1S.PN man SRCE RDP-save
‘my man for saving (my savior)’
3.7.1.8 Path Preposition ‘ka’
The word ka is also used to signify semantically the means by which something is accomplished.
Examples with the preposition ka ‘by way of’ include the following:
217)
O
nga
veis ka
i
koen
1S.SR PAST walk PATH ART.L beach
‘I walked along the beach.’
218)
Mi
kina
vo
a
vo
peuk
ka
ine
ART.C female turtle 3S.SR MORN go.down PATH DEIC.PROX
‘A female turtle went down (to the sea) through here.’
219)
Gi
nga
rakot si
mi
nuos ka
eie
3pl.SR PAST go.to LOC ART.C island PATH 3S
‘They went to the other island.’
3.7.1.9 Examples of verbs that are used as prepositions
Examples with oit ‘until’ involve clauses as the object of the preposition.
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Ine
DEIC.PROX
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mi
nutu
ART.C child
bor
pig
34
a
nga
mon me
guor
vakak
3S.SR PAST stay ACCM 3DL.OP begin
ta
IRR
nga
lili
oit
ta
te
nga
leong.
PAST
small until
IRR CMPL PAST large
‘This piglet stayed with them ever since it was little until it got big.’
The oit also is used in a verb combination tuiroit ‘stand-able’ to mean ‘until’.
221)
222)
Ine
mi
DEIC.PROX ART.C
kulou
men
gi
nga
3PL.SR PAST
veis
walk
nge
and
veis
walk
tuiroit
until
gi
nga
so
beit
ine
si-mi
rie.
3PL.SR PAST
IMM arrive DEIC.PROX LOC-ART.C
cave
‘These people walked and walked until they arrived at the cave.’
Gi
nga
ser nge ser tuiroit gi
nga
so
beit i
3PL.SR PAST run and run until 3PL.SR PAST IMM arrive ART.L
marar…
residential.area
‘They ran and ran until they arrived in the residential area…’
Examples with the verb vemusurie which also functions as a preposition to indicate ‘until’ are:
223)
Vemusurie bu
kepineits kokouk va
e
ta
tsana
follow
ART.PL thing
all
SUB 2S.SR IRR do
‘Following all the things you do...’
The verb malan ‘alike, (be) like’ is used as a comparative preposition.
224) Sibu
vura palan kegituo tino a
nga
LOC-ART.PL month plenty 3PC.PN life 3S.SR PAST
ne.
DEM.PROX
‘For many months their(pc) lives remained just like this.’
mon malan mo
stay alike only
The interrogative marker ven also functions as a preposition ‘like’.
225)
Ian
mi
nutu
naor a
te
nga
pe-ven
DEIC.DIST1 ART.C off.spring single 3S.SR CMPL PAST say-HOW2
ne
DEIC.PROX
eou
te.
1S
EMPH
‘That fatherless child spoke this way, “I (will)’
226)
Gi
3PL.SR
nga
PAST
pe-ven
say-HOW2
ne,
DEIC.PROX,
te
pull
tomeka-n
ine
throw-3S.OP DEIC.PROX
i
keim.
ART.L
ground
‘They said this, “Pull and throw it here on the ground.”
3.8 Conjunctions and Complementisers
3.8.1 Phrase Level Conjunctions
The conjunctions ma ‘and’, o ‘or’, and a ‘and’ join noun phrases. The ma is the coordinating conjunction
for two noun phrases.
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mi
lengei ma mi
kulou
ART.C women AND ART.C men
‘women and men’
The o is the alternating conjunction for two or more noun phrases.
228)
O
ta
poro mi
mene
1S.SR IRR get
ART.C other
‘Shall I get a small one or a big one?
lili
o
small or
mi
mene
ART.C other
leong ?
big
Q
And the a is the coordinating conjunction for more than two noun phrases. It immediately precedes the final
noun phrase in the list.
229)
eou, e
Bungtabu,
1S, ART.P Bungtabu,
‘I, Bungtabu, and Lenre’
a,
e
Lenre
and.then, ART.P Lenre
The conjunction nge joins verbs into one verb phrase for serial actions. The nge also appears to function
almost like a preposition encoding something similar to object incorporation into the verb phrase. The noun
following nge never occurs with an article.
230)
A
nga
kor nge
maet.
3S.SR PAST fall VCON die
‘He fell and died’
231)
A
nga
pot-pot
nge
gie.
3S.SR PAST RDP-divide
VCON 3PL.OP
‘He divided and divided them.’
232)
O
te
nga
vakak nge
tsok nge
tina.
1S.SR CMPL PAST begin VCON pick VCON NOM-cry
‘I began to start with a cry.’
3.8.2 Clause Level Conjunctions
The conjunctions ma ‘and’, si mi vunan ‘because of’, o ‘or’, misasin ‘in spite of’, sen ‘when’, surie
‘pertaining of’, and eiekesen ‘but’ join clauses.
233)
O
nga
vo
pan
ma o
1S.SR PAST MORN wake, and 1S.SR
‘I woke up and I went to gather firewood.’
234)
E
Timot a
nga
ta si
ART.P Timot 3S.SR PAST cry LOC
‘Timot cried because he fell.’
235)
O
ta
ngas peuk
o, o
ta
mon?
1S.SR IRR PERS go.down or 1S.SR IRR stay
‘Should I go down or should I stay’
236)
A
ngas nga
tuir ngeisngeis misasin ta
te
nga
komois te.
3S.SR PERS PAST stand strong
in.spite.of IRR CMPL PAST old
EMPH
‘He still stood strong (in his good work) even though he was old.’
237)
Sen
ta
nga
visi
rov,
mi
rakarakra ei
a
te
nga korot.
WHEN IRR
PAST READY swing, ART.C branch
tree 3S.SR CMPL PAST
break’
‘When he was about to swing, the tree branch broke.’
238)
O
nga
eng si
eie, eiekesen
1S.SR PAST tell LOC 3S, BUT
‘I told him, but he didn’t listen.’
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nga
ra
keken.
PAST AWAY gather.firewood
mi
vunan a
ART.C reason 3S.SR
a
3S.SR
nga kor.
PAST fall
kap nga
rorong.
NEG PAST listen
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3.8.3 Sentence Level Conjunctions
The conjunctions a ‘and then’, samo ‘then suddenly’, and io ‘and then’ are usually used to join sentences of
more than one clause together.
239)
A,
a
nga
kuin ngan mi
kato
ei.
and.then 1S.SR PAST shoot INST ART.C ARR.piece tree
‘And then he shoot with a piece of stick’
240)
Samo,
then.suddenly,
a
3S.SR
nga
tomeka-n
PAST threw.away-3S.OP
mi
pakapaka
ART.C leaf
vosvos.
tree.type
‘Then suddenly, he threw away the vosvos leaf.’
241)
Io,
a
te
buer nga
ra beit
vorota-n
bu
palapala-n
then,
3S.SR
CMPL REP PAST go arrive find-3S.OP ART.PL friend-3S.PS
‘Then, he again arrived and found his friends.’
3.9 Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns and Pro-Words
There are several interrogative or content question words that are used to get information.
misa ‘what?’:
242)
Misa a
pengan ?
what 3S.SR say
Q
‘What is he saying?’
sisa, or venenges ‘when?’
243)
Sisa e
te
beit
?
when 2S.SR CMPL arrive Q
‘When did you arrive?’
244)
Venenges giet
ta
when
1PL.INC.SR IRR
‘When will be go to Tatau?’
rakot
go.to
i
ART.L
Tatau
Tatau
?
Q
ivie ‘where?’
245)
Ivie
e
ta
ra
where 2S.SR IRR go
‘Where are you going?’
?
Q
vasa ~ ven ‘how?’
246)
Vasa a
to ven
?
HOW1 3g.SR live HOW2 Q
‘How does it grow?’
247)
Vasa nga
vodon ven
ngan ?
HOW1 2PL.SR think HOW2 INST Q
‘How do you think? (or) What is your opinion?’
surie misa, or misana mi vunan ‘why?’
248)
Surie
misa
e
RSON
what
2S.SR
‘Why are you crying?’
249)
Misana mi
vunan e
which
ART.C reason 2S.SR
‘Why do you hit your mother?’
ta
ta ?
IRR cry Q
ta
kanda e
kina-Ø
IRR hit
ART.P mother-2S.PS
ese ‘who?’
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Q
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250)
Ese
mi
asa-Ø
who ART.C name-2S.PS
‘What is your name?’
251)
Ese ine
mi
ka
ta
vakokoit
who DEIC.PROX ART.C man IRR talk
‘Who is this man who is speaking?’
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?
Q
?
Q
avoves ‘how many?’
252)
Avoves
bu
natu
madar
gi
te
beit
si
mi
sikul?
how.many ART.PL off.spring young.man 3PL.SR CMPL arrive LOC ART school
‘How many boys arrived at school?’
253)
Avoves
man voirvoir mi
melen?
how.many 3S.PI price
ART.C water.melon
‘How much is the water melon?’
The interrogative pro-words often function as indefinite pro-words.
254)
A,
interjector
evoi ngas buer te
e
ta deng telekiran va
2S PERS again EMPH 2S.SR IRR look know
that
koukou
e
ta
sweet.potato 2S.SR IRR
tu
e
ta
mumu.wrap 2S.SR IRR
e
2S.SR
deng
look
tsipie a
oit
avoves
split 3S.SR enough how.many
outie
wrap
senva a
if
3S.SR
ke
sar
2S.PI several
ke
ba
2S.PI ART.DL
luo, a
tour,
two 3S.SR three
evoi ngas te
2S PERS CMPL
telekiran.
know
‘Then again you yourself will see and know that your sweet potatoes that you split can be wrapped
to make how many bundles, two, three, you yourself see and know.’
3.10 Verbs
Mandara verbs function as the head of verb phrases and occur with a subject reference pronoun unless there
are other intervening conditions. They can be divided into two general classes: stative and active.
3.10.1 Stative Verbs
The stative verbs include numerals, colors, descriptive words like ‘good’ or ‘short’.
ngeisngeis.
strong
255)
E
Timot a
ART.P Timot 3S.SR
‘Timot is strong.’
256)
Mi
komois a
ngas nga
ngeisngeis.
ART.C old.man 3S.SR PERS PAST strong
‘The old man was still strong.’
These words are also used as modifiers for a noun in a noun phrase or as modifiers for a verb in few cases.
They are classified as verbs because they can take subject reference pronoun and some TAM markers in a verb
phrase and function as the main predication. However, the following examples when compared to examples
(255) and (256) above show the multiple grammatical functions that these words can fill.
257)
E
Timot [mi
madar
ngeisngeis]. (post-head modifier in NP)
ART.P Timot ART.C young.man strong
‘Timot is a strong man.’
258)
A
nga
te-tei
3S.SR PAST RDP-pull
‘He pulled strongly.’
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strong
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3.10.2 Action Verbs
There are five general categories of action verbs: intransitive, transitive, ditransitive , reciprocal and passive.
3.10.2.1 Intransitive Verbs
Verbs that don’t require an object are in this class. Intransitive verbs are a much larger class than the
transitive verbs, because many transitive verbs are derived from the intransitive ones.
259)
O
rongmitsikien kelei.
1S.SR feel
well
‘I feel good.’
260)
Eou o
ko
mon mo.
1S 1S.SR HAB stay only
‘I just stay as always.(I’m not doing anything in particular).’
261)
A
vo
pan lalapus.
3S.SR MORN wake hurry
‘He woke up early in the morning.’
3.10.2.2 Transitive Verbs
Many transitive verbs are derived from intransitive verbs by affixing transitivising inflections. Others are
originally transitive verbs. Some examples of non-derived genuine transitive verbs are: kenda ‘to hit’, tsana ‘to
make’, etc. There are four devices to increase transitivity for an intransitive, or stative verb. However, not all of
these devices may be used for all verbs.
Affixing -ie
There are two classes of derived transitive verbs, each with its own transitivity suffix. The reason that some
verbs take the -a suffix and others take the –ie suffix to increase transitivity is not clear.
The most common way to add transitivity to a verb is to suffix –ie to the verb stem. Following the
transitivity marker, an obligatory object pronoun clitics additionally suffixes these transitive verbs. Note that the
object suffix for the third person singular for these verbs is null. In almost all cases, an epenthetic consonant
appears before the transitivity suffix –ie. This additional consonant might be an underlying phoneme which has
been historically lost from the verb root over the years, but surfaces only in this context. Or it might indicate a
certain class of action. This will require further research.
262)
Mi
natu
madar
a
tangi-s-ie-Ø
e
kina-n.
ART.C off.spring
young.man 3S.SR cry-CINS-TR-3S.OP ART.P mother-3S.PS
‘The boy is crying for his mother.’
263)
A
te
ra utu-v-ie-Ø
mi
da.
3S.SR CMPL go fetch-CINS-TR-3S.OP ART.C water
‘He went to fetch water.’
264)
A
vododo-m-ie-guor
3S.SR think-CINS-TR-3dl.OP
‘He thinks about his two brothers.’
ba
kasi-en.
ART.few brother-3S.PS
Affixing -a
Affixing of the transitive suffix morpheme -a increases the valence of some verbs to make them transitive or
di-transitive. Some verbs have a consonant inserted before the transitivizer as in above section. Some of these
transitive verbs take the suffix –n, while the others take the null suffix for the third person singular object
reference pronoun clitic.
265)
A
nga
tutu-a-Ø
mi
biribirit.
3S.SR PAST punch-TR-3S.OP ART.C wall
‘He punched the wall.’
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266)
A
nga
tsuor-k-a-gie
ine
bu
arir
3S.SR PAST plant-CINS-TR-3S.OP DEIC.imm ART.PL post
‘He planted all of these posts.’
267)
O
ngeits-a-gito.
1S.SR laugh-TR-3PC.OP
‘I am laughing at them (few).’
39
kokouk.
all
Affixing vaThe prefixing of a causative morpheme va- on an intransitive verb also increases its valence. It co-occurs
with either of the transitivity suffixes, but there are a few exceptions. Sometimes verbs with va- occur unmarked
for transitivity, and in a few cases, transitivity is marked by the suffix –o. If va- occurs on a stative verb, the
subject is demoted to the object of the derived transitive verb, and becomes the experiencer of the change
brought on by the subject/agent, as in examples (268), (269), (270) and (271).
268)
A
te
va-go-a-Ø
ine
mi
poko
aien.
3SR.SR CMPL CAUS-bow-TR-3S.OP DEIC.imm ART.C ARR.piece iron
‘He bent this piece of iron.’
269)
A
vo
me
va-pan-d-a-gei
kokouk.
3S.SR MORN come CAUS-wake-CINS-TR-1pl.exc.OP all
‘He came in the morning and woke all of us.’
270)
A
te
va-to-a-eu.
3S.SR CMPL CAUS-live-TR-1S.op
‘He saved me.’
271)
Gi
te
va-tuir-ie-Ø
mi
vono.
3pl.SR CMPL CAUS-stand-TR-1S.OP ART.C house
‘They made the house to stand (built the house).’
272)
tuir => va-tuir-ie
stand =>
CAUS-stand-TR
‘to stand => to cause (an object) to stand’
273)
kor => va-kor-ng-ie
fall =>
CAUS-fall-CINS-TR
‘to fall =>
to cause (an object) to fall’
274)
tsour => va-tsour-ng-ie
descend => CAUS-descend-CINS-TR
‘to descend => to lower (an object)
275)
par
=>
(sun)shine(verb) =>
va-par-s-o
CAUS-(sun)shine-CINS-TR
‘to (sun) shine =>
to sun tan’
3.10.2.3 Object Incorporation into Verbs
Some verbs can incorporate the object into the verb phrase by deleting the final vowel of the verb stem and
dropping the article on the noun which was functioning as the object. This focuses attention on the predication
rather than on the goal or recipient of the action. Compare the alternate ways of stating a proposition in the
examples below.
276)
O
ngou mi
vuin. =>O
ngo vuin.
1S.SR eat
ART.C banana => 1S.SR eat banana
‘I am eating a banana.=> ‘I banana-eat. (eat bananas).’
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A
tara bu
ei. => A
tar ei.
3S.SR cut ART.PL tree =>
3S.SR cut tree
‘He is cutting several trees.=> ‘He tree-cuts.’
3.10.3 Reciprocal Prefix veThe prefix ve- adds the meaning of reciprocity to an action taking place between individuals. It is often
reduplicated to signify repetitive actions. The verb is often followed by phrases like i kinortogie ‘among
themselves’ or se gie keskes ‘to each other’. The prefix ve- is not used to encode reflexive action.
278)
Giet
ta ba
ve-deng.
1PL.INC.SR IRR ASSU RCPR-see
‘We will see each other (later)’
279)
Guor
nga
ve-ve-sas.
3dl.EXC.SR PAST RDP=RCPR-work
‘They(two) argued with each other.’
280)
Gi
nga
ve-ve-eng i
kinorto-gie.
3PL.SR PAST RDP-RCPR-talk
ART.L middle-3PL.PS
‘They talk to each other among themselves.’
The prefix ver- is another reciprocal prefix used with some verbs. The fact that this variation of the
reciprocal prefix is pronounced vera- in Big Tabar dialect indicates that it could have been derived from the
prefix ve- in combination with the verb ra ‘go’ which often functions as a directional marker.
281)
Gi
nga
ver-kulie si
egie kes-kes.
3PL.SR PAST RCPR-help LOC 3PL one-one
‘They exchanged with each other.’
282)
Eguor guor
ko
ver-ver-kasi.
3DL 3DL.SR HAB RDP-RCPR-brother
‘They(dual) treat each other in a brotherly manner(help each other like brothers do).’
3.10.4 Stative Derivational Prefix kaPrefixing the morpheme ka- to some verb stems makes the subject a patient of the action. Austronesian
scholars do not consider it a true passive prefix, but rather a stative pre-formative or a stative derivative prefix.
te
ka-pot.
CMPL PASS-break
283)
Mi
botol a
ART.C bottle 3S.SR
‘The bottle is broken.’
284)
O
nga
ka-tit
si
mi
bat.
1S.SR PAST PASS-block LOC ART.C rain
‘I was stopped (blocked) by rain.’ or ‘I couldn’t come because of rain.’
285)
Mi
geleu a
te
ka-tit
si
mi
moru.
ACT.C canoe 3S.SR CMPL PASS-block LOC ART.C wind
‘The canoe is hindered by wind.’ or ‘They can not travel on canoe due to the wind.’
3.10.5 Stativizer Prefix maThere is a small set of intransitive verbs which describe human postures and they can take the prefix ma- to
express long term continuation. Some examples of this type of verb include magos ‘sit’, maturu ‘lie down’,
and maturi ‘stand’.
286)
A
nga
ma-turu.
3S.SR PAST STAV-lie
‘He laid down.’
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287)
Be ra ma-turi.
INT go STAV-stand
‘Go and stand.’
288)
A
ma-gos i
popo-n
mi
tsur.
3S.SR STAV-sit ART.L top-3S.PS ART.C bench
‘He is sitting on the bench.’
41
The prefix ma- drops when these words occur with the causativizer prefix va-, but is retained in
nominalized forms.
289)
magos
sit
‘sit’
=>
=>
=>
va-gos-ng-ie
CAUS-sit-CINS-TR
‘to put (an object) down’
=>
=>
=>
290)
ma-turu => va-turu-ng-ie
lie.down =>
CAUS-lie.down-CINS-TR
‘to lie down’ => ‘to lay down (someone/something).’
m-in-agos
NOM-sit
‘relationship’
4. PHRASE LEVEL
4.1 Noun Phrase
4.1.1 Basic noun phrase
NP1=(Deictic) Article (Mod.1) (Mod. 2) (Arr. Class.) Head.Noun (Mod. 3) (Numeral) (Mod. 4) (Mod.5)
A Mandara basic noun phrase consists of an obligatory noun preceded by an optional deictic, an obligatory
article, one or more optional modifiers of a special type. The head noun can be followed by one or two optional
modifiers and an optional numeral.
An article and a head noun are the only obligatory components of a basic noun phrase.
291)
mi
vono
ART.C house
‘a house’
4.1.1.1 Preposed Nominal Modifiers
Modifier 1 slot is filled by one of the closed set of 5 adjectives (ni ‘tiny’, banga ‘good’, bira ‘excellent’,
puk ‘small’, and tsaka ‘bad’) or an inalienable noun without the possessor suffix. Example (292) also has a
deictic at the beginning of the noun phrase.
292)
ian
mi
tsaka komois
DEIC.DIST1 ART.C bad
old.man
‘that bad old man’
293)
mi
banga
ART.C good
‘a good boy’
294)
mi
natu
ART.S off.spring
‘the female piglet’
natu
off.spring
madar
young.man
kina
mother
bor
pig
Modifier 2 slot is filled by one or two inalienable nouns without their possession suffixes.
295)
mi
bira
mata vono
ART.C excellent eye
house
‘an excellent entrance of a house’
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296)
mi
banga kina
bor
ART.C good mother pig
‘a good female pig’
297)
mi
ni natu-natu
duir
ART.C tiny RDP-off.spring worm
‘a tiny little worm’
42
An arrangement classifier immediately precedes the head noun when applicable.
298)
mi
poko
lavlav mereik
ART.C ARR.measurable fabric red
‘a piece of red fabric’
4.1.1.2 Postposed Nominal Modifiers
The optional post noun modifier slots can be filled with a stative verb (with or without its intensifier), a
numeral, a prepositional phrase, a noun, a noun phrase, or a relative clause.
Modifier 3
The modifier 3 slot can be filled by a noun, a noun phrase which can be embedded, a stative verb root which
can be modified by an adverb, or a prepositional phrase.
Examples of a Noun in Modifier 3 Position
299)
mi
bor tamat
ART.C pig male
‘a male pig’
300)
bu
tamat m-in-arouk
ART.C male NOM-sick
‘sick people’
Examples of a Noun Phrase in Modifier 3 Position
301)
mi
kamkam
i
ART.C star
ART.L
‘a star in a long distance’
pek
distant.place
302)
mi
tsoik
bira
bor
ART.C
grated.food.type
fat
pig
‘a traditional grated food mixed with pig’s fat’
Examples of a Stative Verb with Optional Modifier in Modifier 3 Position
303)
mi
ei
kuar
ART tree/stick long
‘a long stick/tree’
304)
bu
roko megeot
ART.PL louse black
‘black lice’
305)
mi
vono kelei beitsak
ART.C house good very.much
‘the(a) very good house’
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mi
vevin kelei rovoriu
ART.C woman good extremely
‘a very pretty woman’
Examples of a Prepositional Phrase in Modifier 3 Position
307)
mi
reok nia-n
mi
bor
ART.C trap PURP-3S.PS ART.C pig
‘a trap for a pig (to catch a pig)’
Modifier 4
Modifier 4 slot can be filled by a limited set of words which can modify both nouns and verbs. They are mo
‘only’, ngas ‘persistent ’, te ‘emphatic’, kokouk ‘together, all’, and buer ‘also’.
308)
bu
ka kuar kokouk
ART.PL man tall all
‘all tall men’
309)
Mi
mei
kes mo a
nga
muer.
ART.C person one only 3S.SR PAST return
‘Only one person returned.’
310)
Eou buer o
mon i
peki-en
mi
vinuor.
1S also 1S.SR stay ART.P under-3S.PS ART.C law
‘I too am under the law. (I am ruled by the law also.)’
311)
Gi
nga
vorotan bu
natu-natu
koukou
mo te
3PL.SR PAST find
ART.PL RDP-off.spring sweet.potato LIM EMPH
‘They found only very small sweet potatoes.’
312)
Egie ngas
te
gi
nga
tourtelekira-n.
3PL PERS EMPH
3PL.SR PAST
appoint-3S.OP
‘They (emphasis) appointed him/her. (They are the ones who appointed him.)’
Modifier slot 4 can also be filled by a stative verb.
313)
palan
many
bu
ka ngeisngeis
ART.C man strong
‘many strong men’
Numeral Slot
The numeral slot can be filled either by a cardinal or an ordinal number.
ka tour
man three
314)
ba
ART.few
‘three men’
315)
mi
ra vourvour
ART.C day first
‘the first day’
Following is an example of a complex noun phrase with all three post noun modifiers.
316)
ba
ka
kuar
ART.Few man tall
‘all three tall men’
tour
three
kokouk
all
A noun phrase can have a co-occurrence of both pre and post modifiers.
317)
bu
tsaka natu
madar
tamat kokouk
ART.PL bad
off.spring young.man male all
‘all the bad boys’
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4.1.1.2.1 The Noun Phrase Headed by ni as a Post-Nominal Modifier
A phrase initiated with the particle ni followed by a noun or a verb can fill the post modifier 3 slot. The ni
incorporates a noun phrase without its article into another noun phrase.
318)
mi
ka ni
ts-in-atsang
ART.C man SRCE NOM-work
‘a man for work (a worker)’
319)
bu
ra ni
t-in-o
ART.C day SRCE NOM-live
‘days for life (life time)’
320)
mi
tino
ni
madar
lili
ART.C NOM-live SRCE young.man small
‘life for boyhood’
4.1.1.2.2 The Relative Clause as a Post-Nominal Modifier
A relative clause may fill the post modifier slot 3 or 4.
321)
mi
tsaka natu
madar
ta
nga
kada e
kina-n
ART.C bad
off.spring young.man IRR PAST beat ART.P mother-3S.PS
‘the bad boy who had beaten his mother’
322)
mi
ra vourvour o
ta
nga
tout
ART.C day first
1S.SR IRR PAST shark.calling
‘the first day I went shark calling’
323)
…ian
DEIC.DIST1
mi
ART.C
mi
ART.C
niu
coconut
tengteng
lightening
ta
IRR
nga
PAST
ken
hit
va-mat-ie.
CAUS-die-TR
‘…that coconut tree that the lightening had struck and killed.’
4.1.1.2.3 Negation Marker ‘kap’ heading a Post Nominal Modifier Phrase
The negation marker kap leads a post nominal modifier phrase.
324)
mi
tino kap man
ka
ART life NEG 3S.PI
ART.NR
‘life without end (eternal life)’
votovoto
end
325)
A
nga mon si
[mi
enamon kap kovo
mene
en]
3S.SR PAST stay LOC ART.P village
NEG ART.NR.PL person WHERE2
‘He stayed at the village where no one lived (at the peopleless village)’
4.1.1.2.4 Reduplicated Verb as a Post-Nominal Modifier
Modifier slot 3 can be filled by a reduplicated verb (plus its object) in order to describe a person who is
specialized in a particular type of work or one who loves doing a certain type of work.
326)
mi
ka po-po-poloik
ART man RDP-RDP-work.on.copra
‘a man who loves to work on copra’
327)
mi
vevin tsuo-tsuor melen
ART woman RDP-plant water.melon
‘a woman who loves(specialized) in planting(growing) water melons’
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ba
madar
vongon-vongon
ART.few young.man RDP-catch.fish
‘few young specialized in fishing’
4.1.1.2.5 Topicalization of Post Modifiers
Some postposed noun modifiers may switch their position to the slot immediately preceding the article slot
for topicalization. Compare following examples.
329)
bu mene palan
ART.PL people many
‘many people’
330)
palan bu
mene
many ART.PL people
‘many(Topicalized) people’
331)
ba
bor luo
ART.few pig two
‘two pigs’
332)
mi
sinangavour kes ma luo bu
bor
ART.C 10
one and two ART.PL pig
‘twelve (topicalized) pigs’
4.1.2 Pronominally Headed Noun Phrases
A noun phrase headed by a pronoun has up to four constituents. An independent pronoun realizes the
pronominal head. It occurs initially and is followed by up to three optional constituents.
PRONOUN HEAD (MODIFIER 1) (MODIFIER 2) (MODIFIER 3)
333)
eie buer
3S again
‘she also’
334)
...a,
...interjector
eie
3S
kes-en
mo te
a
te
nga
vor
mon mon
one-3S.PS only EMPH 3S.SR CMPL PAST PROG stay stay
i
popo-n
mi
ei.
ART.L
top-3S.PS
ART.C
tree
‘…and then he himself only alone continuously stayed on the tree.’
4.1.3 Possessive Noun Phrases
Genitive constructions in Mandara have two different types of possessive noun phrases: the inalienably
possessed noun phrase and the alienably possessed noun phrase.
4.1.3.1 Inalienably Possessed Noun Phrases
POSS. NP 1: (Deictic) ARTICLE HEAD.NOUN-PS (Deictic) (Modifier)
The obligatory components in an inalienably possessed noun phrase are the possessed head noun with its
possessor suffix and its article. The optional post modifier slot can be filled by an embedded noun phrase
specifying the possessor. A deictic can immediately precede the article and/or the post modifier.
335)
mi
tama-ung
ART.C father-1S.PS
‘my father’
336)
i
popo-n
mi
kova-Ø
ART.P top-3S.PS ART.C head-2S.PS
‘on top of your head’
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337)
mi
vuruvuru-kova-n
ART.C
hair-head-3S.PS
‘that young woman’s hair’
ian
DEIC.DIST1
338)
ine
mi
rima-n
DEIC.PROX
ART.C
her.hand
‘this hand belonging to Timot’s mother’
46
mi
ART.C
e
ART.P
vevin vour
woman young
kina-n
mother-3S.PS
e
ART.P
Timot
Timot
4.1.3.2 Alienably Possessed Noun Phrases
Poss. NP 2:
(Deictic) POSS.PRON (Art) (Mod.1) (Arr.Class.) HEAD.NOUN (Mod.2) (Num) (Deic) (Mod.3)
In alienably possessed noun phrases, the head noun and its possessor pronoun are obligatory. The singular
article is always dropped in this genitive construction. As in other types of noun phrases, a deictic, an article, or
an arrangement classifier may fill the corresponding slots to modify the possessor or the possessed item in
discussion. Modifier 1 slot can be filled by one of the closed set adjectives and modifier 2 slot is filled by a
stative verb or a reduplicated verb. The numeral slot can be filled by a numeral phrase. Modifier 3 can be filled
by an optional noun phrase which further identifies the possessor.
(possessive pronoun + noun)
339)
kong bor
1S.PN pig
‘my pig’
(possessive pronoun, article, noun, NP)
340)
man
ba
niu
e
Timot
3S.PI ART.few coconut ART.P Timot
‘Timot’s (few) coconut drinks’
(deictic, possessive pronoun, noun, stative verb, NP)
341)
ian
ken
kopuen
DEIC.DIST1 3S.PN dog
‘that black dog of Timot’
megeot
e
Timot
black
ART.P Timot
(possessive pronoun, noun, stative verb, deictic, NP)
342)
ken
vono
leong
3S.PN
house
big
‘that old man’s big house’
ian
DEIC.DIST1
mi
ART.C
komois
old.man
(possessive pronoun, article, adjective, arrangement classifier, noun, NP)
343)
ken
ba
banga
napa
3S.PN ART.few excellent
ARR.flat
‘Morong’s (few) excellent trashing panels.’
so-sos
e
Morong
RDP-trash
ART.P Morong
(possessive pronoun, article, noun, numeral phrase, NP)
344)
ken
sar
bor mi
napaririem
3S.PN ART.PL pig ART.C five
‘Timot’s 6 pigs’
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potsu
kes e
Timot
bring.out one ART.P Timot
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4.1.3.3 Locative Possessive Noun Phrase
In the locative possessive noun phrase, the item in discussion in a noun phrase is followed by a locative
preposition si followed by a noun phrase of which noun head is the owner of the item.
Locative Possessive NP: NP +Si+ NP
345)
346)
[[e papa] [si e Timot]]
ART.P father LOC
ART.P Timot
‘Timot’s father’
[[[mi
tino] [ni
madar
lili ngas]]NP1 [si
e
Moso]]
ART.C life
PURP
young.man little PERS
LOC ART.P Moso
‘Moso’s life when he was still a boy...’
LOCPOSS
NP
4.1.4 Complex Noun Phrases
The complex noun phrase is a combination of two or more noun phrases.
4.1.4.1 Coordinate Noun Phrase
The coordinate noun phrase is composed of two noun phrases connected by the preposition meie 'with' or
the conjunction ma 'and'. In the coordinate noun phrase joined by the accompaniment preposition meie, the first
participant is more significant while in the coordinate noun phrase joined by ma both participants share the
equal significance.
347)
e
kina-Ø
meie
ART mother.of-2S.PS with
‘your parents’
348)
mong banga geleu ma
ken
vuna-vios
1S.PI good
canoe and
3S.PN
root-bamboo
‘my good canoe and Tulok’s new engine’
e
ART
tama-Ø
father-2S.PS
vour e
Tulok
new ART.P Tulok
4.1.4.2 Alternative Noun Phrase.
The alternative noun phrase consists of two or more noun phrases linked together by the alternative
conjunctions o ‘or’.
349x181)
E lalaro un
mi
da
rarap
o
2S like
drink ART water hot
or
'Do you want to drink hot tea or cold water?'
350)
O
lalaro vorotan e
Tulok
o
1.S like
find
ART Tulok
or
'I wanted to find Tulok or Masasa or Sobara.’
mi
ART
e
ART
da
water
tuong?
cold?
Masasa
Masasa
o
or
e Sobara.
ART
Sobara
4.1.4.3 Appositional Noun Phrase
The appositional noun phrase immediately follows the noun phrase and it functions to clarify or specify the
meaning of the first.
351x180)
E
Timot, mi
ka kovun
i
Matlik, a
ART.P Timot, ART.C man come.from ART.L Matlik, 3S.SR
'Timot, a man from Matlik village, died.'
352)
Eie,
e
Timot,
a
3S
ART.P Timot
3S.SR
‘He, Timot, fusses all the time.’
353)
E
Timot, e
natu-n
ART.P Timot, ART.P off.spring-3S.PS
‘Timot, Rosi’s child, fusses all the time.’
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HAB
47
te
mesei.
CMPL die
vovovo.
fuss
e
ART.P
Rosi,
Rosi,
a
3S.SR
ko
HAB
vovovo.
fuss
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E
ta
ngas poro mi
bor lili,
mi
natu
bor mo.
2S.SR IRR PERS get
ART.C pig small, ART.C off.spring pig only.
‘You must get a small pig, a piglet only.
4.1.4.4 Coordinated Pronoun Phrase
The coordinated pronoun phrase is formed by a dual, a paucal, or plural independent pronoun followed by
one or more noun phrases to specify individuals that are referred by the pronoun.
355)
egor
e
Timot
1DL.EXC ART Timot
‘Timot and I’
356)
engondo e
Timot
2DL
ART Timot
‘you (to whom I speak) and Timot’
357)
Egato
e
Lenre, e
Lakpe, a,
e
Bungtabu...
1PC.EXC ART.P Lenre, ART.P Lakpe, and, ART.P Bungtabu
‘We few, (myself), Lenre, Lakpe, and Bungtabu…’
4.2 Verb Phrase
4.2.1 Definition and Structure of the Verb Phrase.
The verb phrase in Mandara functions as the predicate of a clause. The minimal obligatory constituents for
the intransitive verb phrase are a subject reference pronoun clitic (see Section 3.6.3) and a verb root. The
transitive verb phrase has the additional obligatory constituent of the object reference pronoun. The verb phrase
may have optional tense, negation, aspect, or modality markers as pre-nuclear auxiliaries as well as optional
post-nuclear auxiliaries such as limiters, intensifiers, and manner adverbs.
VP1 (for intransitive)=SRef.Pron.+[Pre-Nuclear Aux.]+V+[Post-Nuclear Aux]
VP2(for transitive)=SRef.Pron.+[Pre-Nuclear Aux]+V+ORef.Pron+[Post-Nuclear Aux]
See Table 4.1 The Structure of the Verb Phrase on page 49.
4.2.2 Head of the Verb Phrase
4.2.2.1 Minimum Verb Root
The head of the verb phrase may consist of a single verb root.
358)
Mi
bor a
ngou.
ART.C pig 3S.SR eat
‘The pig is eating.'
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Table 4.1 The Structure of the Verb Phrase
Subj.
Ref.
Pron.
See
Pron.
Chart
1
PreNucl
1
Neg
PreNucl
2
PreNucl
3
PreNucl
4
Past
Diminish.
Asp
Pre-Nucl
5
ta
kap
te
be
mang
masi
si 1
ba
ger
ngas
nangaba
buer
nga
ki
ko
so
visi
vo
vor
ve
mono
pilang
V
Obj.
Ref.
Pron.
See
Pron.
Chart
Ints
Mann.
Adv.
Lim
Emp
h
Rep.
beitsak
rovoriu
be
ngas
nangaba
lalapus
vendir
mo
te
buer
ne
The pre-nuclear counterexpectation marker si shifts positions in the VP. It precedes kap ‘not’ in example (372): Nta si kap ngas vongon potaram. ‘We two have not been fishing for as long a time (as I would like
to).’ But it follows kap ‘not’ in example (384): Gi ta kap si ger palu ngan kong sele. ‘You did not play with my bush knife (without my approval).’
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4.2.2.2 Serial Verb Constructions (SVC)
The head of the verb phrase may be a serial verb construction. There are three types of verb
serialization in Mandara. The first type of verb serialization is constructed by the juxtaposition of
uninflected verb roots adjacent to each other. Up to four verb roots may be used to construct a
serial verb in this manner. The second type of verb serialization is constructed with a sequencing
particle, nge. The third type involves a repetition of the stem several times. It concludes with ra
‘go’ and is sometimes followed by oit ‘until’.
4.2.2.2.1 SVC 1
The verbs in SVC type 1 have no conjoining particles and share all arguments and auxiliary
markers.
359)
A
nga
ser beit
si
man
voto-voto
3S.SR PAST run arrive LOC 3S.PI RDP-finish
‘He ran and arrived at the finishing line of the race.’
360)
Gi
te
nga
ra sor nemei ngan.
3PL.SR CMPL PAST go carry come INST
‘They went and carried (the ladder) and came.’
mi
s-in-er.
ART.C NOM-run
Stative verbs and numbers may occur as the second member of a serial construction, taking
the causative prefix va-. They express the manner or the number of times an action is performed.
+++
361)
O
tere va-kal-ie
bu
kepineits.
1S.SR put CAUS-good-TR ART.PL thing
‘I am putting things well. OR I am cleaning.’
362)
O
te
ase va-luo
ine
mi
1S.SR CMPL read CAUS-two DEIC.PROX ART.C
‘I read this book twice.’
buk.
book
4.2.2.2.2 SVC 2
The verbs in SVC type 2 are conjoined by the particle nge. This differs from the common
Austronesian pattern of serialization. Each verb may independently have a modifier or a direct
object, in the case of a transitive verb, but all the verbs in a verb phrase share the subject
reference, negation, and tense-aspect-modality markings which precede the initial verb. Only the
final verb is followed by optional post-auxiliaries. Generally up to three verbs may be conjoined
in this manner to create one complex information unit.
363)
a
te
nga
vakak nge
veis
3S.SR CMPL PAST start
VCON walk
‘He began to walk.’
364)
Mi
bor a
te
tsok tamtir nge
ser.
ART.C pig 3g.SR CMPL shoot stand VCON run
‘The pig got up and ran.’
365)
A
nga
poro ken
biul
nge
tsok
3S.SR PAST take 3S.PN fishing.spear VCON pick
‘He took his fishing spear and started to dive.’
366)
Gor
nga
ka si
mi
geleu nge
vuros rakot i
kutum.
1dl.EXC.SR PAST ride LOC ART.C canoe VCON paddle go.to ART.L middle
‘We got on the canoe and went paddling to the middle(of ocean).’
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vakak nge
suiv.
start
VCON dive
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4.2.2.2.3 SVC 3
We also have found repetitive segments when the verb is repeated several times with maybe
one or two other verbs.
367) …na kitipan, pan pan pan ra
oit si-vovo.
PURP block
wake wake wake go
able LOC-morning
‘…in order to block sleep, stay awake, awake, awake until morning.’
368)
Gato
te
kekeis vatar
ra-ra-ra nokot
i
Marvio
1PC.EXC.SR CMPL swim come.ashore go-go-go DEM.VIS ART.L
Marvio
‘We swam and came ashore on and on over there at Marvio.’
4.2.2.2.4 Subject Reference
As described in the Pronoun section, the subject reference particle indicates the person and
the number of the subject. (See Section 3.6.3)
369)
E
Timot
a
ART.P Timot
3S.SR
‘Timothy has arrived.’
te
CMPL
beit.
arrive
4.2.3 Pre-Nuclear Auxiliaries
Pre-Nuclear Auxiliaries =
SRef. Pron (Pre-Nucl 1) (Neg) (Pre-Nucl 2) (Pre-Nucl 3) (Pre-Nucl 4) (Past) (Asp) (Pre-Nucl 5)
4.2.3.1 Co-occurrence of the Pre-nuclear Auxiliaries
The subject reference morpheme is the only obligatory pre-nuclear auxiliary in the verb
phrase.
370)
O
ngou mi
koukou.
1S.SR eat
ART.C sweet.potato
‘I am eating a sweet potato.’
Two or more of the optional pre-nuclear auxiliaries may co-occur.
371)
E
ta masi
2S.SR
IRR CEP
‘You might fall.’
372)
O
kap ngas nga
ko
ngene
1S.SR NEG PERS PAST HAB eat
‘I still wasn’t used to eating shark meat.’
373)
A
te
buer nga
3S.SR
CMPL REP PAST
‘He went to see his mother again.’
kor.
fall
ra
go
beie.
shark
pere
see
e
kina-n.
ART.C mother-3S.PS
Due to semantic incompatibility, some tense, negation, aspect, and modality markers never
co-occur while some others must accompany certain TAM markers. For example, the modal
adverb si ‘Counter Expectation’ never occurs with the irrealis marker ta, while the modal adverb
masi ‘counter expectation possibility’ must occur with ta, but cannot with the past tense marker
nga.
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4.2.3.2 Tense
In the Mandara language, there are three general tense categories. The tenses are in relation to
the time of utterance and fall into one of the three categories on the timeline: distant past, near past
to present, and future.
4.2.3.2.1 Distant Past Tense:
An event that has taken place some time in the past beyond about 24 hours before the time of
speech is marked by the past tense marker nga. In narrative texts describing an event in the
distant past, speakers often omit the distant past tense marker nga once the time setting has been
clearly communicated to the listener.
374)
Gi
nga
mon kokouk.
3PL.SR PAST stay together
‘They stayed together’
375)
A
te
nga
tsoka mi
ie.
3S.SR CMPL PAST shoot ART.C fish
‘He shot a fish.’
4.2.3.2.2 Near-Past to Present Tense Events
Near-past to present tense in Mandara covers an event or a condition which has taken a place
within the past 24 hours or is currently taking a place at the time of speech. The near-past to
present tense is unmarked: Ø.
376)
E
Timot
a
ART.P Timot
3S.SR
‘Timot is sleeping.’
muang.
sleep
377)
Mi
redio a
kelei.
ART.C radio 3S.SR good
‘The radio is in good condition. (It works.)’
378)
A
tuktuk.
3S.SR true
‘It is true.’
379)
O
beit nanor.
1S.SR arrive yesterday
‘I arrived yesterday’
380)
E
Timot
a
te
muang.
ART.P Timot
3S.SR
CMPL
sleep
‘Timot fell asleep and still sleeping. (or) Timot slept.’
4.2.3.2.3 Future Events
An event which has not happened but may happen in the future is marked with the irrealis
modality marker ta.
381)
E
ta
poro mi
sele.
2S.SR IRR get ART.C bush.knife
‘You take a bush knife.’
382)
O
ta
be
ra
1S.SR IRR INT
go
‘I intend to go and tell him.’
383)
Gi
3PL.SR
ta
IRR
eng si-en.
tell LOC-3S.OP
ba
veis.
ASSU walk
‘They will walk(leave).'
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The event which is beginning at the time of utterance is marked with the irrealis marker ta
followed by the completive aspect marker te.
384)
O
ta
te
ra.
1S.SR IRR CMPL go
‘I will go.(as starting to leave the place).’
4.2.3.3 Negation
The negation morpheme kap optionally occurs in a verb phrase filling the negation slot. The
modality adverbs masi, mang, ger, ki, nangaba, be, ba, and so cannot co-occur with kap due
to the nature of their meaning.
385)
O
kap lalaro ra.
1S.SR NEG like
go
'I don't want to go.'
386)
A
kap nga
vo
tabar-ie ken
natu
bor.
3S.SR NEG PAST MORN feed-TR 3S.PN off.spring pig
‘He did not feed his piglet in the morning.’
387)
Gi
kap ngas nga
ko
pere bu
kuir kavel.
3PL.SR NEG PERS PAST HAB see ART.PL skin foreign
‘They were never used to seeing foreigners (lit. foreign skins).’
4.2.3.4 Modality Adverbs
There are 12 modality adverbs which optionally fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries slot in a verb
phrase. The table below shows the modality adverbs with their definitions and the information on
which slot in the verb phrase they can occupy.
Table 4.2 Mandara Modality Markers
Modality
Definition
Marker
Irrealis
ta
Intention
be
Counter expectation possibility
masi
Counter expectation
si
Assurance or Certainty
ba
ger
ngas
mang
nangaba
ki
ve
pilang
Counter Approval
Persistent
Desired Result
Relief
Slot in Verb Phrase
Pre-Nuclear 1
Pre- Nuclear 2
Pre- Nuclear 2
Pre-Nuclear 2
Pre- Nuclear 3,
Post- Nuclear
Pre- Nuclear 3
Pre- Nuclear 3,
Post- Nuclear
Pre- Nuclear 2
Comparative
Pre- Nuclear 3,
Post- Nuclear
Diminisher
Politeness
Pre- Nuclear 5
Frustration
Pre- Nuclear 5
4.2.3.4.1 Irrealis/Realis
The irrealis modality marker ta can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 1 slot. It marks all events
in independent clauses which have not happened up to the time of utterance. It also marks the
clauses where the speaker is unsure whether the event has occurred or not. Events encoding
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background information are sometimes also marked by ta in subordinate clauses. This area will
be discussed further in our paper on the uses of ta.
388)
O
ta
peuk
i
koen.
1S.SR IRR go.down ART.L beach
‘I will go to the beach.’
389)
Nga
ta
ngas ra.
3PL.SR IRR MUST go
‘You (plural) must go.’
390)
Sen o
ta
nga
pere e
tama-ung,
o
when 1S.SR IRR PAST see ART.P father-1S.PS, 1S.SR
‘When I saw my father, I was very glad.’
391)
Senva e
ta
rong tsak, o
ta
tsatsik-ie no.
if
2S.SR IRR hear bad, 1S.SR IRR spank-TR 2S.OP
‘If you disobey, I will spank you.’
nga
res
beitsak.
PAST happy INTS
4.2.3.4.2 Intention - be
The intention modality marker be can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 2 slot and also the postnuclear intensifier slot. It is used to express the speaker’s intention to have an event take place. It
is often used together with the immediacy aspect morpheme so. It is also often used in commands.
A command with this morpheme indicates that the speaker has a strong desire for the event to
occur.
392)
O
ta
be ra sisi.
1S.SR IRR INT go bathe
‘I will go to bathe very soon.’
393)
O
ta
be so
pengan si
1S.SR IRR INT IMM tell
LOC
‘I will immediately tell your mother.’
394)
Be ra poro kong
sele.
INT go get 1S.PN bush.knife
‘Go get my bush knife.’
395)
A
be nga
ko
tsana.
3S.SR INT PAST HAB do
‘He used to do it(and it would be good to see him do it again)’
e
kina-Ø.
ART.P mother-2S.PS
4.2.3.4.3 Counter Expectation Possibility - masi
The counter expectation possibility modality marker masi can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 2
slot. It is used to communicate the speaker’s desire for an event not to happen. This modality
marker always accompanies the irrealis marker ta. The masi is interchangeably used with mansi.
It is generally used to warn someone to take caution.
396)
Veis kelei. E
ta
masi kor.
Walk good 2S.SR IRR CEP fall
‘Walk carefully. You might fall.’
397)
E
ta
masi kiva mi
nutu-nutu
uriet.
2S.SR IRR CEP guess ART.C RDP-off.spring octopus
‘You might think it is very young octopus.(I hope not)’
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Gi
vi
ngan e
Naliek va ta
mansi nga
kada gie.
3S.SR flee
INST ART.P Naliek SUB IRR CEP
PAST hit
3PL.OP
‘They ran from Naliek, for he might have hit them.
4.2.3.4.4 Counter Expectation - si
The counter expectation modality marker si occasionally occurs in the pre-nuclear auxiliaries
1 slot and sometimes occurs in the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 2 slot. It is used to communicate the
speaker’s feeling of frustration or surprise. It is only used for past events which happened against
the speaker’s expectation or the situation. It never co-occurs with the irrealis marker ta, or the
completive aspect marker te. This modality marker immediately follows the subject reference
particle in a verb phrase.
399)
A
si nga
tara mi
rima-n.
3S.SR CE PAST cut ART.C hand-3S.PS
‘He cut his hand. (Or How silly, he cut his finger?)’
400)
Nta
si kap ngas vongon potaram.
1DL.Inc CE NEG PERS fishing long-time
‘We two have not been fishing for a long time (as I would like to)’
4.2.3.4.5 Assurance - ba
The assurance modality marker ba can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 3 slot. It is used to
communicate the speaker’s assurance or certainty of an event that has taken place or will happen.
For future events the speaker is communicating that he has some evidence which causes him to
believe that the event will take a place.
401)
Sivo
ge
ta
ba
peuk i
rou.
tomorrow 1PL.EXC IRR ASSU down ART.L sea
‘Tomorrow, we are going to go out to the sea.’
402)
Ine
sisiat,
o
ba
vatar
DEIC.PROX mid.day,
1S.SR ASSU
come.ashore
‘I certainly disbarked(came ashore) this mid-day finally.’
403)
Gi
ba
nga
ra
vongon
si
ba
Mariviot.
3PL.SR ASSU PAST go
find.fish
LOC ART.Few Mariviot
‘They (plural) certainly went fishing at two Mariviot islands.’
’
nangaba.
RELF
4.2.3.4.6 Counter Approval - ger
The counter approval modality marker ger can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 3 slot. It is used
to communicate the speaker’s opinion or feeling about the event which is taking place or might
take place without an approval either from an owner or one in authority. It is always preceded by
the counter expectation marker si or the counter expectation possibility marker masi. For future
events, it is accompanied either by the negation marker kap or by the counter expectation
possibility marker ma.
404)
A
si ger nga
poro kong sele.
3S.SR CE CA PAST take 1S.PN bush.knife
‘He took my bush knife without my approval.’
405)
E
ta
kap si ger palu ngan kong sele.
2S.SR IRR NEG CE CA play INST 1S.PN bush.knife
‘You do not play with my bush knife(without my approval)’
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Gi
ta
masi ger van kong sar
buo.
3pl.SR IRR CEP CA climb 1S.PN ART.PL betel.nut
‘They might climb my betel nut trees (without my approval. I am worried that they
might.’
4.2.3.4.7 Persistent - ngas
The persistent modality marker ngas can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 3 slot and the postnuclear auxiliaries slot for manner adverbs. It is used to communicate the speaker’s opinion about
a persistent condition or action. When it is accompanied by the irrealis marker ta, it
communicates the obligation to do something. This marker communicates modality in some
situations, but it also communicates aspect in some other situations.
407)
O
ta
ngas suer i
marar.
1S.SR IRR PERS weep ART.L outside
‘I must sweep outside.'
408)
Ian
mi
komois
DEIC.DIST1
ART.C old.man
‘That old man is still strong.’
409)
Mi
vuin
a
kap ngas mases.
ART.C banana 3S.SR NEG PERS ripe
‘The banana still is not ripened yet.’
410)
Gi
kap ngas tsuk.
3PL.SR NEG PERS embark
‘They still have not embarked’
a
3S.SR
ngas
PERS
ngeisngeis.
strong
4.2.3.4.8 Desired Result - mang
The desired result modality marker mang can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 2 slot. It
indicates the happening of the anticipated or desired result.
411)
A
mang ba
nga
ra deng kilala.
3S.SR RES
ASSU PAST go look recognize
‘He indeed recognized. (him)’
412)
Suer ine,
va
mi
vono ta
mang mat katsep.
sweep DEIC.PROX COM ART.C house IRR RES
look clear
‘Sweep here, (so that) the house might look clean.’
4.2.3.4.9 Relief - nangaba
The relief modality marker nangaba can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 3 slot and the postnuclear auxiliaries slot for manner adverbs. This modality marker marks the relief from a tense
situation. This morpheme most often appears in a discourse right after the climax or at the ending.
The equivalent meaning of this morpheme in English would be something like ‘finally, at last,
indeed’.
413)
O
te
nangaba
1S.SR CMPL RELF
‘I just arrived now.’
414)
A
nangaba
3S.SR RELF
‘He arrived right then.’
415)
Gi
te
nga
nes-ie nangaba e
Roroton.
3PL.SR CMPL PAST find-TR RELF
ART.P Roroton
‘They found Roroton right then. OR They finally found Roroton.’
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beit.
PAST arrive
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4.2.3.4.10 Comparative –ki
The comparative modality marker ki can fill the pre-nuclear diminisher slot. It is used to
communicate the speaker’s opinion that there is a slight difference in the condition or quality.
416)
O
ki
morouk nevere.
1S.SR COMP sick
today
‘I feel a bit sick today.’
417)
O
ki
rongmitsikien kelei nevere.
1S.SR COMP feel
good today
‘I feel(physically) a bit better today.’
418)
E
Rosi a
ki
kuar rio si
ART.P Rosi 3S.SR COMP tall win LOC
‘Rosi is a bit taller than Timot.’
419)
Mi
Singa a
ki
tsak si
mi
Batapilai.
ART.C Singer 3S.SR COMP bad LOC
ART.C Butterfly
‘Singer(sawing machine) is a bit better than Butterfly(sawing machine).’
e
Timot.
ART.P Timot
4.2.3.4.11 Politeness: - ve
The politeness modality marker ve can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 5 slot. This modality
marker in a verb phrase adds the politeness or the careful attitude of the speaker. Generally verb
phrases of admonition clauses will have this morpheme. And the conversations between the people
who must show respect to each other will have many occurrence of this morpheme.
420)
E
ta
ve
poro
kovo
sur.
2S.SR IRR POL get
ART.NR.PL
dried.coconut.leaf
‘You get some dried coconut leaves.’(spoken politely)
421)
E
2S.SR
ta
IRR
ve
pere
POL see
ian
DEIC.DIST1
mi
ART.C
sinave-n
manner-3S.PS
ian
DEIC.DIST1
mi
vevin.
ART.C
woman
‘Look at that manner of that woman.’(spoken politely)
To express his/her positive feeling towards the condition, a speaker can also use this
morpheme ve in a verb phrase which describes a hopeful condition which is progressing.
422)
E
Ngavato a
te
vor
ve
kele-kelei.
ART.P Ngavato 3S.SR CMPL PROG POL RDP-good
‘Ngavato is getting better (from sickness).’
423)
A
te
vor
ve
butse-butseik.
3S.SR CMPL PROG POL RDP-water.rising
‘It is becoming high tide. (lit. The water level is rising)’
The sentences above can also be uttered without the morpheme ve and communicate the same
basic meanings. But by using the morpheme ve, the speaker communicates that he/she is not
resentful, but is pleased with the situation.
4.2.3.4.12 Frustration – pilang
The frustration modality marker pilang can fill the pre-nuclear auxiliaries 5 slot. It is used to
communicate the speaker’s frustration with not being able to achieve any positive result from an
action in spite of the fact that the action went on for a significant length of time.
424)
O
pilang
auil
nanor.
1S.SR FRUS
hook.fishing
yesterday
‘I (went) fishing yesterday in vain (but did not catch any fish).’
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Gor
vo
pilang
ros-ie
no
si
vovo.
2DL.EXC.SR MORN FRUS
wait-TR 2S.OP
LOC
morning.
‘We (two) waited for you this morning in vain. (But you never showed up)’
4.2.3.5 Aspect Markers
In Mandara there are 7 aspect markers and one temporal marker which optionally fill prenuclear auxiliary slots in a verb phrase. The table below shows the aspect markers with their
definitions and the information on which slot in the verb phrase they can occupy.
Table 4.3 Mandara Aspect Markers
Aspect Marker
Definition
Slot in VP
Completive
Pre-Nuclear 2
te
Repetitive
Pre-Nuclear 4,
buer
Post-Nuclear
Habituative
Aspect
ko
Immediate
Aspect
so
Ready to
Aspect
visi
Progressive
Aspect
vor
Continuative
Pre-Nuclear 5
mono
There is one temporal marker which can occupy the aspect slot in the verb phrase.
vo
‘in the morning’
Aspect
4.2.3.5.1 Completive - te
Speakers often choose to speak with the completive aspect morpheme te in order to
emphasize that the action has already taken place. te is used to communicate the perfected or
completed state of an event. It is frequently used with the past tense but also with the irrealis
marker ta to mark an event which is beginning at the moment of utterance. te can occupy the prenuclear auxiliary slot 2.
426)
A
te
3S.SR CMPL
‘He screamed.’
427)
A
te
kelei
tie
3S.SR CMPL good
EMPH
‘The house is (truly) fixed well.’
428)
O
ta
te
ra.
1S.SR IRR CMPL
go
‘I’m going now (lit. leaving now and going)’
nga
PAST
koup-koup.
shout-shout
mi vono.
ART.C house
4.2.3.5.2 Repetitive - buer
An event which is occurred repeatedly is emphasized with this modality morpheme buer. This
buer can occupy the pre-nuclear auxiliary slot 4 and the post-nuclear auxiliary slot for manner
adverbs.
429)
A
te
buer nga
vitor.
3S.SR CMPL REP PAST hungry
‘He was hungry again.’
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Gi
te
buer nga
so
ra palo.
3PL.SR CMPL REP PAST IMM go play
‘They quickly went to play again.’
4.2.3.5.3 Habituative - ko
Habitual activities are indicated by the habituative morpheme ko.
431)
Gei
ko
ngen-ie mi
leseik.
1PL.EXC HAB eat-TR ART.C sago
‘We habitually eat sago.(We are used to eating sago)’
432)
O
ko
vemusur-ie ba
ro-sar
1S.SR HAB follow-TR ART.Few GEN-path
‘I habitually follow two ways.’
luo.
two
4.2.3.5.4 Immediate - so
The morpheme so emphasizes the immediateness or the suddenness of an event.
433)
A
nga
muer, a
nga
so
tun-ie
mi
ie.
3S.SR PAST return, 3S.SR PAST IMM cook-TR ART.C fish
‘He returned. (And) He immediately cooked the fish.’
434)
O
ta
so
pengan si-en.
1S.SR IRR IMM tell
LOC-3S.PS
‘I'm going to tell him soon.’
4.2.3.5.5 Ready to - visi
An event which was about to happen is marked by the morpheme visi. It adds the modality
of readiness to do an action. The morpheme visi can occupy the aspect slot.
435)
Si-en
LOC-3S.PS
ta
nga
visi
poutskak,
IRR PAST READY step,
mi
kitita-n
nokot
a
te
ART.C stomach-3S.PS DEM.VIS 3S.SR CMPL
nga
puor
ka-pot.
PAST
explode
PASS-break
‘When he was ready to take a step, his tummy over there burst opened.’
436)
E
Tames a
nga
visi
karar-ie mi
kina
bor.
ART.P Tames 3S.SR PAST READY chase-TR ART.C mother pig
‘Tames was about to chase after the female pig.’
4.2.3.5.6 Progressive - vor
An action that is in progress is marked with the progressive morpheme vor. Since the action is
progressive, the main verb is always in reduplicated form to indicate the ongoing action.
437)
A
te
vor
kele-kelei.
3S.SR CMPL PROG RDP-good
‘He is getting better.’
438)
Gi
nga
vor
de-de-denangan
3PL.SR PAST PROG RDP-RDP-seek
‘They were looking for a way.’
ka
ART.NR
rosar.
way
4.2.3.5.7 Continuative/durative - mono
An action that is continuing is marked with the continuative morpheme mono that occurs in
the pre-nuclear 5 position.
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439)
O
mono ro-rosie
1S.SR CONT RDP-wait
‘I'm waiting for you.’
440)
A
ko
mono pitse-pitseir.
3S.SR HAB CONT RDP-angry
‘He is gets and stays mad all the time.’
no
2S.OP
4.2.3.5.8 In the Morning- vo
An event which takes place in the morning is marked with the temporal morpheme vo. The vo
replaces the completive aspect marker te when used to communicate an event which took place in
the near past, if the event occurs in the morning. An event in the morning in the distant past is
encoded by both vo and the past tense marker nga. An event predicted to happen in the mroning
in the future is indicated by both vo and the irrealis marker ta. A presently progressing event is
not marked with vo, even if it is taking place in the morning.
441)
O
vo
me
suer.
1S.SR MORN COME
sweep
‘I came to sweep in the morning.’ (Near Past)
442)
O
ta
vo
vorota no.
1S.SR IRR MORN find
2S.OP
‘I will visit you in the morning.(referring to next day)’ (Future)
443)
Gi
te
nga
vo
kien i
tu.
3PL.SR CMPL PAST MORN go.up ART.L garden
‘They went up to the garden in the morning.’ (Far Past)
4.2.4 Object Reference Pronoun
The object reference pronoun clitic immediately follows the verb root in a transitive verb
phrase. The object of the verb root is specified in person and in number. Refer to the pronoun
section.
444)
A
nga
nasara guor.
3S.SR PAST scold
3DL.OP
‘He scolded them(two).’
4.2.5 Post-Nuclear Auxiliaries
Post-Nucl. Aux.=(Ints) (Mann.Adv.) (Lim) (Emph) (Rep)
Several optional post-nuclear auxiliaries may follow the head part of a verb phrase. Then the
rest of the post-nuclear auxiliary slots are filled in the order as described in the post-nuclear
auxiliary formula above. One or more of the intensifiers, manner adverbs, the limiter, the
emphasis marker, and the repetitive marker can occupy these slots between the object reference
pronoun and the noun phrase which adds the information for the object.
4.2.5.1 Intensifier
There are three intensifiers in Mandara: beitsak, rovoriu and be.
The verb modifier beitsak is used to describe the intensified state of a condition or an action.
445)
Ine
mi
bor a
leong beitsak.
DEIC.PROX ART.C pig 3S.SR big
INTS
‘This pig is very big.’
446)
Gi
nga
res
beitsak.
3PL.SR PAST happy INTS
‘They were very happy.’
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Gito
nga
ta beitsak.
3PC.SR PAST cry INTS
‘They cried very much.’
The verb modifier rovoriu is similar to that of beitsak in its use but rovoriu is also used to
modify the intensity of an action verb and indicate extremes of the action. It also indicates that the
effect of the event will remain for a long period of time or forever.
448)
Keguor menagos
a
nga
kelei rovoriu.
3DL.PN relationship 3S.SR PAST good INTS
‘Their(two) relationship was extremely good.’
449)
Nta
te
mogos sinartsak
1DL.Inc CMPL sit
poor
‘We(two) are staying extremely poor.’
450)
A te
nga
tseptseprio
3S CMPL PAST win
‘He (totally) won.’
451)
A te
ngingi rovoriu.
3S CMPL dark
INTS
‘It is extremely dark.’
452)
E
Larvi a
te
mon rovoriu.
ART.P Larvi 3S.SR CMPL stay INTS
‘Larvi stays forever.(she is not going)’
rovoriu
INTS
te.
CMPL
rovoriu.
INTS
A
kelei be mo.
3S.SR good INT LIM
453)
‘It is just alright.’
454)
Arie
be mo
DEIC.exact INT LIM
‘That is it. (lit. That’s the exact one.)’
4.2.5.2 Manner Adverbs
Several manner adverbs including three modality adverbs and two aspect markers which also
can occupy one of the pre-nuclear auxiliary slots can occupy this post-nuclear auxiliary slot. The
morphemes ngas ‘PERS’, lalapus ‘quickly’ and nangaba ‘RELF’ are the three modality
adverbs that can occupy both the pre-nuclear and the post-nuclear auxiliary slot. The morphemes
buer ‘REP’ and te ‘CMPL’ are two aspects that can occupy the post-nuclear auxiliary slot. The
completive aspect marker te is used to emphasize the event rather than focusing on the completion
of the event when it is forms a manner phrase with manner adverbs in the post-nuclear auxiliary
slot.
nangaba.
RELF
455)
A
te
nga
vatar
3S.SR CMPL PAST come.ashore
‘He finally came ashore.’
456)
A
nga
tuir
i
pek
3S.SR
PAST
stand
ART.L
distant.spot
‘He still (emphasized) was standing at a distant spot.’
457)
A
nga
keveir
3S.SR
PAST
sing
‘He sang again(Emphasize).’
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te
EMPH
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buer.
also
ngas
PERS
te.
EMPH
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458)
A
kap
nga
3S.SR
NEG
PAST
‘It did not finish quickly.’
459)
Kenga
3PL.PN
sar
ART.PL
62
lalapus.
quickly
voto
finish
vodo-vodon
RDP-think
tuktuk
true
a
3S.SR
lili
small
beitsak
INTS
ngas
PERS
te.
EMPH
‘Your faith is very small.’
4.3 Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is composed of a preposition and its object, which can be a noun
phrase, or a pronoun. The object reference pronoun is omitted for the third person singular object
in all prepositional phrases. The noun phrase is optional when the object of the prepositional
phrase is the third person singular or when the information is already known at the discourse level.
The deictic in the object noun phrase of a prepositional phrase may either precede or follow
the preposition.
460)
ian
DEIC.DIST1
‘in that village’
si
LOC
mi
ART.C
461)
ine
DEIC.PROX
‘in this morning’
si
LOC
vovo
morning
462)
…va gi
ta
...that 3PL.SR IRR
ART.C pig
si
man
rie
nga
PAST
mi
sor
carry
enamon
female
kien
go.up
ngan
INST
ine
DEIC.PROX
mi
tadaor…...
LOC 3S.PI cave ART.C local.spirit
‘…so that they would carry this pig and go up to the local spirit's cave…’
4.3.1 Temporal prepositional phrase
Like the general prepositional phrase, the temporal prepositional phrase is headed by the
locative preposition si.
Temporal PP = si NP
463)
si
mi
kato keipkeipde
LOC ART.C piece fragment
‘at the moment’
464)
si
mi
Sarere
LOC ART.C Saturday
‘on Saturday’
ra
day
When the general temporal words such as vovo ‘morning’, sisiat ‘midday’, reivreiv
‘afternoon’, and kiti ‘night’ are incorporated into the temporal prepositional phrase the article is
omitted.
465)
si
reivreiv
LOC afternoon
‘in the afternoon’
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E
Tseong a
ART.P Tseong 3S.SR
‘Tseong woke at dawn.’
nga
pan si
PAST wake LOC
63
vovo
mokopkop.
morning dawn
4.3.2 Locational prepositional phrase
The locational prepositional phrase is headed by the preposition si which can be preceded by
an optional deictic and followed by an optional independent pronoun which references the object
of the preposition. A full noun phrase follows to further identify the object.
Locational PP = (DEIC) si (Ind.Pron) NP
467)
die
DEIC.DIST2
si
LOC
mi
ringit
ART.C
heaven
‘Way over there in heaven’
468)
si
egie
mi
LOC
3PL
ART.C
‘(allocated) for the women’
lengei
women
4.3.3 Reason prepositional phrase
The reason prepositional phrase is led by the reason preposition surie followed by its object
reference pronoun, an optional deictic, and an optional noun phrase.
Reason PP = surie-Object Pron. (DEIC) (NP)
469)
surie-Ø
ine
RSON-PRON
DEIC.PROX
‘because of this child of mine’
470)
O
rengeir surie
1S.SR pray
RSON
‘I am praying for you.’
e
ART.P
natu-ung
off.spring-1S.PS
no.
2S.OP
4.3.4 Instrumental and Manner Prepositional Phrase
The instrumental and manner prepositional phrase is headed by the preposition ngan ‘with’
followed by its object reference pronoun, an optional deictic, and an optional noun phrase.
Instrumental PP = ngan-Object.Reference.Pronoun (DEIC) (NP)
471)
ngan-
ne
INST-3S.OP
DEIC.PROX
‘with these traditional bread.’
bu
ART.PL
472)
Gituo
nga
mon ngan- 
3PC.SR PAST stay INST-3S.OP
‘They(paucal) stayed with happiness.’
473)
A
te
nga
tsikei ngan-
3S.SR CMPL PAST poke INST-3S.OP
‘She poked it with a copra knife.’
tsoik
traditional.bread
mi ni-res.
ART.C NOM-happy
mi
ART.C
naip
knife
kopra.
copra
4.3.5 Accompaniment Prepositional Phrase
The accompaniment prepositional phrase is led by the preposition meie which is followed by
the object reference pronoun followed by an optional noun phrase.
Accompaniment PP = meie-Object.Reference.Pronoun (NP)
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474)
O
te
muerngei
nia
1S.SR CMPL return
PURP
‘I returned to come and stay with you.’
475)
E
ART.P
Kivkiv
Kivkiv
meie-Ø
ACCM-3S.OP
me
come
e
ART.P
64
meie-no.
ACCM-2S.OP
mon
stay
Pias guor
Pias 3DL.SR
nga
PAST
va-turu-ngie
mi
bor.
CAUS-lay.down-TR
ART.C pig
‘Kivkive with Pias they(dual) made the pig to lay down.’
4.3.6 Malefactive Prepositional Phrase
The malefactive prepositional phrase is headed by the preposition veie which is followed by
the object reference pronoun followed by an optional noun phrase.
Malefactive PP = veie-Object.Reference.Pronoun (NP)
476)
A
si
kengeir
veie-eu.
3S.SR CE
upset
MLFC-1S.OP
‘He unexpectedly upset at me.’
477)
A
nga
aor
putu
veie-Ø
3S.SR PAST mind
heavy
MLFC-3S.OP
‘He was heavy-minded at his mother.’
e
ART.P
kinan.
mother-3S.PS
478)
A
nga
petseir
veie-gor
3S.SR PAST angry
MLFC-1DL.EXC.OP
‘He got angry at me and Nobet.’
e
ART.P
Nobet.
Nobet
4.3.7 Benefactive Prepositional Phrase
The benefactive preposition phrase is headed by the preposition nia which is followed by the
object reference pronoun suffix for beneficiary and an optional noun phrase.
Benefactive PP = nia-Object.Reference.Pronoun (NP)
479)
O
tutu
nia-nga
bu
1S.SR cook
PURP-2PL.OP
ART.PL
‘I am cooking for you(plural) young men.’
480)
Gi
te
nga
ko
kien
nge
sor
nia-gie.
3pl.SR
CMPL PAST HAB go.up VCON carry PURP-3pl.OP
‘They used to go up (to the melon garden) and carried (melons) for them(to eat).’
madar.
young.man
4.3.8 Source Prepositional Phrase
The source prepositional phrase is headed by ni followed either by a nominalized noun
without the article or by a locative noun phrase.
Source PP1 = ni Nominalized Noun
Source PP2 = ni ART.L Locative.Noun
481)
kong
ka
ni
va-va-to
1S.PN man
SRCE
RDP-RDP-live
‘my man, the source of rescue’
482)
ken
sar
ra
ni
3S.NP
ART.PL2 day SRCE
‘his days of life (lit. his life time)’
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t-in-o
NOM-live
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mi
ka
kovu
ART.C
man
come.from
‘a man from Rabat (village)’
ni
SRCE
i
ART.L
65
Rabat
Rabat
5. CLAUSE LEVEL SYNTAX
5.1 Word Order
The unmarked word order in an intransitive clause is (S) V. The V is always realized by a
VP composed of:
subject.reference.marker (tense-aspect-mode markers) V (modifiers).
See section 4.2.
S
484)
VP
E
Timot
a
ART.P Timot
3S.SR
‘Timothy has arrived.’
te
CMPL
beit.
arrive
However, if the subject referent is clear from the context, then the VP can occur by itself.
VP
485)
Gito
nga
ta beitsak.
3PC.SR PAST cry INTS
‘They cried very much.’
The normal or unmarked word order in a transitive clause in Mandara is SVO. The
obligatory predicate (SR-V), is preceded by subject (S), and followed by object (O). These
constituents form the basic nucleus of a transitive clause.
Subject
VP
Object
486)
E
Timot a
ART.P Timot 3S.SR
'Timot killed a mouse.'
te
CMPL
kanda
kill
mi
ART
kout.
mouse
The subject can be demoted to the end of a verbal clause, in order to de-emphasize it. This
less common grammatical pattern is indicated by intonational clues. The displaced subject always
follows a pause and the pitch on the word preceding the pause drops only to a mid pitch, whereas
clause finally, the intonational contour drops to a low pitch. Whether the noun phrase immediately
following a verb is the subject or the object is determined by the transitivity of the main verb in
the clause. If the verb is an intransitive verb, then the noun phrase immediately following the verb
phrase is the subject. But if the verb is a transitive verb then the noun phrase which immediately
follows is the object of the clause, and the clause final noun phrase is the displaced subject.
VP
S
487)
488)
A
muang e
Timot.
3S.SR sleep
ART.P Timot
‘Timothy is sleeping.’
VP
O
A
te
ked-a
3S.SR CMPL kill-TR
‘Timot killed a mouse.’
mi
kout
ART mouse
S
e
ART.P
Timot.
Timot
An expanded clause includes the optional constituents communicating time (which
commonly precedes the SVO nucleus), or accompaniment, location, benefactive, manner, and
instrument (which regularly follow the SVO nucleus).
Cl=[Time] + SVO + [Accompaniment] [Location] [Benefit] [Manner] [Instrument]
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Si
LOC
vovo
morning
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e
ART.P
Tulok
Tulok
a
3S.SR
66
vo
MORN
tsang
work
meie
ACCM
e
ART.P
Timot
Timot
si
mi
sikul .
LOC
ART.C
school
‘In the morning, Tulok worked with Timot at school.’
The time constituent generally precedes the nucleus of a clause, but can be placed after the
predicate in order to allow another constituent to be topicalized.o other constituent of the clause.
490)
E
Tseong a
nga
pan si
ART.P Tseong
3S.SR PAST wake LOC
‘Tseong woke at dawn.’
vovo
mokopkop.
morning dawn
5.2 Grammatical relations
Noun phrases realize both the subject and the object constituents of clauses. The grammatical
relations of these two arguments are determined by their position in relation to the verb in a
clause. The subject either precedes the verbal predicate or else it follows the object NP (see
Section 5.3). Since the subject NP can occur clause terminally, the noun phrase that immediately
follows the predicate in a transitive clause is recognized as the object of the clause.
S
VP
O
491)
492)
Mi
kopuen a
ART.C
dog
3S.SR
‘The dog bit the pig.’
VP
A
nga
art-ie
3S.SR PAST
bite-TR
‘The dog bit the pig.’
nga
PAST
art-ie
bite-TR
O
mi
ART.C
bor.
pig
S
mi
ART.C
bor,
pig,
mi
ART.C
kopuen.
dog
The indirect object slot of a di-transitive clause is realized by a locative prepositional phrase
which encodes the goal or the beneficiary of the action.
VP
INDIRECT OBJECT O (DIRECT OBJECT)
493)
494)
nga
ter-ie
si
eou
PAST
feed-TR
LOC 1S
bush.knife all
‘He gave me all of his few(2-4) bush knifes.’
VP
INDIRECT OBJECT
A
3S.SR
si
LOC
A
3S.SR
te
nga
CMPL PAST
ra
go
ken
3S.PN
tus
vasanga-n
point show-3S.OP
ba
sele
ART.few
eie
3S
DIRECT OBJECT
ken
korot
nia
mutur.
3S.PN
place
PURP
lay.down
‘She went and pointed and showed him his place to lay down.’
Sometimes, the referent of the direct object is already known and the actual object NP is ellipsed
leaving only a VP and an indirect object in the surface structure of the clause.
VP
INDIRECT OBJECT
495)
A
kap
nga
penga-n
3S.SR NEG PAST
tell-3S.OP
‘She did not tell Tsakie (what happened).’
si
e
LOC ART.P
Tsakie.
Tsakie
The order of the direct and indirect object can be switched and still carry the same meaning.
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kokouk.
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VP
INDIRECT OBJECT
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DIRECT OBJECT
A
nga
ter-ie
ken
ba
eou.
3S.SR PAST feed-TR 3S.PN
ART.few
1S
‘He gave all of his few(2-4) bush knifes to me.’
sele
kokouk
si
bush.knife
all
LOC
As stated in the discussion of temporal and locative prepositional phrases in section 4.3,
temporal and locative constituents in the clause structure are encoded primarily by prepositional
phrases, often bracketing the nuclear clausal structure.
Temporal
Locative
497)
Si
vovo
o
LOC morning
1S.SR
‘Mornings I stay at home.’
vo
MORN
si
LOC
mon
stay
kong
1S.PN
vono.
house
The person and number of the subject is always indexed by the obligatory subject reference
pronoun in the verb phrase. The person and number of the object are often indexed by an object
reference pronoun in the verb phrase. Generally, if the object of a clause is known clearly by the
context, then just an object pronoun is used to mark the object. Otherwise, a noun phrase that
identifies the direct object follows the verb with the third person singular object pronoun.
Therefore in the following examples where the object is known in the context, only the object
pronoun is used to identify the object.
498)
E
Mama a
ART.P mother 3S.SR
‘Mother scolded them.’
nga
PAST
nasara-gie.
scold-3PL.OP
499)
E
Posai a
nga
bit-ie-guor.
ART.P Posai 3S.SR PAST cheat-TR-3DL.OP
‘Posai cheated them(dual).’
In sentences where the objects need to be identified or emphasized, a noun phrase
immediately follows the object pronoun.
nasara-gie bu
scold-3PL.OP
500)
E
mama a
nga
ART.P mother 3S.SR PAST
‘Mother scolded the young girls.’
501)
E
Posai a
nga
bit-ie-guor
ART.P Posai 3S.SR PAST cheat-TR-3DL.OP
e
Lunga.
ART.P Lunga
‘Posai cheated Timot and Lunga.’
tetsikevin.
ART.PL
young.girl
e
ART.P
Timot
Timot
ma
and
5.3 Topic and Focus
A clause constituent are topicalised by fronting it in its sentence. Generally the topicalised
constituent is uttered with an ascending pitch contour and followed by a pause.
502)
E
Pagin, eie mi
banga
ART.P
Pagin
3S ART good
‘Pagin (topic), he is a good man.’
503)
Mi
ei
nokot,
bu
pakapaka-n
ART tree
DEM.VIS
ART.PL
leaf-3S.PS
‘That tree over there(topic), its leaves are big.’
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ka.
man
a
3S.SR
leong.
big
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The normal order for the above example would be as below:
504)
Bu
pakapaka-n
mi
ei
ART.PL
leaf-3S.PS
ART
tree
‘The leaves of the tree over there are big.’
nokot
over.there
a
3S.SR
leong.
big
A constituent of a subordinate clause can be marked as a focus constituent by fronting it
before the subordinate connecting particle. In the example below, the underlined phrases encoding
focus are the temporal constituent and the subject of the subordinate clause, but they have been
fronted before the subordinate clause connector va.
505)
VP
LOCATION
CONNECTOR
O
lalaron
va
mi
1S.SR
3S.PS
want
SUB
ART.C bell
FOCUS: SUBJECT
FOCUS:
belo ta
IRR
ta
i
mua-n
cry
ART.L
front-
CONNECTOR
mi
matanias
va
ta
ART.C sun
SUB
IRR
‘I want the bell to cry before the sun ascends.’
van
climb
kien.
go.up
In the example below, the underlined phrase is a fronted manner adverbial construction
functioning as the focus of the sentence.
506)
O
1S.SR
te
kar
CMPL
car
nga
eng
si
e
Joe
ngan
mi
PAST
tell
LOC
ART.P Joe
INST
ART.C
va
ta
nemei.
SUB
IRR
come
‘I told Joe to come with the car.’
5.4 Clause Types Defined by Predicate Type and Transitive Issues
Clauses in Mandara language function as the bases in sentences. They can be sub-divided into
non-verbal and verbal clauses. A verb phrase functions as the predicate of a verbal clause. Verbal
clauses can be sub-divided into active clauses and stative clauses. The predicates of non-verbal
clauses are commonly noun phrases.
5.4.1 Non-Verbal Clauses
A non-verbal clause is made up of two obligatory elements, subject and predicate.
Non-Verbal Clause = S + P
The subject is realised by a noun phrase. Usually a noun phrase (sometimes in a possessive
construction) functions as the predicate. There is no copula in Mandara non-verbal clauses, nor
does the predicate have a subject referent marker.
In the following equative clauses, the subjects are indicated by bold font, and the predicates
are underlined.
507)
E
Lurang
ART.P
Lurang
‘Lurang is my child.’
508)
Eie
mi
va-va-vasengei.
3S
ART.C
RDP-RDP-show
‘He/She is a teacher.’
e
ART.P
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509)
E
Skoburur
man
beie
bu
Rumrum
ma bu
Kakang.
ART.P
Skoburur
3S.PI shark ART.PL
Rumrum
and ART.PL Kakang
‘Skoburur is the shark(totem) that bilongs to Rumrum clan and Kakang clan.’
510)
Ine
ken
DEIC.PROX 3S.PN
‘This is Larvi’s book.’
511)
Eie
e
papa
si
3S
ART.P father
LOC
‘He is my father (father of mine)’
512)
E
ART.P
Ko
Ko
ma
and
buk
book
e
ART.P
Larvi.
Larvi
eou.
1S
e
Kiem
ART.P Kiem
eguor
3DL
ba
ART.few
baser
ARR.people
palapala-n.
friend-3S.PS
kelei.
good
‘Ko and Kiem they two are good friends.’
513)
Ian
mi
natunatu
DEIC.DIST1
ART.C
baby
‘That piglet is a disobedient pig.’
bor
pig
mi
ART.C
bor rong
tsak.
pig hear bad
Negation in Non-Verbal Constructions
A negated non-verbal construction has the following structure: The negation morpheme ‘kap’
functions as a rhetorical predicate, does not occur with a subject referent and dominates the
subordinate clause which encodes the semantic predicate. The complementizer ‘va’ initiates the
subordinate clause.
Negated Non-Verbal Construction = S kap [va non-verbal P]SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
514)
E
Lunga
kap
ART.P
Lunga
NEG
‘Lunga is not a little boy.’
va
SUB
mi
ART.C
natu
off.spring
madar
young.man
5.4.2 Verbal Clause
The verbal clause type covers both active and stative clauses. The only obligatory element of
a verbal clause is the predicate that is realised by a verb phrase.
Verbal Clause=(S) P (O)
515)
516)
A
mereik.
3S.SR
red
‘It is red.’
**Stative clause
A
palu.
3S.SR
plays
‘He/She plays.’
** Active clause
5.4.2.1 Stative Clause
The stative clause type includes descriptive and numerical clauses.
5.4.2.1.1 Descriptive Clause
The descriptive clauses express the feeling, description, or the state of a situation. The verb
slot in the verb phrase is filled with a stative verb or a derived stative verb. The true adjectives
discussed in Section 3.6.1 never fill the stative verb slot of the predicate.
517)
Ine
mi
DEIC.PROX
ART.C
‘This pig is small.’
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pig
a
3S.SR
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lili.
small
lili.
small
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518)
E
Lenre
a
ART.P
Lenre
3S.SR
‘Lenre is light colored(skin).’
519)
E
Lenre a
ART.P
Lenre 3S.SR
‘Lenre was tired.’
70
meneir.
light.colored
matpomar.
tired
nga
PAST
In Mandara impersonal environmental conditions like weather are expressed with this type of
clause. The environmental factor can be overtly stated in the subject slot but is optional.
a
3S.SR
os.
rain
520)
Mi
bat
ART.C
rain
‘It is raining.’
521)
Mi
inamon
a
ART.C
village
3S.SR
‘The weather in the village is hot.’
rarap.
hot
A clause in which the main predicate is a verb with the stative derivational prefix ka- is another form of a stative clause.
522)
Mi
lavlav
a
ART.C
fabric
3S.SR
‘The fabric is torn.’
te
CMPL
ka-deir.
PASS-tear
In the below example the wind has been demoted from the agent to an oblique position in
order to make a passive construction.
523)
Mi
geleu a
nga
ka-pot
ART.C canoe 3S.SR PAST PASS-break
‘The canoe was broken by the strong wind.’
si
LOC
mi
ART.C
mour
wind
ngeisngeis.
strong
Comparison Clause
In a comparison clause the comparison of the subject to another item or a person is expressed
by inserting the modality morpheme ki in the verb phrase. The compared item or person is
described in a phrase headed by the preposition si.
524)
Mi
singa
a
ki
kelei
si
mi
batapalai.
ART.C Singer
3S.SR
SUP
good
LOC
ART.C
Butterfly
‘The Singer(brand sewing machine) is better than the Butterfly (brand).’
525)
E
Lunga a
ki
tsak si
ART.P Lunga 3S.SR SUP bad LOC
‘Lunga is worse than Lenre.’
e
Lenre.
ART.P Lenre
A superlative comparison is expressed by the use of the intensifier beitsak after the
verb,888888
88
which is
then followed by a phrase headed by the preposition si.
beitsak
INTS
526)
E
Lunga a
leong
ART.P Lunga 3S.SR
big
‘Lunga is the tallest of them three.’
si
LOC
e
ART.P
527)
I
Poponovam
a
lili
beitsak si
ART.L Poponovam
3S.SR
little
INTS
LOC
‘Poponovam ( village) is the smallest village of all the villages.’
gito
3PC
bu
ART.PL
inamon
village
5.4.2.1.2 Numerical Clause
Functioning as stative verbs a numeral can also fill the predicate slot of a stative clause along
with the obligatory subject reference pronoun and some of the optional pre-nuclear auxiliaries
such as tense and aspect markers. The optional post-nuclear auxiliaries can also accompany a
numeral.
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kokouk
together
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528)
Ken
sar
avreit
3S.PN ART.PL
year
‘Lenre’s age became five.’
529)
Si
LOC
mi
ART.C
avreit
year
e
ART.P
Lenre
Lenre
1997,
1997,
ken
3S.PN
71
a
3S.SR
te
CMPL
sar
ART.PL
avreit
year
nepeririem.
five
e
ART.P
anga voveit.
PAST four
‘In the year of 1997, Lenre’s age was four.’
530)
Kong
sar
bor a
ngas
tour
1S.PI
ART.PL
pig
3S.SR PERS
three
‘My pigs are only three.(I only have three pigs)’
mo.
LIM
5.4.2.2 Active Clause
Active clauses in Mandara fall into three categories according to transitivity. They are
intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive clauses.
5.4.2.2.1 Intransitive Clause
An intransitive clause is predicated by an intransitive verb. By definition, there is only one
core argument, the subject in an intransitive clause, and may only be referenced by a subject
reference pronoun within the verb phrase.
531)
O
vo
pan.
1S.SR
MORN
wake
‘I woke up in the morning.’
532)
A
vongon
si
mi
3S.SR
fishing
LOC
ART.C
‘He is fishing in the deep water.’
raman.
deep.water
5.4.2.2.2 Transitive Clause
In transitive clauses, the verbsl predicate is followed by an obligatory object pronoun. An
optional noun phrase may follow this verb + object pronoun construction.. If the information the
noun phrase is communicating is already known at the discourse level, the referential object
pronoun is sufficient to communicate the object.
533)
A
nga
vorota-n
3S.SR PAST find-3S.OP
‘He found his pig.’
534)
A
nga
me
3S.SR PAST
come
‘He came and found me.’
ken
3S.PN
bor.
pig
vorota-iou.
find-1S.OP
5.4.2.2.3 Ditransitive Clause
Like the intransitive and transitive clauses, the ditransitive clause has an obligatory verb
phrase with a subject reference pronoun and in the transitive clause, an obligatory post-verbal
clitic pronoun that references the direct object. Additionally ditransitive clauses have an obligatory
indirect object, realised by a benefactive phrase with the preposition ‘si’ followed by either just an
independent pronoun or a full noun phrase.
535)
A
nga
vasanga-gie
si
3S.SR PAST feed-TR-3PL.OP
LOC
3S.PS
‘He showed me his children(more than 4).’
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eou
1S
bu
ART.PL
natu-on.
off.spring-
Lenre
Lenre
3S.SR
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A
nga
ter-ie-Ø
3S.SR PAST
give-TR-3S.OP
‘He gave me a bush knife.’
si
eou
LOC 1S
72
mi
ART.C
sele.
bush.knife
The basic order of the two object noun phrases that may occur in a ditransitive clause is the
indirect object prepositional phrase immediately following the verb phrase and then the direct
object noun phrase afterwards. When the speaker wishes to promote or topicalize the direct object,
he or she reorders the noun phrases so the direct object noun phrase precedes the indirect object
prepositional phrase, as in examples (537) and (538).
537)
A
nga vasanga-gie
bu
natu-on
3S.SR PAST feed.TR-3PL.OP ART.PL off.spring-3S.PS
‘He showed his children (more than 4) to me.’
538)
A
nga
ter-ie-Ø
mi
sele
si
eou.
3S.SR PAST give-TR-3S.OP ART.C bush.knife LOC 1S
‘He/She gave a bush knife to me.’
si
LOC
eou.
1S
5.4.2.3 Negation in Verbal Clauses
Except in the case of imperative clauses, a verbal clause is negated by inserting the negation
marker kap as a pre-nuclear constituent of the verb phrase
.
539)
E
Lunga a
kap lalaro-n
ART.P Lunga 3S.SR NEG like-3S
‘Lunga doesn’t like fish’
540)
A
kap ngas nga
ko
per-ie ka
3S.SR NEG PERS PAST HAB see-TR ART.NR
‘He had never seen foreigners.’
mi
ie.
ART.C fish
kuir kevel.
skin foreign
6. SENTENCE TYPES BY MODAL FEATURES
Sentences Mandara can be organised by modal categories, which reflect the intent of the
speaker. As clauses in the previous section describe the indicative sentences, this section presents
the examples of imperative, hortatory, prohibitive, and interrogative sentences.
6.1.1 Imperative and Hortatory Sentences
6.1.1.1 Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence encodes a strong command. It is generally short, and the subject
reference pronoun in the verb phrase is dropped. Depending on the level of transitivity, a main
verb may occur by itself or with a direct object and sometimes an indirect object of the verb.
VERB
DIRECT OBJECT
541)
Poro
mi
sele!
take
ART.C bush.knife
‘Take the bush knife.’
VERB-OP
INDIRECT OBJECT
542)
Vasanga-n si
show-3S.OP LOC
‘Show me the rat!’
VERB
543)
Bong!
silent
‘Be silent!’
eou
1S
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DIRECT OBJECT.
mi
ART.C
72
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rat
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6.1.1.2 Hortatory Sentence
An exhortation or a mild command is given with more complete clause structure. The subject
reference pronoun and the irrealis marker precede the verb. This manner of speech communicates
a gentler attitude of the speaker than the imperative sentence does.
544)
E
ta
bong!
2S.SR IRR
silent
‘You be silent!’
545)
Nga
ta
ra
2PL.SR
IRR go
‘You guys go to work!’
tsatsang!
work
More careful and polite advice is expressed by adding the modality word ve to the verb
phrase.
546)
E
ta
ve
ra penga-n
2S.SR IRR POL go tell-3S
‘(You) go tell him/her!’
si-en!
LOC-3S
6.1.1.3 Prohibitive Sentence
The negation of an imperative sentence is done with the prohibitive verb kia inflected for the
person of the commandee plus the verb sequencing particle nge in front of the main verb.
547)
Kia-Ø
nge
vaparir!
PROH-2S.PS
VCON
disturb
‘(You-singular) Don’t disturb!’
548)
Kia-ngodo
nge
vaparir!
PROH-2DL.PS
VCON disturb
‘(You people) Don’t disturb!’
Another form of the negative imperative sentence is possible with the prohibitive verb kia
inflected for third person singular which dominates either a noun phrase with a nominalised verb
(ARTICLE + action verb root) or a regular imperative sentence subordinated by the
complementizer va.
549)
Kia-n
mi
bit!
PROH-3S.PS ART.C lie
‘No lying!(Don’t lie!)’
550)
Kia-n
va
e
PROH-3S.PS SUB 2S.SR
‘Don’t feel sad!’
551)
Kia-n
va
nga
ta
PROH-3S.SR SUB 2PL.SR IRR
‘(You – plural) Do not prevent them.’
ta
ar-tsak!
IRR mind-bad
vangenge gie!
prevent
3PL.OP
6.1.2 Interrogative Sentences
There are three types of interrogative sentences in Mandara: the polar questions which
anticipate an answer of “yes” or “no”, those which expect reconfirmation of the fact, and those
which expect some content information in response.
6.1.2.1 Polar questions
Questions which expect an answer of “yes” or “no” often differ from statements only in the
associated intonational contour. The intonational contour is rising, and the clause ends at a fairly
high pitch.
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552)
E
Lunga
ART.P Lunga
‘Is Lunga home?’
a
3S.SR
mon
stay
si
LOC
mi
ART.C
553)
Ma
ka
da
a
mon
2S.PI ART.NR water(bottle) 3S.SR
stay
‘Do you have any (bottles of) water that are yours?’
74
vono? (raised pitch)
house
si
LOC
evoi?
2S
6.1.2.2 Rhetorical questions
Rhetorical questions are asked with the question word vasa ‘how about that’ preceding a
polar question. There is always a distinctive pause after the word vasa.
554)
Vasa, a
kon kelei ?
HOW1, 3S.SR taste good ?
‘How about that, tastes good (doesn’t it)?
Rhetorical questions often end with the question tag word gerek to receive confirmation.
555)
Vasa, kong
v-in-akokoit a
duis
, gerek?
HOW1, 1S.PN NOM-talk
3S.SR straight , QTAG
‘How’s that, my words are right, aren’t they?’
6.1.2.3 Content-information questions
There are question-words used in content questions which are asked in order to obtain
information. These words substitute (are pro-forms) for other words in declarative clauses: ese
‘who’ and misa ‘what’ for nouns and pronouns; misana ‘which’ for adjectives; sisa or venenges
‘when’ for temporal expressions; ivie together with en meaning ‘where’ for location; a
discontinuous phrase, vasa together with ven meaning ‘how’ for manner, and surie misa
‘following what’ is used for reasons. Generally, the question words occur initially in a clause.
6.1.2.3.1 Ese ‘who’ questions
The interrogative-indefinite pronoun ese is used to inquire about the identity of a person in
focus or to elicit the name of a person. It substitutes for an independent pronoun or a personal
noun phrase. The word order of ese questions is not particularly different from statements, with
the exception of possessive structures.
556)
Ese
ine
WHO
DEIC.PROX
‘Who is this man?’
557)
Ese
mi
asa-n?
WHO ART.C name-3S.PS
‘What is his/her name?’
558)
Ese
a
vovovo?
WHO 3S.SR fuss
‘Who is fussing?’
559)
Egie
ese?
3pl
WHO
‘Who are they?’
560)
Si
ese
ken
LOC WHO 3S.PN
‘Whose dog is this?’
mi
ART.C
kopuen
dog
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ka?
man
ine?
DEIC.PROX
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6.1.2.3.2 misa ‘what’ questions
The interrogative-indefinite pronoun misa is used to elicit more details concerning the
object of a clause.
561)
Misa
e
lalaro-n?
WHAT 2S.SR like-3S
‘What does he/she want?’
562)
Misa
a
nga
kuin ngan?
WHAT 3S.SR PAST shoot INST
‘What did he/she shoot with?’
563)
Misa
a
petseir surie ?
WHAT 3S.SR upset
REAS
‘What is he/she upset about?’
6.1.2.3.3 misana ‘which’ question
The interrogative indefinite pro-word misana functions as a modifier for the head noun in a
noun phrase.
564)
Misana ie
a
ko
WHICH fish 3S.SR
HAB
‘Which fish (always) defeats you?
565)
Misana kepineits
e
te
tsana si
kong
bor?
WHICH thing
2S.SR
CMPL
do
LOC 3S.PN
pig
‘Which thing did you do to my pig?’(What have you done to my pig?)
tseptseprio-no?
defeat-2S.OP
6.1.2.3.4 sisa or venenges ‘when’ question
The interrogative-indefinite pro-words sisa and venenges are used interchangeably for
inquiring about time information.
566)
Sisa nga
te
beit?
WHEN
3PL.SR CMPL arrive
‘When did you(plural) arrive?’
567)
Venenges giet
WHEN
1PL.INC.SR
‘When will we embark?’
ta ba
tsuk?
IRR ASSU embark
The specific day or time of day can be asked with the misana question word in a temporal
phrase.
568)
Si
misana ra e
LOC WHICH day 2S.SR
‘Which day did you arrive?’
569)
Si
misana kepkepde ra mi
sikul a
ko
vakak?
LOC WHICH piece
day ART.C school 3sr.SR HAB start
‘What time (of the day) does the school start?’
te
nga
beit?
CMPL PAST arrive
6.1.2.3.5 ivie - en ‘where’ question
The interrogative-indefinite pro-word ivie is used to elicit locational information. It is used
at the beginning of a clause which is often tagged by en ‘Specific Location’ at the end of the
clause. This clause type is used to get more specific information about a location.
570)
Ivie
a
mon
en?
WHERE
3S.SR
stay
SPEC-LOC
‘Where is he at?’ or ‘Where does he live?’
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571)
Ivie
ngodo
ta
WHERE
2DL.SR
IRR
‘ Where are you (dual) going?’
572)
Ivie
e
ta
ra kot
en?
WHERE 2S.SR IRR go NEAR SPEC-LOC
‘Where are you going to?’
76
ra?
go
6.1.2.3.6 vasa - ven ‘how’ question
The interrogative-indefinite pro-words vasa and ven encoding manner are used together in a
clause to inquire about the manner in which something is done, but their position in a clause is not
together: vasa is in the clause initial position while ven is post-verbal. Generally, the intonational
contour rises at the end of clauses of this kind.
573)
Vasa a
to ven?
HOW1 3g.SR live how.2
‘How does it grow?’
574)
Vasa
nga
ko
pal beie ven
i
rou?
HOW1 3PL.SR HAB tie shark HOW2 ART.L sea
‘How do you (plural) catch shark in the sea?
7. COMPLEX SENTENCES2
In Mandara, the relative clauses and the nominal clauses do not take any clause connecting
particles while other subordinate clauses require sentence level connectors.
Table 7.1 Sentence Level Connectors
2
Clause
Connectors
Types of sentence the
connector is used for.
Marked with ta, the
irrealis marker?
va
Complement, Purpose,
Reason
yes
after
si/sien/ tuiroit
Temporal
yes
before
sen va
Conditional
yes
before
si mi vunan
Reason
no
after
misasin
Adversative
yes
before or after
nia
Complement, Purpose
no
after
ma/a/io
Coordinated
no
after
eiekesen
Contrastive
no
after
o
Alternation
yes
after
terengen va
Purpose
yes
before or after
General Position in
relation to the main
This section has been superceded by a paper Holly Hong is currently writing: ‘Connectors in Mandara’. Although this
grammar essentials was written in 199? and approved as fulfilling the grammar essentials, the editing process is just
being completed now.
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7.1 Subordinate Clauses
In all non-future event describing subordinate clauses, if the subordinate clause is marked by
the irrealis marker ta and the subject of the subordinate clause is the third person singular then the
subject reference pronoun is omitted.
7.1.1 Relative Clause
A subordinate clause may modify a noun head in a noun phrase. It is postposed to the noun
head without any subordinate conjunction and is marked by the irrealis marker ta. In below
examples, the head noun phrase is bolded and the relative clause is underlined.
575)
Ine
mi
geleu e
Lekion ta
nga
tara a
kap nga mat kelei.
DEIC.PROX ART.C canoe ART.P Lekion IRR PAST cut 3S.SR NEG PAST look good
‘This canoe (that) Lekion cut didn’t look nice.’
576)
Gi
nga
per-ie ine
mi
3PL.SR PAST see-TR DEIC.PROX ART.C
‘They saw this man (who) walked and arrived.’
577)
A
nga
3S.SR PAST
IRR
visi
READY
dedeng
RDP-see
ka
man
ta
IRR
mi
berber
ART.C light
si
LOC
nga
PAST
veis beit.
walk arrive
ian
ta
DEIC.DIST1
nga
rar
rovtsor
ka
si
mi
vindua.
PAST
illuminate
exit
by.way.of
LOC
ART.C
window
‘He was about to see intendly at that light (that) was illuminating and was coming
out through the window.’
578)
A
si
nga
3S.SR CE
PAST
mi
morumorua-n mi
nga
per-ie
PASR
see-TR ART.C image-3PS
vevin
ta
ART.C female IRR
mogos
die
i
rom.
sit
DEIC.dist2
ART.L
inside
‘He unexpectedly saw an image of a woman (who) was sitting there inside.’
The content-information question words can be described by a subordinate clause.
579)
Gi
nga
rakot
ivie
3PL.SR PAST
go.to
WHERE
‘They went to where (he) was staying.’
580)
A
nga
ra pengan si-en
misana ta
te
nga
3S.SR PAST go tell
LOC-3S.PS which
IRR CMPL PAST
ta
IRR
nga
mon
PAST stay
en.
SPEC-LOC
tsana
make
si
LOC
e
Us.
ART.P
Us
‘She went and told him what she had done to Us.’
581)
A
nga
vasangan si
egie vasa
gi
ta
palu ven
ngan mi
bal.
3S.SR PAST illustrate
LOC 3PL HOW1 3PL.SR IRR play HOW2 INST ART.C ball
‘He/she illustrated to them how they would play with a ball.’
7.1.2 Nominalized Clauses
A subordinate clause may fill the subject or the object slot of a clause. It is also marked with
the irrealis marker ta.
In the example below the subordinate clause is occupying the subject slot
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582)
Mi
uriet
ART.C octopus
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ta
IRR
nga
PAST
mogos
sit
78
a
nga
mat
3S.SR PAST look
malan mi
madar
ta
nga
kok
like
ART.C young.man
IRR
PAST piggy.back.ride
i
vunaturu-on
e
Lenre.
ART.L back-3S.PS
ART.P Lenre
‘That the octopus was sitting it looked like a child was piggy-back-riding on the back of Lenre.’
583)
O
si vo
pere mi
ro-rou
ta
nga
vous ngan mi
kulou...
1S.SR CE MORN see ART.C GEN-sea IRR PAST fill
INST ART.C men…
‘In the morning I unexpectedly saw that the ocean was filled with men...(fishing in
their canoes’
7.1.3 Complement Clauses
There are two types of complement clauses in Mandara. The first type is headed by the
subordinating conjunction va; the second type is headed by the purpose preposition nia. The
complement clause always follows the main clause.
7.1.3.1 Complement Clauses with the complementiser va
The subordinate clause headed by va complements encodes many different notions. It realises
icognitive predicates,. indirect quotations, complements of desiderative predicates, complements
of modal verbs, predicates commmunicating fear and feeling, purpose constructions, and temporal
constructions. The verb phrase in the va clause is marked with the irrealis marker ta and is fully
inflected with its own subject reference pronoun, tense, aspect, and modality markers.
Complementing Cognitive Predicates
The cognitive verbs such as vodon ‘think’, telekiran ‘know’, and deng kilala ‘recognize’
take the complementation clauses led by va as their objects.
584)
Guor
te
nga
vodon
3PL.SR CMPL PAST think
va guor
ta
SUB 3DL.SR IRR
nga ra
PAST go
rakpe
catch
ine
DEIC.PROX
mi
bebe.
ART.C butterfly
‘They(two) thought that they go to catch this butterfly.’
585)
A
kap
nga
telekiran va
o
te
nga
vor
de-deng menentan.
3S.SR NEG
PAST know
SUB 1S.SR CMPL PAST PROG RDP-see secretly
‘He did not know that I was secretly watching him.’
586)
A
nangaba nga
deng kilala va mi
berber a
nga
3S.SR RELF
PAST see
mark SUB ART.C light
3S.SR PAST
rovtsor si
mi
vono.
exit
LOC
ART.C house
‘He finally recognized that a light was coming out of a house.’
Although infrequent, the particle nia is also used as a complementiser with the cognitive verb
vodon ‘think’. See Section 6.1.3.2 for the description of the subordinate clause headed by the
particle nia.
587)
A
te
nga
vodon nia
ra keken.
3S.SR CMPL PAST think PURP go gather.firewood
‘He though to go and gather (some) firewood.’
Indirect quotation
An indirect quotation is declared by the verbs eng ‘say’, pengan ‘say-INST’, and verie ‘ask’.
The goal of the talk immediately follows the verb, and the direct object is realised by a
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subordinate clause, optionally headed by one of the complementizers va and nia, or one of the
content-information question words.
588)
E
Tseong
ART.P Tseong
a
nga
eng
3S.SR PAST say
si
LOC
e
ART.P
Gom
Gom
va
SUB
guor
3DL.SR
ta
nga
ser
beit
si
man
votovoto
mi
siner.
IRR
PAST
run
arrive LOC 3S.PI RDP-finish ART.C NOM-run
‘Tseong told Gom that they run a race of arriving on the finishing line.’
589)
te
nga
pengan si
CMPL PAST say
LOC
E
kina-guor
a
ART.P mother-3DL.PS 3S.SR
eguor
3DL
va
mi
bor
leong
a
nga
karar-ie gie.
SUB
ART.C
pig
big
3S.SR
PAST
chase-TR 3PL.OP
‘Their(dual) mother told them(dual) that a big pig chased them(plural).’
590)
591)
A
nga
oeng si
bu
madar
tovtov
nia
tabare gie
3S.SR PAST say
LOC ART.PL young.man RDP-practice PURP feed
‘He told the students to feed them.’
A
nga
oeng si
egie
misa ta
nga
3S.SR PAST say
LOC 3S.OP what IRR PAST
‘He told them what he saw.’
3PL.OP
pere
see
Complements of Desiderative Predicates
592)
E
lalaron va
gi
ta
me
2S.SR want
SUB 3PL.SR IRR COME
‘Do you want them to come and kill(hit) you?’
593)
O
lalaron va o
ta
te
vor-ie nokot
mi
bor.
1S.SR want
SUB 1S.SR IRR CMPL buy-TR DEM.VIS ART.C pig
‘I want to buy the pig over there.’
kada-no?
hit-2S.OP
Complements of Modal Verbs
594)
A
3S.SR
kap
NEG
nga
PAST
oit
able
va
SUB
gato
te
nga
1PC.EXC.SR CMPL PAST
tir
stand
i
popo-n
ka
vuna vout.
ART.L
top-3S.PS ART.NR
root
stone
‘It was not possible for us to stand on top of any rock.’
595)
A
oit va e
ta
kul-ie
iou.
3S.SR able SUB 2S.SR IRR help-TR 1S.OP
‘Is it possible for you to help me?’
Predicates of Fearing & Feeling
596)
Gor
1DL.EXC.SR
nga
PAST
motou va
afraid SUB
mi
ART.C
uriet
octopus
ngan
gor.
INST
1DL.EXC.OP
‘We were afraid that the octopus might clasp unto us(dual).’
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ta
IRR
masi
CEP
rak-rak
RDP-clasp
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E
kina-n
a
te
nga
motou
ART.P mother-3S.PS 3S.SR CMPL PAST afraid
3S.PS
ta
IRR
te
madar.
CMPL
young.man
nga
so
PAST IMM
va
e
SUB ART.P
tama-n
father-
patser-ie
bu
natu
angry-TR
ART.PL off.spring
‘His mother was afraid that his father might have gotten mad at the boys.’
598)
A
te
nga
rongmititsien
3S.SR CMPL PAST feel
va
SUB
man
3S.PI
menrouk
sickness
a
te
nga
voto.
3S.SR CMPL PAST finish
‘He felt that his sicknedd was finished.’
Complements with other predicates
599)
A
te
nga
ko
mon malan va eie mi
sinartsak.
3S.SR CMPL PASR HAB stay alike SUB 3S ART.C poor
‘He used to stay like a poor man.’
600)
A
kelei
3S.SR good
be
INT
mo
LIM
va
SUB
e
2S.SR
ta
IRR
ter-ie
give-TR
mong vinatorois.
1S.PI NOM-punish
‘It is alright only that you give me the punishment of mine.’
601)
Guor
te
nga
3DL.SR CMPL PAST
pere
see
va
SUB
ian
DEIC.dist1
mi
ART.C
korot
place
a
vous
ngan
bu
gam.
3S.SR
full
INST
ART.PL shell.fish
‘They(dual) saw that that place was full of shell fish.’
602)
Guor
te
nga
pere va
a
te
nga meit
3DL.SR CMPL PAST see SUB 3S.SR CMPL PAST low.tide
‘They(dual) saw that it(water) was really well low tide.(?English)’
603)
Guor
nga
rev
va
guor
ta
nga
3DL.SR PAST promise SUB 3DL.SR
IRR PAST
‘They(dual) promised that they(dual) would go fishing.’
ra
go
vongon.
fishing
604)
A
nga
konon va
ta
nga
3S.SR PAST try
SUB IRR PAST
‘He tried to walk in order to go see…’
ra
go
pere...
see
veis nia
walk PURP
kelei
good
te.
Emph
7.1.3.2 Complement Clause headed by nia
The complement clause headed by the purpose preposition nia can complement modal verbs.
The description of a subordinate clause led by nia is described in Section 6.1.3.2.
605)
Mi
kina
bor a
kap nga
oit nia
veis kelei te
buer.
ART.C mother pig 3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP walk good Emph also
‘The female pig was not able to walk well again.’
606)
Gor
kap oit
nia
kepineits.
1DL.EXC.SR NEG able
PURP
thing
‘We (dual) cannot forget this event’
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vodonpunan
ine
mi
forget
DEIC.PROX
ART.C
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7.1.4 Temporal Clause
The temporal subordinate clause is led by a locative preposition ‘si’, ‘sien’ ‘when’ or by the
connector tuiroit ‘stand-able (until)’ . It is marked with the irrealis marker ta. It generally occurs
initially in a complex sentence.
607)
Si
mi
LOC ART.C
poko
keipkeipde
ARR.measureable fragment
ra
day
ta
IRR
nga
PAST
mono ser,
CONT run,
a
nga
mono
er
muer...
3S.SR PAST
MONO
observe
return....
‘At the time (he) was running, he kept looking back...’
608)
Si-en
LOC-3S.PS
ta
nga
visi
rov,
mi
rakaraka
IRR PAST READY swing, ART.C branch
ei
tree
a
te
nga
ka-rot.
3S.SR
CMPL PAST
PASS-break
‘When (he) was ready to swing, the tree branch got broken.’
609)
Tuiroit
until
guor
3DL.SR
ta
IRR
nga
PAST
beit
arrive
i
ART.L
marar,
outside,
bu
patsa-guor
gi
kap
nga
ra
muang.
ART.PL relative-3DL.PS 3PL.SR NEG PAST go
sleep
‘Until they (two) returned to the living-area, their relatives did not go to sleep.’
7.1.5 Conditional Structures
The protasis clause is headed by sien ‘when’ followed by the subordinated va. It is marked by
the irrealis marker ta. The protasis generally precedes the main clause (apodosis), but it can also
follow the main clause (apodosis).
610)
Si-en
va
e
ta
mogos
LOC-3S.PS SUB 2S.SR IRR sit
‘If you sit on it, the bench will break.’
611)
Si-en
va
ta
te
vaton mi
pul,
e
ta
te
outie
LOC-3S.PS SUB IRR CMPL finish ART.C, 2S.SR IRR CMPL wrap
‘If done with milking with coconut, then (you) wrap it.’
612)
Si-en
va
nga
LOC-3S.PS SUB
PASTfind-
vorota-n
3S.OPART.NR
ka
ART.NR
i
popo-n,
ART.L top-3S,
mi
tsuru ta korot
ART.C bench IRR break
ese
si
eguor
va
WHO
LOC
3DL
SUB IRR
puk
ARR.MASS
sa,
thing,
ta
IRR
ngas
PERS
ta
nga
PAST
vododo-m-ie e
palapala-n
ka
eie
think.about-TR
ART.P
friend-3S.PS
by.way.of
3S
‘If one of them(dual) found some portion of something, then he had to think about
the other (person).’
7.1.6 Result-Reason Construction
The most common way to express a reason in a clause is to incorporate the locative
prepositional phrase si mi vuna-n ‘LOC ART.C root-3S.PS (because)’. The reason clause always
come after the main clause which contains the event which is the result of the event of the reason
clause.
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E
Momoi
vuna-n
ART.P Momoi
root-3S.PS
a
kap
3S.SR NEG
nga
maet
PAST die
82
si
mi
LOC ART.C
e
kina-n
a
te
nga
suru-v-ie
nge
ART.P mother-3S.PS 3S.SR CMPL PAST wash-CINS-TR VCON
water
‘Momoi did not die. Because his mother washed him with water.’
614)
O
kap
1S.SR NEG
da.
oit nia
sor-k-ie
no
te,
able PURP carry-CINS-TR 2S.OP Emph,
si-mi vunan o
te
ngou
ti
beitsak.
LOC-ART.C root-3S.PS 1S.SR
CMPL eat
full
INTS1
‘I cannot carry you because I ate and got full too much.’
To some predicates like petseir ‘to get angry’ and nasara ‘to scold’, the subordinate clause
led by va is used to explain the reason for the action in the main clause.
615)
Guor
te
3DL.SR CMPL
nga
PAST
petseir,
angry
va
guor
ta
ngas
keda
ian mi
bor.
SUB
3DL.SR IRR
PERS hit(kill)
DEIC.dist1 ART.C pig
‘They(dual) were angry because they(dual) had to kill that pig.’
616)
Guor
te
3DL.SR CMPL
nga
nasara gor
e
PAST scold
1DL.EXC.OP ART.P
Bungtabu,
Bungtabu
va
gor
kap
nga
mono
kul-ie
guor.
SUB
1DL.EXC.SR PAST CONT help-TR
3DL.OP
‘They(dual) scold me and Bungtabu, because we continuously did not help
them(dual)’
7.1.7 Concessive Sentence
The subordinate clause encoding a concession is headed by the particle misa-si-en ‘although
(lit. what-LOC-3S.PN ()’. It generally follows the main clause, but can be made the sentential
topic by fronting it as in example (618). The clause is marked by ta the irrealis marker.
617)
A
ngas nga
tuir ngeisngeis misasien ta
te
nga
komois te.
3S.SR PERS PAST stand strong
regardless IRR CMPL PAST old
Emph
‘He still stood strong (in his good work) even though (he) was old.’
618)
Misasien mi
bat ta
uos,
ine
mi
labateven ta
ngas ve
vekesie
mi
leke...
regardless ART.C
rain IRR rain.down, DEIC.PROX ART.C
old.woman IRR PERS POL
hang.on.head ART.C
basket.type...
‘Even though it would rain, this old woman must hang her basket on her head...’(to
go to sell her food)’
7.1.8 Purpose Clause
7.1.8.1 Purpose Subordinate Particle nia
The subordinate clause headed by nia is composed of a verb phrase without the subject
reference pronoun and the tense, aspect, modality markers in the pre-nuclear auxiliary slots. The
scope of the tense, aspect, modality, and the negation of the main clause dominates the event in
the nia clause.
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Mi
kina
bor a
kap nga
oit nia
veis kelei te
buer.
ART.C mother pig 3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP walk good Emph also
‘The female pig was not able to walk well again.’
The nia subordinate clause construction focuses on the projected event itself rather than the
agent of the event.Therefore reference of the subject in the nia clause can be ambiguous, left for
the listener to figure out from the sentential context. However, there are some general rules that
apply. When the main clause is intransitive, the nia subordinate clause usually has the same
subject as that of the main clause. The subject of the subordinate nia clause for a transitive or a ditransitive main clause can be any of the three arguments of the main clause. One commonly used
device is that the noun phrase immediately preceding the nia clause is its subject. Most of the
time, contextual clues are sufficient to establish reference.
In the example below, the main clause and the nia subordinate clause have the same subject.
620)
A
te
nga
vakak nia
ser.
3S.SR CMPL PAST begin PURP run
‘He begain to run.’
The subject of the nia clause in example (622) is Ador, the direct object of the main clause.
621)
E
Kopuen
a
te
tura-n
ART.P
Kopuen
3S.SR
CMPL send-3S.OP
mo
e
Ador
LIM
ART.P
Ador
nia
kien
i
ot.
PURP go.up
ART.L bush
‘Kopuen sent Ador only to go up to the bush.’
The subjects of the nia clauses in the examples below are the same as that of the main
clause.’
622)
Gi
3PL.SR
te
CMPL
nga
PAST
poro
take
kegi
3S.PN
sar
ART.PL
matou
axe
nia
me
keda
mi
kulou
si
mi
PURP
come
kill
ART.C
people
LOC ART.C
‘They took their several axes to come and kill the people in the village.’
623)
E
Pus
ART.P Pus
a
3S.SR
te
nga
CMPL PAST
so
IMM
ser
run
i
ART.L
enamon
village
muo
front
nia
ra
per-ie mi
leke
nout.
PURP go
see-TR ART.C
basket
fruit.type
‘Pus quickly ran in the front to go see the basket with nout fruits.’
The subjects of the nia clause in the examples below are the indirect object of the main
clause.
624)
Ine
DEIC.PROX
3S.OP
mi
vevin
vasanga-n
ART.C woman
a
te
nga
3S.SR
CMPL PAST
si-eie
ken
korot
nia
mutur.
LOC-3S 3S.PN place
PURP
lay.down
‘This woman pointed and showed him his place to lay down.’
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ra
tus
go
point show-
te
Emph
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625)
O
1S.SR
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ta
IRR
ter-ie
give-TR
si-evoi
LOC-2S
bu
ART.PL
84
ngeisngeis
strength
nia
tsitsing-ie
bu
mata-vono.
PURP open-TR
ART.PL
eye-house
‘I will give you the power to open the doors to houses.’
In example (626), Tames is asking his brother to make a noose to snare the female pig.
Because this is a command Tames is giving to his brother, the default subject of the nia clause is
encoded by the second person, singular subject reference marker in the verb phrase i the main
clause.
626)
E
2S.SR
ta
IRR
tsana
make
ka
ART.NR
pal
noose
nia pala
die mi kinabor
PURP tie DEIC.dist1 ART.C mother pig
‘You make a noose to tie that female pig.’
In the example below, the subject of the nia clause is unclear. Is it the subject of the main clause
who will get rid of his bad skin or someone else?
627x661)
A
3S.SR
te
CMPL
nga
PAST
nes-ie
search-TR
ka
ART.NR
nia
tsang
rivie
ine
PURP
work
discard
DEIC.PROX
‘He searched for a way to get rid of this bad skin.’
rosar
way
mi
ART.C
pirpir
skin
tsak.
bad
Although the scope of the tense in the main clause is applied to the nia subordinate clause,
some speakers choose to mention the tense marker nga ‘PAST’ again.
628)
Mi
ART.C
ra
day
a
3S.SR
te
CMPL
nga
PAST
nia
nga
keda
ian
PURP PAST
kill
DEIC.DIST1
‘The day was near to kill this boy.’
vatavatat
near
mi
ART.C
natu
off.spring
madar.
young.man
7.1.8.2 Purpose Clause with va
The clause headed by the subordinating particle va can also fill the effect slot in a complex
sentence of which the main clause is functioning as the cause for the event. It often includes the
desired result modality marker mang or the politeness marker ve to communicate the desired
result of the event in the cause clause which is the main clause.
629)
A
3S.SR
te
CMPL
nga
PAST
ko
HAB
tsanga-tsanga
RDP-do
va
ta
mang
ve
por
lekep
palan.
SUB IRR
RES
POL
get
money
many
‘She did it repeatedly, so that she could get much money.’
630)
Gi
te
nga
tara
3PL.SR CMPL PAST cut
DEIC.DIST1
man
3S.PI
kaka
bamboo.ladder
kuar
long
ian
mi
madar
va
ta
nga
vaen
surie.
ART.C young.man SUB
IRR
PAST
climb RSON
‘They cut a long bamboo ladder for that boy so that he would climb along it.’
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A
3S.SR
nga
PAST
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tura-n
send-3S.PS
e
ART.P
85
Lukeip
Lukeip
va
ta
nga
ra
tara
SUB IRR PAST
go
cut
‘He sent Lukeip to go cut an etou tree.’
ka
ART.NR
etou.
tree.type
Often the va clause which sometimes encodes purpose is preceded by the connector
terengen.
ta
soburo mi
kunkun kokouk terengen va
ma
minorouk
ta
1S.SR IRR touch
ART.C worm
all
so.that
SUB 2S.PI
sickness
IRR
mang
voto.
RES
finish
‘I will touch all the worms so that your illness might end.’
632)
O
633)
O
te
ver-kuil
1S.SR CMPL RCPR-help
terengen
so.that
va
SUB
ngan
INST
nge
VCON
ian
mi
lekep
DEIC.DIST1 ART.C money
lekep,
money
ta
IRR
mang
RES
oit
able
nia
vor-ie
kovo
puk
nginonginou
kelei.
PURP
buy-TR
ART.NR.PL
ARR.MASS
food
good
‘I exchange it with money so that that money might able to buy some good food.’
7.1.9 Quotations
7.1.9.1 Indirect Quotation
For descriptions on the indirect quotaion refer to Section 7.1.3.1.
7.1.9.2 Direct Quotation
A direct quotation is usually followed by a verb phrase with the action verb peven ‘say-how’,
oeng ‘say’, virei ‘ask’, vosorie ‘ask’, koup ‘shout’, and kuil nama ‘help word (reply)’. Some
people like to add the phrase ven ne ‘like this’ or ne ‘this’ after the verb and before the direct
quotation.
634)
Ian
mi
nutu
naor a
te
nga
pe-ven
DEIC.DIST1 ART.C off.spring single 3S.SR CMPL PAST say-HOW2
ne
DEIC.PROX
eou
te.
1S
EMPH
‘That fatherless child spoke this way, “I (will).
635)
A
te
nga
oeng si-en,
e
ta
be ra tara kovo
3S.SR CMPL PAST say
LOC-3S.PS, 2S.SR IRR INT go cut
ART.NR.PL
tree
‘He said to him, “You go and cut some trees.”’
636)
A
nga
koup, bu
madar,
mi
ador
ne
3S.SR PAST shout, “ART.PL young.man, ART.C opossum DEIC.PROX
‘He shouted, “Guys, here is an opossum.”’
637)
A
nga
vosor-ie, vasa
e
veis ven
?
3S.SR PAST ask-TR, HOW1 2S.SR walk HOW2 ?
‘She asked, “How are you walking?(What is the purpose of your trip)’
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ka
vour a
nga
kuil-nama, o
visi
namei
mo
si
e
Tsakie
ART.C man
new
3S.SR PAST reply,
1S.SR READY come
LIM
LOC ART.P Tsakie
‘The young man replied, “I just came to (see) Tsakie.”’
638)
Mi
639)
A
nga
virei, avoves
bu
tsoik nga
suvuon ?
3S.SR PAST ask, how.many ART.PL bread 3PL.SR possess
‘He asked, “How many pieces of bread do you(plural) have?’
640)
Gi
3PL.SR
nga
pe-ven
PAST
say-HOW2
DEIC.PROX
ne,
DEIC.PROX,
te
pull
tomeka-n
ine
throw-3S.OP
i
keim.
ART.L
ground
‘They said this, “Pull and throw it here on the ground.”’
7.1.10 Complex Subordinate Clause
It is not uncommon to find complex sentences in which a subordinate clause is subordinated
to another subordinate clause in Mandara. In such embedded subordinate constructions, if a nia
heads the subordinate clause which is subordinated to another clause, then the scope of negation,
tense, aspect, and the modality of the dominant subordinating clause is applied to the nia clause.
641) A
3S.SR
te
CMPL
nga
PAST
muang lili
ta
sleep
small
IRR
vodon
think
en
va
SUB
be
INT
va
ta
oit
SPEC.LOC able
nga
PAST
SUB IRR
so
IMM
por
get
minaes
rest
nge
so
VCON IMM
nga
ra
sar
va
PAST
go
track
SUB
nga
vo
muerngei
peuk
te
buer
si
ken
enamon.
PAST MORN return
go.down Emph
also
LOC
3S.PN village
‘He thought that he would quickly get some rest and sleep a little bit there until he
goes and tracks (down the road) in order that he (could) return and go down to his
village again in the morning.’
642)
A
te
3S.SR CMPL
nga
PAST
mi
m-in-atou
ART.C NOM-afraid
lalaro-n
want-3S.OP
ma
and
va
SUB
va
SUB
ta
IRR
ta
IRR
nga
PAST
nga
keveir
PAST sing
nia
karar-ie
PURP chase-TR
kono-n
nia
karar-ie
try-3S.OP PURP chase-TR
bu
tadaor.
ART.PL
local.spirit
‘He wanted to sing (lit. that he sang) to chase away the fear, and to try (lit. that he
tried) to chase away the local spiritual beings.is.’
643)
Ine
DEIC.PROX
mi
m-in-arouk
ART.C NOM-sick
PAST make
a
3S.SR
ngeisngeis,
strong
ma
and
a
nga
3S.SR
Tsakie
va
ta
kap
ba
nga
oit
nia
veis.
ART.P Tsakie
SUB
IRR NEG
ASSU PAST
able PURP
walk
‘This sickness was strong, and it made Tsakie so that he surely was not able to walk.’
e
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7.2 Coordination
7.2.1 Coordinate Sentence
Two or more clauses or sentences may be coordinated by the particle ma ‘and’, io ‘then’, or a
‘and then’. The particle io which is mainly used as an interjector in a narrative text is often used
to coordinate clause. The particle samo ‘suddenly’ is also used in a clause or a sentence which
describes the series of action.
644)
E
Revrou
ART.P Revrou
a
3S.SR
kap
NEG
pengan si-en,
ma
tell
LOC-3S.PS and
nga
PAST
a
kap
nga
votong-ie
ian
mi
asa-n
mi
ie.
3S.SR NEG
PAST mention-TR DEIC.DIST1 ART.C name-3S.PS ART.C fish
‘Revrou did not tell him, and he did not mention the name of the fish.’
645)
E
Valut
ART.P Valut
a
3S.SR
nga
PAST
rongometsik-ie-n
fell-TR-3S.OP
mi
ART.C
v-in-avsor
leong,
NOM-painful big
ma
a
nga
ta
koup-koup.
and
3S.SR
PAST
cry
RDP-shout
‘Valut felt a great pain and he cried and repeatly shouted.’
646)
Gi
nga
me
beit
si
Tsakie,
3S.SR PAST come arrive LOC
Tsakie
ken
puk
enamon
e
3S.PN
small
village
ART.P
io,
e
Lutor
a
nga
songora-gie.
and.then
ART.P Lutor
3S.SR
PAST
feed-3PL.OP
‘They arrived at Tsakie’s small hamlet, then Lutor fed them.’
647)
Ian
mi
DEIC.dist1 ART.C
bu
ART.PL
A
THEN
madar
young.man
natu-natu geis
RDP-off.spring
samo
suddenly
a
3S.SR
te
CMPL
a
3S.SR
te
CMPL
nga
PAST
i
monster
marar.
ART.L
living.area.
nga
PAST
ver-ie
ask-TR
mon
stay
meie
ACCM
gie
3PL.OP
ngan
bu
rakaraka
mea...
INST
ART.PL
branch
tree.type
‘This young man stayed with the young monsters. Then suddenly, he asked with the
branch of mea tree…’
7.2.2 Sentences Encoding Contrast
When two independent clauses are coordinated to express contrast, they are linked by the
contrast coordinating particle eiekesen ‘3S-oneself-3S.PS (but)’. the contrast sentence always
follows the other.
648)
E
Lutor
ART.C Lutor
va
SUB
man
3S.PN
a
3S.SR
nga
PAST
konon
try
m-in-arouk
NOM-sick
ta
IRR
nia
PURP
nga
PAST
nane
care
voto,
finish,
vakal-ie
well-TR
ken
3S.PN
komois
old.man
eiekesen
but
mi
m-in-arouk
a
kap
nga
voto mo.
ART.C
NOM-sick
3S.SR
NEG
PAST finish LIM
‘Lutor tried to take a good care of her husband so that his illness would end but the illness did not end.’.
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Ine
ba
DEIC.PROX ART.few
1S.PN
venvendon
thought
guor
nga
3DL.SR PAST
venvendon
thought
tuir
stand
birit-ie
block-TR
ta
kap
nga
peuk.
IRR
NEG
PAST
go.down
va
SUB
nia
PURP
o
eiekesen
1S.SR
veve-ken
RCPR-hit
si
LOC
kong
iou
1S.OP
but
kong
venvendon a
ngas
nga
ngeisngeis va
o
ta
peuk.
1S.PN thought
3S.SR PERS PAST strong
SUB 1S.SR IRR
go.down
‘These two thoughts struggled with each other in my thoughts to stand and block me
that I would not go down but my thought was still strong that I should go down.’
7.2.3 Sentences Encoding Alternatives
The arternation particle o is used to coordinate alternation clauses. There is a brief pause after
this o ‘or’.
650)
O
ta
peuk,
o, o
ta
mon?
1S.SR IRR travel.down OR 1S.SR IRR stay
‘Should I go or should I stay.’
651)
E
2S.SR
lalaro
muang
want
sleep
mon
i
marar
o
e
lalaro
ra
play
ART.L
outside
OR
2S.SR
want
go
die
i
roum?
DEIC.DIST2 ART.L
inside
‘Do you want to stay outside or do you want to go and sleep inside?’
8. RESIDUAL ISSUES
8.1 Verb ra ‘go’ & me ‘come’
The literal meaning of the morpheme ra as a verb is ‘to go’. But it does a lot more than
simply meaning going. In fact, it appears to add some modality to the event when it appears in the
serial verb construction. In some clauses, it quite clearly is used to indicate the direction from the
speaker’s point of view. But at this point, further research needs to be done before determining if
it has a modal role.
652)
E
ta
ra
2S.SR IRR
go
‘Go to fetch water!’
653)
O
lalaro ra
nemei si
1S.SR want go
come LOC
‘I want to come to you in the afternoon.’
654)
A
kalei, e
te
ra
nemei.
3S.SR good, 2S.SR CMPL go
come
‘It’s good, you came./ Thanks for coming.’
ut!
fetch.water
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evoi
2S
si
LOC
reivreiv.
afternoon
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Like in the case of the verb ra, me adds some mobility to the event and sometimes implies the
direction toward the speaker. This also needs more research to determine if it has a modal
functions.
655)
O
ta
me
1g.SR IRR
come
‘I will talk (right now).’
vakokoit.*****
talk
656)
E
ta
ba
me
vorota-eu
2S.SR IRR ASSU come find-1S.OP
‘Come to see me in the afternoon.’
657)
O
ta
me
ra
ut
1S.SR IRR come
go
fetch.water
‘I will go to fetch water(right now).’
658)
A
me
tere si-eou
mong sar
tapiok.
3S.SR come give LOC-1S.OP 1S.PI ART.PL tapiok
‘She(he) gave me some tapiok tubers.’
659)
Io,
si
kiti tie
gi
te
nga
me
then LOC night EMPH 3PL.SR CMPL PAST come
‘Then, at night they went to sleep.’
660)
Ian
mi
madar a
te
nga
DEIC.DIST1 ART.C boy
3S.SR CMPL PAST
‘That boy fled at night and ran.’
si
LOC
reivreiv.
afternoon
me
vi
come flee
muang.
sleep
si
LOC
kiti nge
soer.
night VCON run
8.2 Irrealis Marker ta
Although the irrealis marker ta appears to mark the majority of the subordinate clauses there
are some subordinate clauses that are not marked by ta. Since all the future events in main clauses
are marked by ta, this causes us to suspect that ta is marking background information in a
discourse. This area needs further research.
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elson, Benjamin and Velma Pickett. 1983. Beginning Morphology and Syntax. Mexico:
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. An introduction to functional grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
Ross, Malcolm D. 1988 Proto-Oceanic and the Autstronesian Languagaes of Western
Melanesia. Pacific Linguistics C-98. Canberra: Autralian National University
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10. APPENDIX
Interlinearized Native Mandara Texts.
10.1 E Us mi banga bor ‘Us, a good pig’ by Joseph Tulok
\ref 001
\t Muomuo, muomuo te sibu
ra simi
Tubugiet,
\m muomuo muomuo te si - bu ra si - mi tubu
-giet
\g before before Emph LOC - ART.PL day LOC - ART.C grandparent -1PL.inc.PS
\p ADV ADV ADV PREP - ART N PREP - ART N
-PRON
\t mi komois a nga mon simi
nuos i Metiom.
\m mi komois a nga mon si - mi nuos i Metiom
\g ART.C old.man 3S.SR PAST stay LOC - ART.C island ART.L Metiom
\p ART N
PRON TAM Vi PREP - ART N
ART PROP
\ft Long time ago, in the time of our ancestors, an old man lived on
Metiom island.
\ref 002
\t Mi asan
ine
mi komois e Tsakie.
\m mi asa -n ine
mi komois e Tsakie
\g ART.C name -3S.PS DEIC.prox ART.C old.man ART.P Tsakie
\p ART N -PRON DEIC
ART N
ART PROP
\ft This old man's name is Tsakie.
\t eie a nga ko mon meie ken labatevin,
\m eie a nga ko mon meie ken labatevin
\g 3S 3S.SR PAST HAB stay ACCM 3S.PN old.woman
\p PRON PRON TAM TAM Vi PREP PRON N
\t mi asan
e Lutor.
\m mi asa -n e Lutor
\g ART.C name -3S.PS ART.P Lutor
\p ART N -PRON ART PROP
\ft He used to live with his old woman(wife), her name is Lutor.
\ref 003
\t Ine
mi komois ma ken labatevin, guor kap nga suvu nout
\m ine
mi komois ma ken labatevin guor kap nga suvu nout
\g DEIC.prox ART.C old.man and 3S.PN old.woman 3DL.SR NEG PAST possess off.spring
\p DEIC
ART N
CONJ PRON N
PRON TAM TAM V
N
\t ma guor nga mon sinartsak.
\m ma guor nga mon sinartsak
\g and 3DL.SR PAST stay poor
\p CONJ PRON TAM Vi V
\ft This old man and his wife, they(dl) did not have any children and
they(dl) remained poor.
\ref 004
\t Eiekesen si keguor tino, eguor babeser
tamat rei
kuilkuil,
\m eiekesen si keguor tino eguor ba - beser tamat rei
kuilkuil
\g but
LOC 3DL.PN life 3DL ART.DL - people male marriage help
\p CONJ PREPPPRON N PRON ART - ARR N N
N
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\t ma keguor menagos
a nga kelei rovoriu.
\m ma keguor menagos
a nga kelei rovoriu
\g and 3DL.PN relationship 3S.SR PAST good INTS
\p CONJ PPRON N
PRON TAM V ADV
\ft But in their(dl) lives, they(dl) were a married couple (who loves to) help
and their(dl) relationship was very good.
\ref 005
\t E Tsakie eie mi komois tebe-tebeir.
\m e Tsakie eie mi komois dupCVtebeir
\g ART.P Tsakie 3S ART.C old.man love.to.do- feed
\p ART PROP PRON ART N
VV
\ft Tsakie is an old man of giving. (who loves to give)
\t Misasin va ka nutu madar, ka ka leong
\m misasin va ka nutu madar ka ka leong
\g regardless that NR.S child young.man NR.S man big
\p CONJ
SUB ART N N
ART N V
\t o, ese mene mo va ta nga pinat
\m o ese mene mo va ta nga pinat
\g OR who another only that IRR PAST lack
\p CONJ IPRON ADV ADV SUB TAM TAM V
\t o, a kap nga pinat va ta nga beit sien,
\m o a kap nga pinat va ta nga beit si -en
\g OR 3S.SR NEG PAST lack that IRR PAST arrive LOC -3S.PS
\p CONJ PRON TAM TAM V SUB TAM TAM Vi PREP -PRON
\t e Tsakie ta nga tsanga vaote
va ta nga tabare
\m e Tsakie ta nga tsanga vaote
va ta nga tabare
\g ART.P Tsakie IRR PAST make make.possible that IRR PAST feed
\p ART PROP TAM TAM Vt Vt
SUB TAM TAM Vt
\t misasin eie mi sinartsak.
\m misasin eie mi sinartsak
\g regardless 3S ART.C poor
\p CONJ
PRON ART V
\ft Even though he was a poor man, he would feed anybody whoever
comes to him regardless (of the fact) that he was a little child, a
big man, one who is in need, or one who is not in need.
\ref 006
\t E Lutor ken labatevin, eie buer mi labatevin sou-sou-soung.
\m e Lutor ken labatevin eie buer mi labatevin dupCVdupCVsoung
\g ART.P Lutor 3S.PN old.woman 3S again ART.C old.woman love.to.do- love.to.dofeed.people
\p ART PROPPRPRON N
PRON ADV ART N
VVV
\t Ese mene va ta nga beit si keguor vono,
\m ese mene va ta nga beit si keguor vono
\g who another that IRR PAST arrive LOC 3DL.PN house
\p IPRON ADV SUB TAM TAM Vi PREP PPRON N
\t e Lutor ta nga tabare nge nane
\m e Lutor ta nga tabare nge nane
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\g ART.P Lutor IRR PAST feed and care.for
\p ART PROP TAM TAM Vt VConj Vt
\t ma ken komois buer a nga ko nane vakalie.
\m ma ken komois buer a nga ko nane vakalie
\g and 3S.PN old.man again 3S.SR PAST HAB care.for make.good
\p CONJ PRON N
ADV PRON TAM TAM Vt
Vt
\ft Lutor, his wife, she too is a generous old woman. Whoever came
to their house, Lutor would feed them and look after them and she
also looked after her old man(husband) well.
\ref 007
\t Keguor menagos
kokouk me bu mei ka
eie
\m keguor menagos
kokouk me bu mei ka
eie
\g 3DL.PN relationship together ACCM ART.PL person along.side 3S
\p PPRON N
ADV
PREP ART N
PREP
PRON
\t simi
nuos i Metiom a nga kelei rovoriu.
\m si - mi nuos i Metiom a nga kelei rovoriu
\g LOC - ART.C island ART.L Metiom 3S.SR PAST good very
\p PREP - ART N
ART PROPPRON TAM V ADV
\ft Their relationship with all the people on Metiom island was very
good.
\ref 008
\t Ine
ba beser tamat rei, guor nga nane keguor nutu bor kes mo.
\m ine
ba beser tamat rei
guor nga nane keguor nutu bor kes mo
\g DEIC.prox ART.dl people male marriage 3DL.SR PAST care.for 3DL.PN child pig one only
\p DEIC
ART ARR N N
PRON TAM Vt
PPRON N N V ADV
\ft This married couple was looking after their only one
piglet.
\ref 009
\t E Tsakie a nga votongie ngan e Us.
\m e Tsakie a nga votongie ngan e us
\g ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST to.name INST ART.P Us
\p ART PROP PRON TAM Vt
PREP ART PROP
\ft Tsakie called it Us.
\ref 010
\t Ine
mi nutu bor a nga mon me guor vakak ta nga lili
\m ine
mi nutu bor a nga mon me guor vakak ta nga lili
\g DEIC.prox ART.C child pig 3S.SR PASTstayACCM 3DL.OP begin IRR PAST small
\p DEIC
ART N N PRON TAM Vi PREP PRON V TAM TAM ADJ
\t oit ta te nga leong.
\m oit ta te nga leong
\g until IRR CMPL PAST large
\p PREP TAM TAM TAM V
\ft This piglet stayed with them ever since it was little untill
it got big.
\ref 011
\t Eie mi
aten
tuktuk e
Tsakie.
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\m eie mi at -en tuktuk e Tsakie
\g 3S ART.C liver -3S.PS true ART.P Tsakie
\p PRON ART N -PRON V
ART PROP
\ft It is Tsakie's true liver. (Tsakie really loved it.)
\ref 012
\t Vakak ta nga lili, bu keipkeipde ra kokouk ta nga ngou,
\m vakak ta nga lili bu keipkeipde ra kokouk ta nga ngou
\g begin IRR PAST small ART.PL fragment day all IRR PAST eat
\p V TAM TAM V ART ARR
N ADV TAM TAM Vt
\t senva guor ta nga visi kien i ot o, veririu,
\m senva guor ta nga visi kien i ot o veririu
\g if 3DL.SR IRR PAST about.to go.up ART.L bush OR wander
\p CONJ PRON TAM TAM TAM
V ART N CONJ V
\t ine
mi natu
bor ta nga vemuir
\m ine
mi natu
bor ta nga ve - muir
\g DEIC.prox ART.C off.spring pig IRR PAST Rcpr - rear
\p DEIC
ART N
N TAM TAM AFF - N
\t simi
vunan
a nga rats kelei te.
\m si - mi vuna -n a nga rats kelei te
\g LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS 3S.SR PAST tame good Emph
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON PRON TAM V V ADV
\ft Ever since it was little, all the time it was eating, if
they(dl) went up to the bush, or walk about, this piglet
would follow (them) because it was tamed well truly.
\ref 013
\t Sien
ta te nga leong, ne
mi bor a nga bungebungeng
\m si -en ta te nga leong ne
mi bor a nga bungebungeng
\g LOC -3S.PS IRR CMPLPAST large DEIC.prox ART.C pig 3S.SR PAST fat
\p PREP -PRON TAM TAM TAM V
DEIC
ART N PRON TAM V
\t nge tebeir surie bu karton
kokouk ma a kap ba nga ko veis.
\m nge tebeir surie bu karto -n kokouk ma a kap ba nga ko veis
\g and give RSON ART.PL body -3S.PS all and 3S.SR NEG ASSU PAST HAB walk
\p VConj V
PREP ART N -PRON ADV CONJ PRON TAM TAM TAM TAM Vi
\ft When it became big, this pig was fat and fed for all parts
of his body and it habitually didn't walk.
\t A te nga ko mon mo i marar.
\m a te nga ko mon mo i marar
\g 3S.SR CMPL PAST HAB stay only ART.L residential.area
\p PRON TAM TAM TAM Vi ADV ART N
\ft It used to stay only in the residentail area.
\ref 014
\t E Tsakie si ken tino kokouk, ine
mi bor
\m e Tsakie si ken tino kokouk ine
mi bor
\g ART.P Tsakie LOC 3S.PN life together DEIC.prox ART.C pig
\p ART PROP PREP PPRON N ADV
C
ART N
\t a nga malan te va e natuen.
\m a nga malan te va e natu
-en
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\g 3S.SR PAST alike CMPL that ART.P off.spring -3S.PS
\p PRON TAM V TAM SUB ART N
-PRON
\ft In all of Tsakie's life, this pig was just like his child.
\ref 015
\t Io, ken menagos
e Tsakie ma e Lutor meie keguor bor
\m io ken menagos
e Tsakie ma e Lutor meie keguor bor
\g so 3S.PN relationship ART.P Tsakie and ART.P Lutor ACCM 3DL.PN pig
\p CONJ PPRON N
ART PROPCONJ ART PROP PREP PPRON N
\t e Us a nga kelei mo i aro-n
bu avreit palan,
\m e us a nga kelei mo i aro -n bu avreit palan
\g ART.P Us 3S.SR PAST good only ART.L inside -3S.PS ART.PL year plenty
\p ART PROPPRON TAM V ADV ART N
-PRON ART N
V
\t kap ka kepineits a nga tsola kegituo minon.
\m kap ka kepineits a nga tsola kegituo minon
\g NEG NR.S thing 3S.SR PAST disturb 3PC.PN stay
\p TAM ART N
PRON TAM V
PPRON N
\ft So, his relationship with Lutor with their(dl) pig Us was
just good during many years, nothing disturbed their(pc)
stay.
\ref 016
\t E Tsakie a ngas nga tuir ngiesngeis simi
tsana
\m e Tsakie a ngas nga tuir ngiesngeis si - mi tsana
\g ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PERS PAST stand strong LOC - ART.C make
\p ART PROPPRON TAM TAM Vi V
PREP - ART Vt
\t mi banga sinavei, misasin ta te nga komois te.
\m mi banga sinavei misasin ta te nga komois te
\g ART.C good behavior regardless IRR CMPL PAST old.man Emph
\p ART ADJ N
CONJ
TAM TAM TAM N
ADV
\ft Tsakie still kept strong in doing good deeds even though
he was (really) old.
\ref 017
\t Simi
ra mene te, mi menrouk leong a nga poro e Tsakie.
\m si - mi ra mene te mi menrouk leong a nga poro e Tsakie
\g LOC - ART.C day another Emph ART.C illness large 3S.SR PAST get ART.P Tsakie
\p PREP - ART N ADV ADV ART N
V PRON TAM Vt ART PROP
\ft One day, a serious illness got Tsakie.
\ref 018
\t Ine
mi menrouk a nga ngeisngeis
\m ine
mi menrouk a nga sngeis
\g DEIC.prox ART.C illness 3S.SR PAST ng
\p DEIC
ART N
PRON TAM
\t ma a nga tsana e Tsakie va ta kap ba nga oit na veis.
\m ma a nga tsana e Tsakie va ta kap ba nga oit na veis
\g and 3S.SR PAST make ART.P Tsakie that IRR NEG ASSU PAST able PURP walk
\p CONJ PRON TAM Vt ART PROP SUB TAM TAM TAM TAM V PREP Vi
\ft This sickness was very strong (bad) and it caused Tsakie
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not be able to walk.
\ref 019
\t Sibu
vura palan, e Tsakie a nga mon mo i ruom.
\m si - bu vura palan e Tsakie a nga mon mo i ruom
\g LOC - ART.PL month plenty ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST stay only ART.L indoor
\p PREP - ART N V
ART PROPPRON TAM Vi ADV ART N
\ft For many monthes, Tsakie just stayed inside (the house).
\ref 020
\t E Lutor a nga konon na nane vakalie ken komois
\m e Lutor a nga konon na nane vakalie ken komois
\g ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST try PURP care.for make.good 3S.PN old.man
\p ART PROP PRON TAM V PREP Vt
Vt
PPRON N
\t va man menrouk ta nga voto,
\m va man menrouk ta nga voto
\g that 3S.PI illness IRR PAST finish
\p SUB PRON N
TAM TAM Vi
\t eiekesen mi menrouk a kap nga voto mo.
\m eiekesen mi menrouk a kap nga voto mo
\g but
ART.C illness 3S.SR NEG PAST finish only
\p CONJ ART N
PRON TAM TAM Vi ADV
\ft Lutor tried to take a good care of her husband (so) that his
sickness would end, but the sickness just did not end.
\ref 021
\t Surie ta nga ko mon mo nge nane e Tsakie ma e Us,
\m surie ta nga ko mon mo nge nane e Tsakie ma e Us
\g RSON IRR PAST HAB stay only and care.for ART.P Tsakie and ART.P Us
\p PREP TAM TAM TAM Vi ADV VConj Vt
ART PROPCONJ ART PROP
\t gituo te nga mon sinartsak rovoriu.
\m gituo te nga mon sinartsak rovoriu
\g 3PC.SR CMPL PAST stay poor
very
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi V
ADV
\ft Because she was only caring for Tsakie and Us, they(pc) remained
very poor.
\ref 022
\t Simi
vunan
e Lutor a kap ba nga oit na veis
\m si - mi vuna -n e Lutor a kap ba nga oit na veis
\g LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS ART.P Lutor 3S.SR NEG ASSU PAST able PURP walk
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON ART PROPPRON TAM TAM TAM V
PREP Vi
\t nge ra neis nginonginou o, tsatsang na gituo, bu puk
\m nge ra neis nginonginou o tsatsang na gituo bu puk
\g and go search food
OR work PURP 3PC.OP ART.PL small
\p VConj Vi V
N
CONJ Vi
PREP PRON ART ADJ
\t tenebeir bu mei gi ta nga ko me tere are
e Lutor
\m tenebeir bu mei gi ta nga ko me tere are
e Lutor
\g gift ART.PL person 3PL.SR IRR PAST HAB come give DEIC.exact ART.P Lutor
\p N
ART N
PRON TAM TAM TAM V Vt DEIC
ART PROP
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\t a te nga ko tunie na vararapa
e Tsakie.
\m a te nga ko tunie na va - rarap - a e Tsakie
\g 3S.SR CMPL PAST HAB burn PURP CAUS - hot - TR ART.P Tsakie
\p PRON TAM TAM TAM Vt PREP AFF - V - AFF ART PROP
\ft Because Lutor was not able to go and find food, or work
for them(their benefit), a small amount of gifts(food)
that some people used to come and give were what Lutor
used to cook to warm(nurse) Tsakie.
\ref 023
\t Palan bu ra e Tsakie a nga oeng si ken labatevin
\m palan bu ra e Tsakie a nga oeng si ken labatevin
\g plenty ART.PL day ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST talk to LOC 3S.PN old.woman
\p V
ART N ART PROPPRON TAM Vi
PREPPRON N
\t va ta ngas nga nane vakalie buer e Us.
\m va ta ngas nga nane vakalie buer e Us
\g that IRR PERS PAST care.for make.good again ART.P Us
\p SUB TAM TAM TAM Vt
Vt
ADV ART PN
\ft Many times Tsakie told his wife that she should also take
a good care of Us.
\t A kap nga lalaron e Us va ta vitor nge lois.
\m a kap nga lalaron e Us va ta vitor nge lois
\g 3S.SR NEG PAST like ART.P Us that IRR hungry and skinny
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi
ART PROPCR TAM V VConj V
\ft He did not like Us to be hungry and skinny.
\ref 024
\t Sibu
vura palan kegituo tino a
\m si - bu vura palan kegituo tino a
\g LOC - ART.PL month plenty 3PC.PN
\p PREP - ART N V
PPRON N
nga mon malan mo ne.
nga mon malan mo ne
life 3S.SR PAST stay alike only DEM.prox
PRON TAM Vi V ADV DEM
\ft For many months their(pc) lives remained just like this.
\ref 025
\t I pek
lili, ine
simi
nuos i Metiom,
\m i pek
lili ine
si - mi nuos i Metiom
\g ART.L down.below small DEIC.prox LOC - ART.C island ART.L Metiom
\p ART N
ADJ DEIC
PREP - ART N
ART PROP
\t mi nuos mene a nga mon mi asan
i Narlik.
\m mi nuos mene a nga mon mi asa -n i Narlik
\g ART.C island another 3S.SR PAST stay ART.C name -3S.PS ART.L Narlik
\p ART N
ADV PRON TAM Vi ART N -PRON ART PROP
\ft A little bit far away from this Metiom island, there was another
island named Narlik.
\ref 026
\t Mi sinavei simi
tubugie
\m mi sinavei si - mi tubu
- gie
\g ART.C behavior LOC - ART.C grandparent - 3PL.OP
\p ART N
PREP - ART N
- PRON
\t a
nga kekineits sorvekenagie
simi
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\m a nga kekineits sorvekena - gie si - mi nuos i Metiom
\g 3S.SR PAST different leave - 3PL.OP LOC - ART.C island ART.L Metiom
\p PRON TAM V
Vi
- PRON PREP - ART N
ART PROP
\ft Their tradition was different from (the traditions of ) of Metiom
island.
\ref 027
\t Ine
simi
nuos egie mi kulou put-put
nginou
\m ine
si - mi nuos egie mi kulou put
- put
nginou
\g DEIC.prox LOC - ART.C island 3P ART.C men organize - organize feast
\p DEIC
PREP - ART N
PRON ART N V
-V
N
\t ma egie mi kulou voir-voir
bor.
\m ma egie mi kulou dupCVvoir bor
\g and 3P ART.C men love.to.do- buy pig
\p CONJ PRON ART N VV N
\ft The people on this island are the people who loves to
organize feasts and the people (who) like to buy pigs.
\ref 028
\t Eiekesen mi sinavei ta nga kekineits beitsak,
\m eiekesen mi sinavei ta nga kekineits beitsak
\g but
ART.C behavior IRR PAST different INTNS
\p CONJ ART N
TAM TAM V
ADV
\t eie kegi sinavei na rangare mi tadaor
mi asan
e Dula.
\m eie kegi sinavei na rangare mi tadaor
mi asa -n e Dula
\g 3S 3PL.PN behavior PURP worship ART.C local.spirit ART.C name -3S.PS ART.P Dula
\p PRON PPRON N
PREP V
ART N
ART N -PRON ART PROP
\ft But the tradition which was totally different was their tradition to
worship the local spirit named Dula.
\ref 029
\t Ine
mi tadaor,
gi nga vodon tuktuk va eie a nga vuorte
\m ine
mi tadaor
gi nga vodon tuktuk va eie a nga vuorte
\g DEIC.prox ART.C local.spirit 3PL.SR PAST think true that 3S 3S.SR PASTrule
\p DEIC
ART N
PRON TAM Vi V
SUB PRON PRON TAM V
\t mi parpar,
mi bat, mi mour ma a nga nane
\m mi parpar
mi bat mi mour ma a nga nane
\g ART.C sunny.weather ART.C rain ART.C wind and 3S.SR PAST care.for
\p ART N
ART N ART N CONJ PRON TAM Vt
\t bu nginonginou nge vunan
bu banga kepineits kokouk.
\m bu nginonginou nge vuna
-n bu banga kepineits kokouk
\g ART.PL food
and originate -3S.OP ART.PL good thing all
\p ART N
VConj V
-PRON ART ADJ N
ADV
\ft They believed that this local spirit governed the sunny
weather, the rain, and the wind and that he took care of
food(garden) and originate all the good things.
\ref 030
\t Ine
mi tadaor
a nga ko mon i aro-n
\m ine
mi tadaor
a nga ko mon i aro -n
\g DEIC.prox ART.C local.spirit 3S.SR PAST HAB stay ART.L inside -3S.PS
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\p DEIC
ART N
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PRON TAM TAM Vi ART N
-PRON
\t mi rie leong.
\m mi rie leong
\g ART.C cave large
\p ART N V
\ft This local spirit used to stay inside of a big cave.
\ref 031
\t Sibu
kepineits kokouk malan ka vineis o, mi niv o,
\m si - bu kepineits kokouk malan ka vineis o mi niv o
\g LOC - ART.PL thing all alike NR.S journey or ART.C hunting OR
\p PREP - ART N
ADV V ART N
CONJ ART N
CONJ
\t mi venongon, gi ta nga ra rangare ine
mi tadaor.
\m mi venongon gi ta nga ra rangare ine
mi tadaor
\g ART.C fishing 3PL.SR IRR PAST go worship DEIC.prox ART.C local.spirit
\p ART N
PRON TAM TAM Vi Vt
DEIC
ART N
\ft For all things like journey, hunting, or fishing, they would
go and worship this local spirit.
\ref 032
\t Eiekesen sibu
nginou, eie mi keipkeipde ra kes mo
\m eiekesen si - bu nginou eie mi keipkeipde ra kes mo
\g but
LOC - ART.PL food 3S ART.C fragment day one only
\p CONJ PREP - ART N
PRON ART ARR
N V ADV
\t va gi ta ngas nga vile ka bor mat kelei na kada
\m va gi ta ngas nga vile ka bor mat kelei na kada
\g that 3PL.SR IRR PERS PAST choose NR.S pig look good PURP hit to kill
\p SUB PRON TAM TAM TAM V
ART N Vi V PREP Vi
\t nge tunie rakot ine
simi
tadaor.
\m nge tunie rakot ine
si - mi tadaor
\g and burn go.to DEIC.prox LOC - ART.C local.spirit
\p VConj Vi Vi DEIC
PREP - ART N
\ft But among several feasts, there is only one time that they had to
choose a good looking pig to kill and burn(offer) to this local spirit.
\ref 033
\t Palan bu banga kepineits va ta nga betingie gie malan bu
\m palan bu banga kepineits va ta nga betingie gie malan bu
\g plenty ART.PL good thing that IRR PAST bring.forth 3PL.OP alike ART.PL
\p V
ART ADJ N
SUB TAM TAM Vt
PRON V ART
\t banga ra parpar, mi bat ma bu minous kovuni i rou ma i ot,
\m banga ra parpar mi bat ma bu minous kovuni i rou ma i ot
\g good day sun.ray ART.C rain and ART.PL blessing come.from ART.L sea and ART.L bush
\p ADJ N N
ART N CONJ ART N
Vi
ART N CONJ ART N
\t gi nga vodon tuktuk va e Dula a nga teir vunie nge gie.
\m gi nga vodon tuktuk va e Dula a nga teir vunie nge gie
\g 3PL.SR PAST think true that ART.P Dula 3S.SR PAST give direct.to and 3PL.OP
\p PRON TAM Vi V
SUB ART PROP PRON TAM Vt Vt
VConj PRON
\ft Lots of good things that he(the local spirit) brought forth
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(to the people), things like good sunny days, rain, and
blessings from the sea and from the bush, they believed
that Dula (the local spirit) gave and directed to them.
\ref 034
\t Io, simi
ra mene te, mi kulou ine
simi
nuos
\m io si - mi ra mene te mi kulou ine
si - mi nuos
\g then LOC - ART.C day another Emph ART.C men DEIC.prox LOC - ART.C island
\p CONJ PREP - ART N ADV ADV ART N DEIC
PREP - ART N
\t i Narlik gi te nga tebikie mi nginou leong.
\m i Narlik gi te nga tebikie mi nginou leong
\g ART.L Narlik 3PL.SR Emph PAST break ART.C feast large
\p ART PROP PRON ADV TAM Vi
ART N
V
\ft Then one day, the people on this Narlik (island), they
began a big feast.
\ref 035
\t Vourvour, gi nga tsana bu nabar
tu leong
\m vourvour, gi nga tsana bu nabar
tu leong
\g first 3PL.SR PAST make ART.PL large.in.area garden large
\p N
PRON TAM Vt ART ADJ
N
V
\t ma sen ine
bu tu gi tate
nga komois,
\m ma sen ine
bu tu gi ta - te nga komois
\g and 3S.OBJ DEIC.prox ART.PL garden 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST old.man
\p CONJ PRON DEIC
ART N
PRON TAM - TAM TAM N
\t bu nguts, i murien gi tate
nga ra rangare e Dula,
\m bu nguts i muri -en gi ta - te nga ra rangare e Dula
\g ART.PL orator ART.L rear -3S.3PL.SR - CMPLPASTgo worship ART.PDula
\p ART N
ART N -PROPRON TAM - TAM TAM Vi Vt
ART PROP
\t gi te nga turan mi kulou rakot sibu
enamon
\m gi te nga turan mi kulou rakot si - bu enamon
\g 3PL.SR CMPL PAST send ART.C men go.to LOC - ART.PL place
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi ART N Vi PREP - ART N
\t ma nuos ka
eie na ra voir bor nge visie gie.
\m ma nuos ka
eie na ra voir bor nge visie gie
\g and island along.side 3S PURP go buy pig and tie.up 3PL.OP
\p CONJ N
PREP
PRON PREP Vi Vt N VConj Vt PRON
\ft Firstly, they made some large big gardens and when these
gardens were ready (for harvest), the orators, after
they had gone to pray to Dula, they sent the people in
other villages and islands to go and buy pigs and tie them
up.
\ref 036
\t I murien kegi minuer
ine
mi kulou vis bor,
\m i murien kegi -in- muer ine
mi kulou vis bor
\g ART.L after 3PL.PN -NOM- return DEIC.prox ART.C men tie.up pig
\p ART ADV PPRON -NOM- Vi DEIC
ART N V
N
\t mi nginou ta ba nga kor.
\m mi nginou ta ba nga kor
\g ART.C food IRR ASSU PAST fall
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\p ART N
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TAM TAM TAM V
\ft Upon the return of these men who went to tie up pigs,
the feast would commence.
\ref 037
\t Si kegi vineis ine
mi kulou vis bor,
\m si kegi -in- veis ine
mi kulou vis bor
\g LOC 3PL.PN -NOM- walk DEIC.prox ART.C men tie pig
\p PREP PPRON -NOM- Vi DEIC
ART N V N
\t bu mei mene gi nga rakot sibu
enamon
\m bu mei mene gi nga rakot si - bu enamon
\g ART.PL person another 3PL.SR PAST go.to LOC - ART.PL place
\p ART N
ADV PRON TAM Vi PREP - ART N
\t ma nuos ka
eie.
\m ma nuos ka
eie
\g and island along.side 3S
\p CONJ N
PREP
PRON
\ft In their travel of these people who were getting pigs, some people
went to the other villages and islands.
\ref 038
\t Ma mi gargar mene si egie gi nga kesie megi tseim leong
\m ma mi gargar mene si egie gi nga kesie megi tseim leong
\g and ART.C group another LOC 3P 3PL.SR PAST board 3PL.PN canoe large
\p CONJ ART QUAN ADV PREPPRON PRON TAM Vt PPRON N V
\t ma gi nga tsuk rakot simi
nuos i Metiom.
\m ma gi nga tsuk rakot si - mi nuos i Metiom
\g and 3PL.SR PAST sail.out go.to LOC - ART.C island ART.L Metiom
\p CONJ PRON TAM Vi
Vi PREP - ART N
ART PROP
\ft And one group of them got on their big canoe and sailed
out to the Metiom island.
\ref 039
\t Sen gi tate
nga so tsaer i Metiom, gi nga veis veriris
\m sen gi ta - te nga so tsaer i Metiom gi nga veis veriris
\g when 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST IMM land ART.L Metiom 3PL.SR PAST walk around
\p ADV PRON TAM - TAM TAM TAM Vi ART PROPPRON TAM Vi ADV
\t simi
nuos ma i muir gi nga me beit si ken puk
\m si - mi nuos ma i muir gi nga me beit si ken puk
\g LOC - ART.C island and ART.L rear 3PL.SR PAST come arrive LOC 3S.PN small
\p PREP - ART N
CONJ ART N PRON TAM V Vi PREPPRON ADJ
\t enamon e Tsakie ma ken labatevin.
\m enamon e Tsakie ma ken labatevin
\g place ART.P Tsakie and 3S.PN old.woman
\p N
ART PROPCONJ PRON N
\ft When they landed at Metiom, they walked around the
island and later they arrived at the hamlet that belongs
to Tsakie and his wife.
\ref 040
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\t Io, e Lutor a nga songora gie nge marangata gie.
\m io e Lutor a nga songora gie nge marangata gie
\g so ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST feed.people 3PL.OP and welcome 3PL.OP
\p Interj ART PROP PRON TAM Vt
PRON VConj Vt
ON
\ft Then, Lutor fed them and welcomed them.
\ref 041
\t E Tsakie a kap nga oit na mon megie
\m e Tsakie a kap nga oit na mon me - gie
\g ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP stay ACCM - 3PL.OP
\p ART PROPPRON TAM TAM V PREP Vi PREP - PRON
\t simi
vunan
ian
ta nga morouk.
\m si - mi vuna -n ian
ta nga morouk
\g LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS DEIC.dist1 IRR PAST sick
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON DEIC
TAM TAM Vi
\ft Tsakie could not be with them because he was sick.
\ref 042
\t Samo mi ka ian
ta nga muomuo ngan mi kulou vis bor,
\m samo mi ka ian
ta nga muomuo ngan mi kulou vis bor
\g then ART.C man DEIC.dist1 IRR PAST before INST ART.C men tie pig
\p CONJ ART N DEIC
TAM TAM ADV PREP ART N V N
\t a singa
pere e Us ta nga mutu-mutur
ma a nga
\m a si - nga pere e Us ta nga mutu- mutur ma a nga
\g 3S.SR CE - PAST look ART.P Us IRR PAST repeat- lay.down and 3S.SR PAST
\p PRON TAM - TAM Vt ART PROPTAM TAM RDUP- Vi
CONJ PRON TAM
\t vosore e Lutor, "Labatevin, o lalaron
va o tate
vore nokot mi bor."
\m vosore e Lutor labatevin o lalaro -n va o ta - te vore nokot mi bor
\g ask ART.P Lutor old.woman 1S.SR want -3S.OP that 1S.SR IRR - CMPL buy DEM.vis
ART.C pig
\p Vt ART PROP N
PRON V
-PRON SUB PRON TAM - TAM Vt DEM
ART N
\ft Then the man who was leading the people whose duty was
to get pig, he unexpectedly saw Us laying down and he
asked Lutor, "Old woman, I want to buy the pig over
there."
\ref 043
\t E Lutor a kap nga kuil
nama lalapus, simi
vunan
\m e Lutor a kap nga kuil
nama lalapus si - mi vuna -n
\g ART.P Lutor 3S.SR NEG PAST reciprocate talk hurry LOC - ART.C root -3S.PS
\p ART PROP PRON TAM TAM Vi
V ADV
PREP - ART N -PRON
\t ken venvendon a nga
vodonomie mi pinat ta nga mon nge gituo
\m ken venvendon a - nga vodonomie mi pinat ta nga mon nge gituo
\g 3S.PN thought 3S.SR - PAST think ART.C needs IRR PAST stay and 3PC.OP
\p PRON N
PRON - TAM Vt
ART N TAM TAM Vi VConj PRON
\t ma buer surie ian
mi bor eie mi aten
e Tsakie.
\m ma buer surie ian
mi bor eie mi at -en e Tsakie
\g and again RSON DEIC.dist1 ART.C pig 3S ART.C liver -3S.PS Tsakie
\p CONJ ADV PREP DEIC
ART N PRON ART N -PRON PROP
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\ft Lutor did not answer quickly, because her mind was thinking
about the need that was with them(pc), and also about this pig
which is Tsakie's liver (which Tsakie loved very much).
\ref 044
\t I muir ba te e Lutor a nga kuil
nama,
\m i muir ba te e Lutor a nga kuil
nama
\g ART.L rear ASSU Emph ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST reciprocate talk
\p ART N TAM ADV ART PROP PRON TAM Vi
V
\t "A kelei mo, e ta visie e Us."
\m a kelei mo e ta visie e Us
\g 3S.SR good only 2S.SR IRR tie.up ART.P Us
\p PRON V ADV PRON TAM Vt ART PROP
\ft (Sometime) later, Lutor answered, "OK, you tie up Us."
\ref 045
\t Eiekesen e Lutor a kap nga ra pengan se Tsakie.
\m eiekesen e Lutor a kap nga ra pengan se Tsakie
\g but
ART.P Lutor 3S.SR NEG PAST go talk LOC.P Tsakie
\p CONJ ART PROP PRON TAM TAM Vi Vi PREP PROP
\ft But Lutor did not tell Tsakie.
\ref 046
\t I murien
te gi tate
nga vore mi bor
\m i muri -en te gi ta - te nga vore mi bor
\g ART.L rear -3S.PS Emph 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST buy ART.C pig
\p ART N -PRON ADV PRON TAM - TAM TAM Vt ART N
\t nge tsuk
muerngei rakot i Narlik,
\m nge tsuk
muerngei rakot i Narlik
\g and leave by vessel retrun go.to ART.L Narlik
\p VConj Vi
Vi
Vi ART PROP
\t e Lutor a nga rubukien vorotan
e Tsakie na nga ra pengan
\m e Lutor a nga rubukien vorota -n e Tsakie na nga ra pengan
\g ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST enter find -3S.OP ART.P Tsakie PURP PAST go talk
\p ART PROP PRON TAM V
Vt -PRON ART PROP PREP TAM Vi Vi
\t sien
mi sana tate
nga tsana se Us.
\m si -en mi sana ta - te nga tsana se Us
\g LOC -3S.PS ART.C what IRR - CMPL PAST make LOC.P Us
\p PREP -PRON ART N TAM - TAM TAM Vt PREP PROP
\ft After they bought the pig and sailed out returning to Narlik, Lutor
went inside finding Tsakie to tell him what she had done to Us.
\ref 047
\t Sen tate
nga so mogos i bingan ken komois, e Lutor a nga pevin,
\m sen ta - te nga so mogos i bingan ken komois e Lutor a nga pevin
\g when IRR - CMPL PAST IMM sit ART.L side 3S.PN old.man ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST
say
\p ADV TAM - TAM TAM TAM Vi ART N
PRON N
ART PROP PRON TAM
Vi
\t "Tsakie, o lalaro pengan sevoi
mi kepineits."
\m Tsakie o lalaro pengan se - voi mi kepineits
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\g Tsakie 1S.SR want talk LOC.P - 2S ART.C thing
\p PROP PRON V
Vi PREP - PRON ART N
\ft When she sat down beside her husband, Lutor told,
"Tsakie, I like to tell you one thing."
\ref 048
\t E Tsakie a nga vere, "Lutor, mi sana kepineits?"
\m e Tsakie a nga vere Lutor mi sana kepineits
\g 2S.SR Tsakie 3S.SR PAST ask Lutor ART.C what thing
\p PRON PROPPRON TAM Vt PROPART N N
\ft Tsakie asked, "Lutor, what is it?"
\ref 049
\t E Lutor a nga kuil
nama, "O lalaro pengan sevoi
\m e Lutor a nga kuil
nama o lalaro pengan se - voi
\g 2S.SR Lutor 3S.SR PAST reciprocate talk 1S like talk ASSO.P - 2S
\p PRON PROPPRON TAM Vi
V PRON Vt Vi PREP - PRON
\t va e Us o te verkuil ngan nge lekep sibu
kingi Narlik
\m va e us o te ver- kuil ngan nge lekep si - bu kingi Narlik
\g that ART.P Us 1S.SR CMPL RCPR- help INST and money LOC - ART.PL native Narlik
\p SUB ART PROP PRON TAM AFF- Vi PREP VConj N PREP - ART N
PROP
\t terengen va ian
mi lekep ta mang oit na vore kovo puk
\m terengen va ian
mi lekep ta mang oit na vore kovo puk
\g so.that that DEIC.dist1 ART.C money IRR RES enough PURP buy NR.PL small
\p CONJ SUB DEIC
ART N TAM TAM V
PREP Vt ART ADJ
\t nginonginou kelei na vararapa
no
\m nginonginou kelei na va - rarap - a no
\g food
good PURP CAUS - hot - TR 2S.OP
\p N
V PREP AFF - V - AFF PRON
\t ma na kulie buer kenatau menagos.
\m ma na kulie buer kenatau menagos
\g and PURP help again 1DL.PN relationship
\p CONJ PREP Vt ADV PPRON N
\ft Lutor answered, "I want to tell you that I exchanged Us
for money to the Narlik people, so that that money might
be enough to buy some good food to nurse you and also to
help our(dl) living.
\ref 050
\t Pere! e tate
mogos sinartsak rovoriu te."
\m pere e ta - te mogos sinartsak rovoriu te
\g look 2S.SR IRR - CMPL sit poor
very Emph
\p Vt PRON TAM - TAM Vi V
ADV ADV
\ft Look! you are remaining very poor."
\ref 051
\t Sen e Tsakie ta nga rongomie ine
mi nama,
\m sen e Tsakie ta nga rongomie ine
mi nama
\g when ART.P Tsakie IRR PAST hear DEIC.prox ART.C word
\p ADV ART PROP TAM TAM Vt
DEIC
ART N
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\t mi aten
a nga kitip
\m mi at -en a nga kitip
\g ART.C liver -3S.PS 3S.SR PAST cut.remove
\p ART N -PRON PRON TAM V
\t ma anga
ta koupkoup, "Ai-io Us, kong bor kovoung.
\m ma a - nga ta koupkoup Ai-io Us kong bor kova -ung
\g and 3S.SR - PAST cry shout ohhh Us my pig head -1S.PS
\p CONJ PRON - TAM Vi Vi
Interj PROPPRON N N -PRON
\ft When Tsakie heard this word, his liver(heart) was torn
(very sad) and he cried aloud, "Ohhh Us, my pig my
head(my precious one).
\ref 052
\t O ta kap ba buer oit na pere mi mata ai-io Us."
\m o ta kap ba buer oit na pere mi mata ai-io Us
\g 1S IRR NEG ASSU again able PURP look ART.C eye ohhh Us
\p PRON TAM TAM TAM ADV V PREP Vt ART N Interj PROP
\ft I will not be able to see your face again, Us."
\ref 053
\t Ma ine
man tenteiv e Us i aron
e Tsakie
\m ma ine
man tenteiv e Us i ar -n e Tsakie
\g and DEIC.prox 3S.PI grace ART.P Us ART.L mind -3S.PS ART.P Tsakie
\p CONJ DEIC
PRON N
ART PROPART V -PRON ART PROP
\t a nga mon me sibu
ra, sibu
rovovo,
\m a nga mon me si - bu ra si - bu ro
- vovo
\g 3S.SR PAST stay ACCM LOC - ART.PL day LOC - ART.PL all, big - morning
\p PRON TAM Vi PREP PREP - ART N PREP - ART ADV
-N
\t rosisiat
ma roreivreiv.
\m ro
- sisiat ma ro
- reivreiv
\g all, big - day.time and all, big - afternoon
\p ADV
- ADV
CONJ ADV
-N
\t E Tsakie ta nga munu
tengisie sien,
ken bor.
\m e Tsakie ta nga munu
tengisie si -en ken bor
\g ART.P Tsakie IRR PAST continueously cry.for LOC -3S.PS 3S.PN pig
\p ART PROPTAM TAM ADV
Vt
PREP -PRON N N
\ft And this love of/for Us in Tsakie's mind remained with
him all the days, all the mornings, all the noon time, and all
the afternoons. Tsakie would continuously cry for him, his
pig.
\ref 054
\t Ken labatevin a nga ko kono-n
va ta nga vamada
\m ken labatevin a nga ko kono -n va ta nga vamada
\g 3S.PN old.woman 3S.SR PAST HAB try -3S.OP that IRR PAST comfort
\p PRON N
PRON TAM TAM Vt -PRON TAM TAM V
\t eiekesen a kap nga oit na vaton
ine
mi tenteiv
\m eiekesen a kap nga oit na vato -n ine
mi tenteiv
\g but
3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP end -3S.OP DEIC.prox ART.C love
\p CONJ PRON TAM TAM V PREP V -PRON DEIC
ART N
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\t i aron
e Tsakie.
\m i ar -n e Tsakie
\g ART.L mind -3S.PS ART.P Tsakie
\p ART V -PRON ART PROP
\ft His wife used to try that she would comfort him, but she was not
able to stop this sorrow in Tsakies heart.
\ref 055
\t Ine
bu kepineits kokouk ta nga tsourbeit se Tsakie,
\m ine
bu kepineits kokouk ta nga tsourbeit se Tsakie
\g DEIC.prox ART.PL thing all IRR PAST appear LOC Tsakie
\p DEIC
ART N
ADV TAM TAM V
PREP PROP
\t e Dula mi tadaor
a te nga telekiran.
\m e Dula mi tadaor
a te nga telekira -n
\g ART.P Dula ART.C local.spirit 3S.SR CMPL PAST know -3S.OP
\p ART PROPART N
PRON TAM TAM VVt
-PRON
\ft All of these things that happenned to Tsakie, Dula the
local spirit knew about it.
\ref 056
\t I murien te mi kulou kokouk gi ta nga veis na vis bor
\m i murien te mi kulou kokouk gi ta nga veis na vis bor
\g ART.L after CMPL ART.C men all 3PL.SR IRR PAST walk PURP tie pig
\p ART ADV TAM ART N ADV PRON TAM TAM Vi PREP V N
\t gi tate
nga me beit muerngei i Narlik,
\m gi ta - te nga me beit muerngei i Narlik
\g 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST come arrive retrun ART.L Narlik
\p PRON TAM - TAM TAM V Vi Vi
ART PROP
\t mi nguts ese ta nga vunan
mi nginou a nangba nga
\m mi nguts ese ta nga vuna
-n mi nginou a nangba nga
\g ART.C orator who IRR PAST become.source -3S.OP ART.C feast 3S.SR RELF PAST
\p ART N
PRON TAM TAM V
-PRON ART N
PRON TAM TAM
\t votongie mi ra va mi nginou ta nga kor sen.
\m votongie mi ra va mi nginou ta nga kor sen
\g to.name ART.C day that ART.C feast IRR PAST fall 3S.OBJ
\p Vt
ART N SUB ART N
TAM TAM V PRON
\ft After all the people who went to get pig had come back to
Narlik, the leader who started/planned the feast finally
appointed a day on which day the feast would happen.
\ref 057
\t Simi
ringi tsuok vuvutuir, va sivo sien
te mi oror,
\m si - mi ringi tsuok vuvutuir va sivo si -en te mi dupCV- or
\g LOC - ART.C day start display that tomorLOC -3S.PS Emph ART.C NOM- watch
\p PREP - ART N V V
SUB N PREP -PRON ADV ART NOM- V
\t bu nguts me e taman
mi nginou
\m bu nguts me e tama -n mi nginou
\g ART.PL orator ACCM ART.P father -3S.PS ART.C feast
\p ART N
PREP ART N
-PRON ART N
\t gi te nga mogos kokouk na vile ka bor na nga ra kada
\m gi te nga mogos kokouk na vile ka bor na nga ra kada
\g 3PL.SR CMPL PAST sit all PURP choose NR.S pig PURP PAST day hit to kill
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi ADV PREP V
ART N PREP TAM N Vt
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\t nge tunie tere se Dula mi tadaor.
\m nge tunie tere se Dula mi tadaor
\g and burn give LOC.P Dula ART.C local.spirit
\p VConj Vt Vt PREP PROP ART N
\ft On the day of display, that the following day was the
watching (show), the orators with the host of the feast
sat together to choose a pig to kill in order to offer to
Dula the local spirit.
\ref 058
\t Ma egie kokouk gi nga vile e Us.
\m ma egie kokouk gi nga vile e Us
\g and 3P all 3PL.SR PAST choose ART.P Us
\p CONJ PRON ADV PRON TAM V
ART PROP
\ft And they all chose Us.
\ref 059
\t Simi
vunan
ine
mi bor a nga bungebungeng.
\m si - mi vuna -n ine
mi bor a nga bungebungeng
\g LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS DEIC.prox ART.C pig 3SPAST fat
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON DEIC
ART N PRTAM V
\ft Because this pig was fat.
\ref 060
\t Sen gi tate
nga vile ine
mi bor,
\m sen gi ta - te nga vile ine
mi bor
\g when 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST choose DEIC.prox ART.C pig
\p ADV PRON TAM - TAM TAM V
DEIC
ART N
\t e taman
mi nginou anga
turan ba ka
\m e tama -n mi nginou a - nga turan ba ka
\g ART.P father -3S.PS ART.C feast 3S.SR - PAST send ART.dl man
\p ART N
-PRON ART N
PRON - TAM Vi ART N
\t me ba nguts mene va gi ta nga sor kien ngan
\m me ba nguts mene va gi ta nga sor kien ngan
\g ACCM ART.dl Lord another that 3PL.SR IRR PAST carry go.up INST
\p PREP ART N ADV SUB PRON TAM TAM Vi V PREP
\t ine
mi bor si man rie mi tadaor
\m ine
mi bor si man rie mi tadaor
\g DEIC.prox ART.C pig LOC 3S.PI cave ART.C local.spirit
\p DEIC
ART N PREP PRON N ART N
\t nge ra kada
nge tunie rakot sen.
\m nge ra kada
nge tunie rakot sen
\g and go hit to kill and burn go.to 3S.OBJ
\p VConj Vi Vi
VConj Vi Vi PRON
\ft When they finished choosing this pig, the host of the
feast sent few men with few orators so that they would
carry this pig and go up to the local spirit's cave and to
kill and offer it to him.
\ref 061
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\t Ine
mi kulou gi nga veis nge veis tuiroit
\m ine
mi kulou gi nga veis nge veis tuiroit
\g DEIC.prox ART.C men 3PL.SR PAST walk and walk until
\p DEIC
ART N PRON TAM Vi VConj Vi PREP
\t gi nga so beit ine
simi
rie.
\m gi nga so beit ine
si - mi rie
\g 3PL.SR PAST IMM arrive DEIC.prox LOC - ART.C cave
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi DEIC
PREP - ART N
\ft These people walked and walked until they arrived at the
cave.
\ref 062
\t Ma i murien
gi tate
nga rorois ngan bu keriot
\m ma i muri -en gi ta - te nga rorois ngan bu keriot
\g and ART.L rear -3S.PS 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST prepare INST ART.PL fire.wood
\p CONJ ART N -PRON PRON TAM - TAM TAM V
PREP ART N
\t ma bu kepineits gi ta nga pinat surie na tunie ine
\m ma bu kepineits gi ta nga pinat surie na tunie ine
\g and ART.PL thing 3PL.SR IRR PAST needs RSON PURP burn DEIC.prox
\p CONJ ART N
PRON TAM TAM N PREP PREP Vi DEIC
\t mi tenebeir, gi nga tsinga
mi leing leong.
\m mi tenebeir gi nga tsing - a mi leing leong
\g ART.C gift
3PL.SR PAST set.fire - TR ART.C fire large
\p ART N
PRON TAM Vi
- AFF ART N V
\ft And after they prepared the firewoods and the things
they would need for offer the sacrifice, they set a big
fire.
\ref 063
\t Samo mi menmenen ian
bu nguts a nga poro ken sele
\m samo mi menmenen ian
bu nguts a nga poro ken sele
\g then ART.C one.of.them DEIC.dist1 ART.PL orator 3S.SR PAST hold 3S.PN knife
\p CONJ ART N
DEIC
ART N
PRON TAM Vt PRON N
\t ma a nga veis rakot nge tir i bingan e Us
\m ma a nga veis rakot nge tir i bingan e Us
\g and 3S.SR PAST walk go.to and stand ART.L beside 2S.SR Us
\p CONJ PRON TAM Vi Vi VConj Vi ART PREP PRON PROP
\t ma anga
koup leong, "Oua, Dula! Magei
tadaor.
\m ma a - nga koup leong oua Dula magei
tadaor
\g and 3S.SR - PAST shout large Hear! Dula 1PL.EXC.PI local.spirit
\p CONJ PRON - TAM Vi V
Interj PROP PPRON
N
\ft Then one of the orators took his knife and walked up to
Us and stood beside him and shouted aloud, "Hear! Dula!
Our local spirit.
\ref 064
\t Ine
kegei tenebeir rakot sevoi
\m ine
kegei tenebeir rakot se - voi
\g DEIC.prox 2PL.PN gift go.to LOC.P - 2S
\p DEIC
PPRON N
Vi PREP - PRON
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\t va e ta nane kegei nginou."
\m va e ta nane kegei nginou
\g that 2S.SR IRR care.for 2PL.PN feast
\p SUB PRON TAM Vt
PPRON N
\ft This is our offering to you so that you will look after our feast."
\ref 065
\t Puk va ta nga poro ken sele nge kitip
\m puk va ta nga poro ken sele nge kitip
\g small that IRR PAST get 3S.PN knife and behead
\p ADJ SUB TAM TAM Vt PPRON N VConj V
\t ka
i ruon
mi bor, e gie kokouk
\m ka
i rua
-n mi bor e gie kokouk
\g along.side ART.L head.part -3S.PS ART.C pig ART.P 3PL.OP all
\p PREP
ART N
-PRON ART N ART PRON ADV
\t gi si nga rongmitsikien mi kaber ta oin
\m gi si nga rongmitsikien mi kaber ta oin
\g 3PL.SR CE PAST feel
ART.C ground IRR quake
\p PRON TAM TAM Vt
ART N
TAM V
\t ma bu kepineits kokouk a nga dedeir.
\m ma bu kepineits kokouk a nga dedeir
\g and ART.PL things all 3S.SR PAST shake
\p CONJ ART N
ADV PRON TAM V
\ft Shortly before he was going to take his knife and behead
the pig's head, they all suddenly felt quaking and
everythings were shaken.
\ref 066
\t Ma i aro-n
ne
mi oin
gi nga rongomie
\m ma i aro -n ne
mi oin
gi nga rongomie
\g and ART.L inside -3S.PS DEM.prox ART.C earthquake 3PL.SR PAST hear
\p CONJ ART N
-PRON DEM
ART N
PRON TAM V
\t mi ien, a nga malan mi tenengen bu kudu palan,
\m mi ien a nga malan mi tenengen bu kudu palan
\g ART.C voice 3S.SR PAST alike ART.C sound.of ART.PL drum plenty
\p ART V PRON TAM V ART N
ART N V
\t a nga pevin, "Eou e Dula.
\m a nga pevin eou e Dula
\g 3S.SR PAST say 1S ART.P Dula
\p PRON TAM Vi PRON ART PROP
\ft During the earthquack they heard a voice like the sound of many
drums, said "I am Dula.
\ref 067
\t Ma o vuorte bu kepineits kokouk.
\m ma o vuorte bu kepineits kokouk
\g and 1S control ART.PL things all
\p CONJ PRON V
ART N
ADV
\ft And I rule all things.
\ref 068
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\t Kenga tenebeir o resen,
eiekesen nga ta kap kada
\m kenga tenebeir o res -en eiekesen nga ta kap kada
\g 2P.POS gift or happy -3S.PS but
2PL.SR IRR NEG hit to kill
\p PRON N
CONJ Vi -PRON CONJ PRON TAM TAM Vi
\t ine
mi bor.
\m ine
mi bor
\g DEIC.prox ART.C pig
\p DEIC
ART N
\ft I am happy about your(PL) offering, but don't kill this
pig.
\t Nga tsupukrivie ma nga ta lalapus peuk muerngei i marar."
\m nga tsupukrivie ma nga ta lalapus peuk muerngei i marar
\g 2PL.SR abandon and 2PL.SR IRR rush go.down retrun ART.L residential.area
\p PRON V
CONJ PRON TAM V
Vi
Vi
ART N
\ft You leave it alone and you hurriedly go back down to your
residential area."
\ref 069
\t Kap ka mene a nga oit na vakokoit ma kap ka mene a nga
\m kap ka mene a nga oit na vakokoit ma kap ka mene a nga
\g NEG NR.S person 3S.SR PAST able PURP talk and NEG man another 3S.SR PAST
\p TAM ART N
PRON TAM V PREP Vi
CONJ TAM N ADV PRON TAM
\t oit na koup o ser, simi
vunan
mi mentou
ta nga
\m oit na koup o ser si - mi vuna -n mi -in- motou ta nga
\g able PURP shout or run LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS ART.C -NOM- afraid IRR PAST
\p V PREP Vi CONJ V PREP - ART N
-PRON ART -NOM- V
TAM TAM
\t poro gie, a nga tseiptseiprio gie.
\m poro gie a nga tseiptseiprio gie
\g hold 3PL.OP 3S.SR PAST over.power 3PL.OP
\p Vt PRON PRON TAM V
PRON
\ft No one was able to talk and no one was able to shout or
run, because the fear captured them, it overpowered
them.
\ref 070
\t Sen mi mentou
tate
nga ko voto lili,
\m sen mi -in- motou ta - te nga ko voto lili
\g when ART.C -NOM- afraid IRR - CMPL PAST HAB finish small
\p ADV ART -NOM- V
TAM - TAM TAM TAM Vi ADJ
\t egie kokouk gi nga samprorou ngan mi rosar
\m egie kokouk gi nga samprorou ngan mi rosar
\g 3P together 3PL.SR PAST stampede INST ART.C big.road
\p PRON ADV
PRON TAM V
PREP ART N
\t va ese tanga
muo ma ese ta nga vemuir.
\m va ese ta - nga muo ma ese ta nga ve - muir
\g that who IRR - PAST lead and who IRR PAST Rcpr - rear
\p SUB PRON TAM - TAM V CONJ PRON TAM TAM AFF - N
\ft When the fear was gone a little bit, they all stampede
onto the road that who was leading and who was
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following(without thinking about who was in front and
who was in the back).
\ref 071
\t Gi nga ser nge ser tuiroit gi nga so beit i marar
\m gi nga ser nge ser tuiroit gi nga so beit i marar
\g 3PL.SR PAST run and run until 3PL.SR PAST IMM arrive ART.L residential.area
\p PRON TAM V VConj V PREP PRON TAM TAM Vi ART N
\t ma gi nga so pengan bu kepineits kokouk
\m ma gi nga so pengan bu kepineits kokouk
\g and 3PL.SR PAST IMM talk ART.PL things all
\p CONJ PRON TAM TAM Vi ART N
ADV
\t ta nga tsourbeit segie
nikien i ot.
\m ta nga tsourbeit se - gie nikien i ot
\g IRR PAST appear LOC - 3PL.OP DEM.up ART.L bush
\p TAM TAM V
PREP - PRON DEM ART N
\ft They ran and ran until they arrived in the residential area
and they talked about all the things that happenned to
them up in the bush.
\ref 072
\t I murien te mi kulou gi tate
nga vi
peuk i marar,
\m i murien te mi kulou gi ta - te nga vi
peuk i marar
\g ART.L after CMPL ART.C men 3PL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST run.away go.down ART.L
residential.area
\p ART ADV TAM ART N PRON TAM - TAM TAM Vi
Vi
ART N
\t e Dula a nga vurisan
e Us rakot simi
ka mat
dokei rovoriu.
\m e Dula a nga vuris -n e us rakot si - mi ka mat
dokei rovoriu
\g ART.P Dula TR PAST change -3S.OP 2S.SR Us go.to LOC - ART.C man look-like fair
very
\p ART PROPAFF TAM VVi -PRON PRON PROP Vi PREP - ART N Vi
V
ADV
\ft After the people had run down to the village, Dula turned Us into a
very handsome man.
\ref 073
\t Samo e Dula a nga oeng sen, "Us, bu kepineits kokouk o
\m samo e Dula a nga oeng sen us bu kepineits kokouk o
\g then ART.P Dula 3S.SR PAST speak 3S.OBJ Us ART.PL thing all 1S.SR
\p CONJ ART PROPPPRON TAM Vi PRON PROP ART N
ADV PRON
\t telekiran
surie ken menagos
sinartsak e Tsakie
\m telekira -n surie ken menagos
sinartsak e Tsakie
\g know -3S.OP RSON 3S.PN relationship poor
ART.P Tsakie
\p Vt
-PRON PREP PRON N
V
ART PROP
\t ma man menrouk me ken tenteiv surie no.
\m ma man menrouk me ken tenteiv surie no
\g and 3S.PI illness ACCM 3S.PN love RSON 2S.OBJ
\p CONJ PRON N
PREP PRON N
PREP PRON
\ft Then Dula said to him, "Us, I know all the things about the poor life of
Tsakie and his sickness and his love for you.
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\ref 074
\t Rorong kelei, o ta ture muernga no rakot se Tsakie
\m rorong kelei o ta ture muernga no rakot se Tsakie
\g hear good 1S IRR send return 2S.OBJ go.to LOC Tsakie
\p Vi V
PRON TAM V
PRON Vi PREP PROP
\t ma mi kepineits vourvour va e ta so tsana a malan ne.
\m ma mi kepineits dupCV- vour va e ta so tsana a malan ne
\g and ART.C things NOM- new that 2S.SR IRR IMM do 3S.SR alike DEIC.prox
\p CONJ ART N
NOM- V SUB PRON TAM TAM Vt PRON V DEIC
\ft Listen well, I will send you back to Tsakie and first thing
that you will do is like this.
\ref 075
\t Sen va e tate
so beit se Tsakie,
\m sen va e ta - te so beit se Tsakie
\g when that 2S.SR IRR - CMPL IMM arrive LOC Tsakie
\p ADV SUB PRON TAM - TAM TAM Vi PREP PROP
\t e ta so vot vasangan sen mi asa
\m e ta so vot vasangan sen mi asa
\g 2S.SR IRR IMM call show 3S.OBJ ART.C name
\p PRON TAM TAM V Vt
PRON ART N
\t ma i muir e ta so soburo mi kurikurien
kokouk
\m ma i muir e ta so soburo mi kurikuri -en kokouk
\g and ART.L rear 2S.SR IRR IMM touch ART.C skin -3S.PS all
\p CONJ ART N PRON TAM TAM V
ART N
-PRON ADV
\t ma ian
ngas te man menrouk ta so voto.
\m ma ian
ngas te man menrouk ta so voto
\g and DEIC.dist1 PERS CMPL 3S.PI illness IRR IMM finish
\p CONJ DEIC
TAM TAM PRON N
TAM TAM Vi
\ft When you come up to Tsakie, you will say your name to
him and later you touch all of his body and at that
moment his sickness will be ended.
\ref 076
\t Vemusurie bu kepineits kokouk va e ta tsana, malan mi tu,
\m vemusurie bu kepineits kokouk va e ta tsana malan mi tu
\g follow ART.PL things all that 2S.SR IRR make alike ART.C garden
\p Vt
ART N
ADV SUB PRON TAM Vt V ART N
\t mi tsentsang lekep ma bu tsentsang ka
eie
\m mi tsentsang lekep ma bu tsentsang ka
eie
\g ART.C work
money and ART.PL work
along.side 3S
\p ART N
N CONJ ART N
PREP
PRON
\t iva va e ta soburo ngan mi riem gi ta vua
palan,
\m iva va e ta soburo ngan mi riem gi ta vua
palan
\g where that 2S.SR IRR touch INST ART.C hand 3PL.SR IRR flourish plenty
\p ADV SUB PRON TAM V
PREP ART N PRON TAM Vi
V
\t gi ta tsourbeit palan ma gi ta tsourbeit leong."
\m gi ta tsourbeit palan ma gi ta tsourbeit leong
\g 3PL.SR IRR become plenty and 3PL.SR IRR appear large
\p PRON TAM V
V
CONJ PRON TAM V
V
\ft Following all the things the you will make, like a garden,
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job(work to earn money) and many other works where
you touch with hand, they will flourish, they will multiply
and they will become big.
\ref 077
\t Simi
ringi oror
te
\m si - mi ringi dupCV- or
\g LOC - ART.C day NOM\p PREP - ART N NOM-
simi
nginou i Narlik,
te si - mi nginou i Narlik
watch Emph LOC - ART.C feast ART.L Narlik
V ADV PREP - ART N
ART PROP
\t e Lutor a te nga vo
pan nge mogos i matan
\m e Lutor a te nga vo
pan nge mogos i matan
\g ART.P Lutor 3S.SR CMPL PAST TM.morning wake and sit ART.L in.front.of.him
\p ART PROPPRON TAM TAM ADV
Vi COVConj ART PREP
\t keguor vono ken komois simi
nuos i Metiom.
\m keguor vono ken komois si - mi nuos i Metiom
\g 3DL.PN house 3S.PN old.man CE - ART.C island ART.L Metiom
\p PPRON N PRON N
TAM - ART N
ART PROP
\ft On the day of show at the feast in Narlik, Lutor woke up
in the morning and set down in front of their(dl) house on
Metiom island.
\ref 078
\t A nga visi dedeng, a si nga pere mi ka vour mat
dokei
\m a nga visi dedeng a si nga pere mi ka vour mat
dokei
\g 3S.SR PAST about.to look 3S.SR CE PAST look ART.C man new look-like fair
\p PRON TAM TAM
Vi
PRON TAM TAM Vt ART N ADJ Vi
ADJ
\t ta nga nemei si keguor vono.
\m ta nga nemei si keguor vono
\g IRR PAST come LOC 3DL.PN house
\p TAM TAM Vi PREPPPRON N
\ft She was about to look around, she unexpectedly saw a handsome
young man coming to their(dl) house.
\t Puk
lalapus e Lutor a nga veis rubukien i ruom
\m puk
lalapus e Lutor a nga veis rubukien i ruom
\g small.amount quickly 2S.SR Lutor 3S.SR PAST walk enter ART.L indoor
\p ADJ
ADV PRON PROP PRON TAM Vi V
ART N
\t nge ra pengan se Tsakie ma i muir, a te buer nga rovtsour
\m nge ra pengan se Tsakie ma i muir a te buer nga rovtsour
\g and go talk LOC.P Tsakie and ART.L rear 3S.SR CMPL REP PAST exit
\p VConj Vi Vi PREP PROP CONJ ART N PRON TAM TAM TAM V
\t nge me mogos.
\m nge me mogos
\g and come sit
\p VConj V Vi
\ft Hurriedly Lutor went back inside and told Tsakie and
later she came out again and sat down.
\ref 079
\t Sen ine
\m sen ine
mi ka vour tate
nga me beit i matan
mi ka vour ta - te nga me beit i matan
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\g when DEIC.prox ART.C man new IRR - CMPL PAST come arrive ART.L in.front.of.him
\p ADV DEIC
ART N ADJ TAM - TAM TAM V Vi ART PREP
\t mi vono, e Lutor a nga vovo kelei ngan ma a nga
\m mi vono e Lutor a nga vovo kelei ngan ma a nga
\g ART.C house ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST morning good INST and 3S.SR PAST
\p ART N ART PROP PRON TAM N
V PREP CONJ PRON TAM
\t vosore, "Vasa e veis ven?"
\m vosore vasa e veis ven
\g ask how 2S.SR walk how
\p Vt
QMARK PRON Vi ADV
\ft When this young man arrived at the front of the house,
Lutor greeted(good morning) him and she asked, "How
are you traveling(what's the purpose of your walk)?"
\ref 080
\t Mi ka vour anga
kuil
nama,
\m mi ka vour a - nga kuil
nama
\g ART.C man new 3S.SR - PAST reciprocate talk
\p ART N ADJ PRON - TAM Vi
V
\t "O visi nemei mo se Tsakie.
\m o visi nemei mo se Tsakie
\g 1S about.to come only LOC Tsakie
\p PRON TAM
Vi ADV PREP PROP
\ft The young man answered, "I just came to see Tsakie.
\ref 081
\t Eie iva ngan?"
\m eie iva ngan
\g 3S where INST
\p PRON ADV PREP
\ft Where is he?"
\ref 082
\t E Lutor a nga kuil
nama, "Eie die
i ruom."
\m e Lutor a nga kuil
nama eie die
i ruom
\g ART.P Lutor 3S.SR PAST reciprocate talk 3S Dem.dist2 ART.L indoor
\p ART PROP PRON TAM Vi
V PRON DEM
ART N
\ft Lutor replied, "He is inside over there."
\ref 083
\t Ma a nga kir vurukide
ine
mi ka vour i roum
\m ma a nga kir vara- - kien ine
mi ka vour i roum
\g and 3S.SR PAST carry CAUS- - go.up DEIC.prox ART.C man new ART.L room
\p CONJ PRON TAM V AFF- - V DEIC
ART N ADJ ART N
\t ma eie a te buer nga muerngei rovtsour
\m ma eie a te buer nga muerngei rovtsour
\g and 3S 3S.SR CMPL again PAST return exit
\p CONJ PRON PRON TAM ADV TAM Vi
V
\t na nga me tunie ka puk nginonginou.
\m na nga me tunie ka puk nginonginou
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\g PURP PAST come burn NR.S Mass food
\p PREP TAM V Vt ART ARR N
\ft And she took he young man going up into the inside and
she returned back to the outside to cook some food.
\ref 084
\t Samo e Tsakie a nga vovo kelei ngan nge vosore,
\m samo e Tsakie a nga vovo kelei ngan nge vosore
\g then ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST morning good INST and ask
\p CONJ ART PROPPRON TAM N
V PREP CONVConj
\t "Palapala, misa e lalaron va o ta kulie no ngan?"
\m palapala misa e lalaron va o ta kulie no ngan
\g friend what 2S.SR like that 1S IRR help 2S.OBJ INST
\p N
PRON PRON Vi SUB PRON TAM Vi PRON PREP
\ft Then Tsakie greeted him and asked, "Friend, What do you
want me to help you with?"
\ref 085
\t Ine
mi ka vour a nga kuil nama, "A kap ka kepineits
\m ine
mi ka vour a nga kuil nama a kap ka kepineits
\g DEIC.prox ART.C man new 3S.SR PAST answer talk 3S.SR NEG NR.S things
\p DEIC
ART N ADJ PRON TAM Vi V PRON TAM ART N
\t o lalaron sevoi
eiekesen o lalaro pengan mo sevoi
\m o lalaron se - voi eiekesen o lalaro pengan mo se - voi
\g 1S like LOC - 2S but
1S like talk only LOC - 2S
\p PRON Vi
PREP - PRON CONJ PRON Vt Vi ADV PREP - PRON
\t va are
eou mo e Us ke bor.
\m va are
eou mo e us ke bor
\g that DEIC.exact 1S only ART.P Us 2S.PI pig
\p SUB DEIC
PRON ADV ART PROP PPRON N
\ft The young man replied, "I want nothing from you, but I just want
to say to you that I am Us your pig.
\ref 086
\t O te tsourbeit mala ka ma ine
buer o ta soburo
\m o te tsourbeit mala ka ma ine
buer o ta soburo
\g 1S CMPL become alike man and DEIC.prox again 1S.SR IRR touch
\p PRON TAM V
V N CONJ DEIC
ADV PRON TAM V
\t mi kurikuri kokouk terengen va ma menrouk ta mang voto."
\m mi kurikuri-0 kokouk terengen va ma menrouk ta mang voto
\g ART.C skin-2S.PS all so.that that 2S.PI illness IRR RES finish
\p ART N
ADV CON SUB PRON N
TAM TAM Vi
\ft I became like a man and now also I will touch your body so that your
sickness might end.
\ref 087
\t Puk
lalapus mo i murien
tate
nga soburo
\m puk
lalapus mo i muri -en ta - te nga soburo
\g small.amount quickly only ART.L rear -3S.PS IRR - CMPL PAST touch
\p ADJ
ADV ADV ART N -PRON TAM - TAM TAM V
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\t mi kurikurien
e Tsakie,
\m mi kurikuri -en e Tsakie
\g ART.C skin -3S.PS ART.P Tsakie
\p ART N
-PRON ART PROP
\t ian
ngas te man menrouk kokouk a nga voto.
\m ian
ngas te man menrouk kokouk a nga voto
\g DEIC.dist1 PERS CMPL 3S.PI illness all 3S.SR PAST finish
\p DEIC
TAM TAM PRON N
ADV PRON TAM Vi
\ft Shortly after he touched Tsakie's body, at that moment
his sickness ended.
\ref 088
\t E Tsakie a kap nga oit na vodon tuktuk sen ta nga rongmitsikien
\m e Tsakie a kap nga oit na vodon tuktuk sen ta nga rongmitsikien
\g ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP think true when IRR PAST feel
\p ART PROP PRON TAM TAM V PREP Vi V
ADV TAM TAM Vt
\t va man menrouk a te nga voto.
\m va man menrouk a te nga voto
\g that 3S.PI illness 3S.SR CMPL PAST finish
\p SUB PRON N
PRON TAM TAM Vi
\ft Tsakie could not believe when he felt that his sickness ended.
\ref 089
\t Ine
bu kepineits a nga malan
va e Tsakie a nga borea.
\m ine
bu kepineits a nga mala -n va e Tsakie a nga borea
\g DEIC.prox ART.PL things 3S.SR PAST alike -3S.OP that ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST dream
\p DEIC
ART N
PRON TAM V -PRON SUB ART PROP PRON TAM N
\ft All these things were as if Tsakie were dreaming.
\ref 090
\t Eiekesen i muir sen, e Tsakie a nga rakape e Us
\m eiekesen i muir sen e Tsakie a nga rakape e us
\g but
ART.L rear 3S.OBJ ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST grab ART.P Us
\p CONJ ART N PRON ART PROP PRON TAM Vt ART PROP
\t nge ta koupkoup ngan mi nires, "Ai-io Us kovoung, o si nga vodon
\m nge ta dupCV- koup ngan mi nires ai-io us kovo -ung o si nga vodon
\g and IRR RDP- shout INST ART.C joy ohhh Us NR.PL -1S.PS 1S.SR CE PAST think
\p VConj TAM V- Vi PREP ART N
Interj PROP ART -PRON PRON TAM TAM Vi
\t va o ta kap pere no te, eiekesen ine
o te buer pere no.
\m va o ta kap pere no te eiekesen ine
o te buer pere no
\g that 1S.SR IRR NEG look 2S.OP Emph but
DEIC.prox 1S.SR CMPL REP look 2S.OP
\p SUB PRON TAM TAM Vt PRON ADV CONJ DEIC
PRON TAM TAM Vt
PRON
\ft But after this, Tsakie hugged Us and cried and shouted
repeatly with joy, "Ohhh, Us my head, I thought I would
never see you again, but now I see you again.
\ref 091
\t Ai-io Us kovaung ba mo te."
\m ai-io us kova -ung ba mo te
\g ohhh Us head -1S.PS indeed only Emph
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\p Interj PROP N
-PRON ADV
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ADV ADV
\ft Ohhh, Us, my head, it is you ."
\ref 092
\t Sen e Lutor ta nga rongomie e Tsakie ta nga ta votvotongie
\m sen e Lutor ta nga rongomie e Tsakie ta nga ta vot(V) - votongie
\g when ART.P Lutor IRR PASThear ART.P Tsakie IRR PAST cry REDUP - call
\p ADV ART PROPTAM TAM V
ART PROPTAM TAM Vi V
\t e Us, a nga beket ken venvendon
\m e Us a nga beket ken venvendon
\g ART.P Us 3S.SR PAST confuse 3S.PN thought
\p ART PROPPRON TAM V
PRON N
\t ma a nga ser rubukien na nga ra pere
\m ma a nga ser rubukien na nga ra pere
\g and 3S.SR PAST run enter PURP PAST go look
\p CONJ PRON TAM V V
PREP TAM Vi Vt
\t va simi
sana
kepineits tuktuk a nga beit.
\m va si - mi sana
kepineits tuktuk a nga beit
\g that LOC - ART.C what.kind things true 3S.SR PAST arrive
\p SUB PREP - ART ADJ
N
ADV PRON TAM Vi
\ft When Lutor heard that Tsakie was crying and calling Us
(by name), she was confused and she rushed in to see that
what things really had happened.
\ref 093
\t Sen tate
nga so rubukien e Tsakie a nga pengan sen
\m sen ta - te nga so rubukien e Tsakie a nga pengan sen
\g when IRR - CMPL PAST IMM enter ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST talk 3S.OBJ
\p ADV TAM - TAM TAM TAM V
ART PROP PRON TAM Vi PRON
\t bu nama kokouk e Us ta nga pengan,
\m bu nama kokouk e us ta nga pengan
\g ART.PL word all ART.P Us IRR PAST talk
\p ART N ADV ART PROP TAM TAM Vi
\t eiekesen eie buer a kap nga oit na vodon tuktuk
\m eiekesen eie buer a kap nga oit na vodon tuktuk
\g but
3S also 3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP think true
\p CONJ PRON ADV PRON TAM TAM V PREP Vi
V
\t ine
sibu
nama.
\m ine
si - bu nama
\g DEIC.prox LOC - ART.PL word
\p DEIC
PREP - ART N
\ft When she went inside, Tsakie told her all the words that
Us had told him, but she could not believe these words
either.
\ref 094
\t A nga malan
va ian
bu nama a kap nga kedeve mi
\m a nga mala -n va ian
bu nama a kap nga kedeve mi
\g 3S.SR PAST alike -3S.OP that DEIC.dist1 ART.PL word 3S.SR NEG PAST convince ART.C
\p PRON TAM V -PRON SUB DEIC
ART N PRON TAM TAM V
ART
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\t aro-n,
eiekesen sen ta pere e Tsakie tate
nga tuir mat sese
\m aro -n eiekesen sen ta pere e Tsakie ta - te nga tuir mat sese
\g mind -3S.PS but
when IRR look ART.P Tsakie IRR - CMPL PAST stand look active
\p N -PRON CONJ ADV TAM Vt ART PROP TAM - TAM TAM Vi Vi V
\t ma e Us ta nga mogos, eie buer a nga ta ngan mi nires.
\m ma e us ta nga mogos eie buer a nga ta ngan mi nires
\g and ART.P Us IRR PAST sit 3S also 3S.SR PAST cry INST ART.C joy
\p CONJ ART PROP TAM TAM Vi PRON ADV PRON TAM Vi PREP ART N
\ft It seemed like that these words did not convince her
mind, but when she saw Tsakie was standing looking
active and that Us was sitting down, she also cried with
joy.
\ref 095
\t Io, egituo kokouk gituo nga veverak
ma gituo nga ta beitsak
\m io egituo kokouk gituo nga ve - ve - rak ma gituo nga ta beitsak
\g then 3PC all 3PC.SR PAST Rcpr - Rcpr - hug and 3PC.SR PAST cry INTNS
\p Interj PRON ADV PRON TAM AFF - AFF - Vt CONJ PRON TAM Vi ADV
\t ngan mi nires simi
vunan
e Us a te buer nga muerngei
\m ngan mi nires si - mi vuna -n e Us a te buer nga muerngei
\g INST ART.C joy LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS ART.P Us 3S.SR CMPL again PAST retrun
\p PREP ART N PREP - ART N
-PRON ART PROPPRON TAM ADV TAM Vi
\t ma man menrouk e Tsakie a te nga voto.
\m ma man menrouk e Tsakie a te nga voto
\g and 3S.PI illness ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR CMPL PAST finish
\p CONJ PRON N
ART PROPPRON TAM TAM Vi
\ft Then they(pc) all hugged each other and they(pc) cried
alot with joy, because Us had returned and Tsakie's
sickness had ended.
\ref 096
\t Samo gituo nga rovtsour nge ngene magituo puk
\m samo gituo nga rovtsour nge ngene magituo puk
\g then 3PC.SR PAST exit and eat 3PC.PI Mass
\p CONJ PRON TAM V
VConj Vt PPRON ARR
\t nginonginou e Lutor tate
nga tu rorois ngan.
\m nginonginou e Lutor ta - te nga tu rorois ngan
\g food
ART.P Lutor IRR - CMPL PAST cook prepare INST
\p N
ART PROPTAM - TAM TAM V V
PREP
\ft Then they(pc) went outside and ate their food that Lutor
had cooked and prepared.
\ref 097
\t Vakak ian
simi
ra e Us ta nga me beit sen, ken tino
\m vakak ian
si - mi ra e Us ta nga me beit sen ken tino
\g begin DEIC.dist1 CE - ART.C day ART.P Us IRR PAST come arrive 3S.OBJ 3S.PN life
\p V DEIC
TAM - ART N ART PROPTAM TAM V Vi PRON PRON N
\t e Tsakie a nga kekineits, mi nires na kulie bu mei mene
\m e Tsakie a nga kekineits mi nires na kulie bu mei mene
\g ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST different ART.C joy PURP help ART.PL person another
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\p ART PROPPRON TAM V
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ART N
PREP Vi
ART
118
N
ADV
\t ma na tabare gie a nga kekineits rio vourvour.
\m ma na tabare gie a nga kekineits rio dupCV- vour
\g and PURP feed 3PL.OP 3S.SR PAST different exceed NOM- new
\p CONJ PREP Vt PRON PRON TAM V
ADV NOM- V
\ft Beginning on that day that Us had come to him, Tsakie's
life was different, the joy to help others and feed them
was greater than the first time.
\ref 098
\t I aro-n
ken vono buer mi nires a nga leong
\m i aro -n ken vono buer mi nires a nga leong
\g ART.L inside -3S.PS 3S.PN house also ART.C joy 3S.SR PAST large
\p ART N
-PRON PRON N ADV ART N PRON TAM V
\t i kotubugituo e Lutor, e Us ma eie.
\m i kotubu - gituo e Lutor e Us ma eie
\g ART.L midst - 3PC.SR ART.P Lutor ART.P Us and 3S
\p ART N
- PRON ART PROPART PROPCONJ PRON
\ft In his house also the joy was great among them(pc) of
Lutor, Us and himself,
\t Kap ka kepineits a mang ba nga vara misitineiv nge gituo.
\m kap ka kepineits a mang ba nga vara misitineiv nge gituo
\g NEG NR.S things 3S.SR RES ASSU PAST CAUS worry and 3PC.OP
\p TAM ART N
PRON TAM TAM TAM AFF Vi
VConj PRON
\ft There was nothing that might have made them(pc) sad.
\ref 099
\t Bu kepineits kokouk e Us ta nga soburo ngan ba riman,
\m bu kepineits kokouk e Us ta nga soburo ngan ba rima -n
\g ART.PL things all ART.P Us IRR PAST touch INST ART.dl hand -3S.PS
\p ART N
ADV ART PROPTAM TAM V
PREP ART N -PRON
\t malan mi tu, bu lekep ma bu sinsuv ka
eie,
\m malan mi tu bu lekep ma bu sinsuv ka
eie
\g alike ART.C garden ART.PL money and ART.PL possesion along.side 3S
\p V ART N
ART N CONJ ART N
PREP
PRON
\t ine
bu kepineits kokouk gi nga vua
palan
\m ine
bu kepineits kokouk gi nga vua
palan
\g DEIC.prox ART.PL things all 3PL.SR PAST flourish plenty
\p DEIC
ART N
ADV PRON TAM Vi
V
\t ma gi nga tsourbeit palan.
\m ma gi nga tsourbeit palan
\g and 3PL.SR PAST appear plenty
\p CONJ PRON TAM V
V
\ft All the things that Us touched with his hand, like the garden, money
and other possesions, all of these things flourished plenty and they
became plenty.
\ref 100
\t Io, surie ine
bu
kepineits e
Tsakie a
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\m io surie ine
bu kepineits e Tsakie a nga tsourbeit
\g then RSON DEIC.prox ART.PL things ART.P Tsakie 3S.SR PAST appear
\p Interj PREP DEIC
ART N
ART PROP N TAM V
\t mi ka suvuram
ma i aron
kegituo tino kokouk
\m mi ka suvu - ram ma i aro -n kegituo tino kokouk
\g ART.C man possess - huge and ART.L inside -3S.PS 3PC.PN life all
\p ART N V
- V CONJ ART N
-PRON PPRON N ADV
\t gituo nga mon ngan mi nires leong
\m gituo nga mon ngan mi nires leong
\g 3PC.SR PAST stay INST ART.C joy large
\p PRON TAM Vi PREP ART N V
\t ma gituo kap nga pinat si ka kepineits.
\m ma gituo kap nga pinat si ka kepineits
\g and 3PC.SR NEG PAST lack LOC NR.S things
\p CONJ PRON TAM TAM V PREP ART N
\ft And because of the these things, Tsakie became a rich
man and in their lives together they(pc) lived with a great
joy and they(pc) did not need anything.
\ref 101
\t A te Voto.
\m a te voto
\g 3S.SR CMPL finish
\p PRON TAM Vi
\ft It is finished.
10.2 Ken kina bor e Tames ‘Tames’ female pig’ by Susana Vivnero
\ref 001
\t Mi ka mi asan
e Tames kuvu
i Sebeir
\m mi ka mi asa -n e Tames kuvu
i Sebeir
\g ART.C man ART.C name -3S.PS ART.P Tames come.from ART.L Simberi
\p ART N ART N -PRON ART PROP Vt
ART PROP
\t a nga songaran ken kina bor.
\m a nga songaran ken kina bor
\g 3S.SR PAST look.after 3S.PN female pig
\p PRON TAM Vt
PRON N
N
\ft A man named Tames from Sebeir village looked after his
female pig.
\ref 002
\t Ne
ken kina bor a nga ko ngo-ngo to.
\m ne
ken kina bor a nga ko ngo - ngo to
\g DEIC.prox 3S.PN female pig 3S.SR PAST HAB eat - eat chicken
\p DEIC
PRON N
N PRON TAM TAM Vt - Vt N
\ft This his female pig used to eat chickens.
\ref 003
\t Simi
ra mene ne
\m si - mi ra mene ne
ken kina bor
ken kina bor
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\g LOC - ART.C day another DEIC.prox 3S.PN female pig
\p PREP - ART N ADV DEIC
PRON N
N
\t a te buer nga karere mi kina to.
\m a te buer nga karere mi kina to
\g 3S.SR CMPL again PAST chase.away ART.C female chicken
\p PRON TAM ADV TAM V
ART N
N
\ft One day this his female pig chased a hen again.
\ref 004
\t E Tames a nga visi karere mi kina bor.
\m e Tames a nga visi karere mi kina bor
\g ART.P Tames 3S.SR PAST about.to chase.away ART.C female pig
\p ART PROP PRON TAM TAM
V
ART N
N
\ft Tames was about to chase after the female pig.
\ref 005
\t Eiekesen a ba nga me beit i muir.
\m eiekesen a ba nga me beit i muir
\g but
3S.SR ASSU PAST come arrive ART.L rear
\p CONJ PRON TAM TAM V Vi ART N
\ft But he (certainly) arrived late.
\ref 006
\t Mi kina bor a te nga ngo vaton
bu nutu to
\m mi kina bor a te nga ngo vato -n bu nutu to
\g ART.C female pig 3S.SR CMPL PAST eat finish -3S.OP ART.PL child chicken
\p ART N
N PRON TAM TAM Vt V
-PRON ART N N
\t nge vi
kien i ot.
\m nge vi
kien i ot
\g and run.away go.up ART.L bush
\p CONJ Vi
V ART N
\ft The female pig ate up chicks and rand away to the bush.
\ref 007
\t Mi kina to
a te nga tengisie bu natuon.
\m mi kina to
a te nga tengisie bu natu
-n
\g ART.C female chicken 3S.SR CMPL PAST cry.for ART.PL off.spring -3S.PS
\p ART N
N
PRON TAM TAM V
ART N
-PRON
\ft The hen cried for her children.
\ref 008
\t E Tames a nga oeng simi
kina to,
\m e Tames a nga oeng si - mi kina to
\g ART.P Tames 3S.SR PAST say LOC - ART.C female chicken
\p ART PROP PRON TAM Vi PREP - ART N
N
\t “E ta kap ta. Ke aortsak
evoi ta lili mo.
\m e ta kap ta ke aor
- tsak evoi ta lili mo
\g 2S.SR IRR NEG cry 2S.PI center.of.emotion - bad 2S IRR small only
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi PPRON N
- ADV PRON TAM ADJ ADV
\t Eiekesen simi
kina bor ta leong beitsak te."
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\m eiekesen si - mi kina bor ta leong beitsak te
\g but
LOC - ART.C female pig IRR large INTNS CMPL
\p CONJ PREP - ART N
N TAM V ADV TAM
\ft Tames said to the hen, "Don't cry your broken heart will
be small only. But to the female pig it will be great truly.
\ref 011
\t Samo a te nga oeng se kese-n,
\m samo a te nga oeng si kisi -n
\g then 3S.SR CMPL PAST say LOC brother -3S.PS
\p ADV PRON TAM TAM Vi PREP N
-PRON
\t “Kisi, e ta tsana ka pal na pala die
mi kina bor.”
\m kisi e ta tsana ka pal na pala die
mi kina bor
\g brother 2S.SR IRR make NR.S snare PURP tie Dem.dist2 ART.C female pig
\p N
PRON TAM Vt ART N PREP Vt DEM
ART N
N
\ft Then he said to his brother, "Brother, make a snare to tie
that female pig.
\ref 012
\t E kese-n
a nga rorong kelei sen nge tsanga mi pal.
\m e kisi -n a nga rorong kelei sen nge tsanga mi pal
\g ART.P brother -3S.PS 3S.SR PAST hear good 3S.OBJ and make ART.C snare
\p ART N
-PRON PRON TAM Vi V PRON CONJ Vt ART N
\ft His brother listened to him well and made a snare.
\ref 013
\t Si reivreiv te, mi kina bor a te nga me beit.
\m si reivreiv te mi kina bor a te nga me beit
\g LOC afternoon Emph ART.C female pig 3S.SR CMPL PAST come arrive
\p PREP N
ADV ART N
N PRON TAM TAM V Vi
\ft In the afternoon, the female pig arrived.
\ref 014
\t Sen e Tames ta nga kudier pere mi kina bor,
\m sen e Tames ta nga kudier pere mi kina bor
\g when ART.P Tames IRR PAST suprise look ART.C female pig
\p ADV ART PROP TAM TAM Vi
Vt ART N
N
\t a nga koup varongomie
ba kese-n,
\m a nga koup va - rongomie ba kisi -n
\g 3S.SR PAST shout CAUS - hear ART.DL brother -3S.PS
\p PRON TAM Vi AFF - V
ART N
-PRON
\t e Kivkiv me Pias.
\m e Kivkiv me Pias
\g ART.P Kivkiv ACCM Pias
\p ART PROP PREP PROP
\ft When Tames was surprised and saw the female pig, he
shouted for his brothers, Kivkiv and Pias, to hear.
\ref 015
\t “Arie
\m arie
te.
te
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\g Dem.exact CMPL
\p DEM
TAM
\ft This is it.
\ref 016
\t Kap ka ra te buer.
\m kap ka ra te buer
\g NEG NR.S day CMPL again
\p TAM ART N TAM ADV
\ft There is no other time again.
\ref 017
\t Ngatuo ta te tsang.”
\m Ngatuo ta te tsang
\g 2PC.SR IRR CMPL work
\p PRON TAM TAM Vi
\ft You(paucal) do it.
\ref 018
\t E Tames a nga tabare mi kina bor a
e Kivkiv
\m e Tames a nga tabare mi kina bor a
e Kivkiv
\g ART.P Tames 3S.SR PAST feed ART.C female pig interjector ART.P Kivkiv
\p ART PROP PRON TAM Vt ART N
N CONJ
ART PROP
\t va tanga
pala.
\m va ta - nga pala
\g that IRR - PAST tie
\p SUB TAM - TAM Vt
\ft Tames fed the female pig so that Kivkiv (can) tie(trap) it.
\ref 019
\t E Pias a ngas nga kekeiv simi
vuna niu.
\m e Pias a ngas nga kekeiv si - mi vuna niu
\g ART.P Pias 3S.SR PERS PAST hide LOC - ART.C root coconut
\p ART PROP PRON TAM TAM Vi PREP - ART N N
\ft Pias was still hiding under a coconut tree.
\ref 020
\t Sen e Kivkiv tate
nga tei vokotsore mi pal, e Pias a
\m sen e Kivkiv ta - te nga tei vokotsore mi pal e Pias a
\g when ART.P Kivkiv IRR - CMPL PAST pull tighten ART.C loop ART.P Pias 3S.SR
\p ADV ART PROP TAM - TAM TAM Vi Vt
ART N ART PROP PRON
\t nga ser nge me tsok legen
mi kina bor.
\m nga ser nge me tsok lege -n mi kina bor
\g PAST run and come pick leg -3S.PS ART.C female pig
\p TAM V CONJ V Vi N -PRON ART N
N
\ft When Kivkiv pulled and tighten the snare, Pias ran and
picked up the female pig's leg.
\ref 021
\t Sen e Kivkiv me Pias guor tate
nga tei vuturungie
\m sen e Kivkiv me Pias guor ta - te nga tei vuturungie
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\g when ART.P Kivkiv ACCM Pias 3DL.SR IRR - CMPL PAST pull cause.to.lay.down
\p ADV ART PROP PREP PROP PRON TAM - TAM TAM Vi Vt
\t mi kina bor, e Tames a nga sik tsour
lalapus
\m mi kina bor e Tames a nga sik tsour
lalapus
\g ART.C female pig ART.P Tames 3S.SR PAST slide climb.down fast
\p ART N
N ART PROP PRON TAM Vi Vi
ADV
\t i popon
mi tsur te ken sele, a mang ba nga tavatava
\m i popo -n mi tsur te ken sele a mang ba nga tava - tava
\g ART.L top -3S.PS ART.C bench Emph 3S.PN knife 3S.SR RES ASSU PAST slice - slice
\p ART N -PRON ART N ADV PRON N PRON TAM TAM TAM Vi - Vi
\t mi ngutuon
mi kina bor.
\m mi ngutu -n mi kina bor
\g ART.C mouth -3S.PS ART.C female pig
\p ART N -PRON ART N
N
\ft When Kivkiv and Pias pulled and made the female pig to
lay down, Tames slid and came down quickly from the top
of the bench with his knife., and finally cut up the female
pig mouth.
\ref 022
\t Samo a si nga tei mi legelegen
mi kina bor nge
\m samo a si nga tei mi lege - lege -n mi kina bor nge
\g suddenly 3S.SR CE PAST pull ART.C leg - leg -3S.PS ART.C female pig and
\p ADV
PRON TAM TAM Vi ART N - N -PRON ART N
N CONJ
\t toik vuturungie
i popon
man poko kereot.
\m toik vuturungie
i popo -n man poko kereot
\g carve cause.to.lay.down ART.L top -3S.PS 3S.PI piece firewood
\p V Vt
ART N -PRON PRON ADJ N
\ft Suddenly he pulled the female pig's leg and carved it out
and lay it down on top of the firewood (to cook it)
\ref 023
\t Mi kina bor tate
nga barabarar a kap nga palo.
\m mi kina bor ta - te nga bara -barar a kap nga palo
\g ART.C female pig IRR - CMPL PAST RDP-squeal 3S.SR NEG PAST play
\p ART N
N TAM - TAM TAM V
PRON TAM TAM V
\ft The female pig's squealing was not like a game.(it was
serious)
\ref 024
\t Ba kese-n
guor nga soer ngan mi nginiets simi
vunan
\m ba kisi -n guor nga soer ngan mi -in- ngiets si - mi vuna -n
\g ART.DL brother -3S.PS 3DL.SR PAST sweep INST ART.C -NOM- laugh LOC - ART.C
origin -3S.PS
\p ART N
-PRON PRON TAM Vi PREP ART -NOM- V
PREP - ART N
PRON
\t a si nga mono vosore mi kina bor, “E te toiv
nangaba?”
\m a si nga mono vosore mi kina bor e te toiv
nangaba
\g 3S.SR CE PAST CONT ask ART.C female pig 2S.SR CMPL sympathize finally
\p PRON TAM TAM TAM Vt ART N
N PRON TAM V
ADV
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\ft His two brothers swept with a laugh because he kept
asking the female pig, "You finally feel sorry?"
\ref 025
\t Mi kina bor a kap nga oit na veis kelei te buer,
\m mi kina bor a kap nga oit na veis kelei te buer
\g ART.C female pig 3S.SR NEG PAST able PURP walk good CMPL again
\p ART N
N PRON TAM TAM V PREP Vi V TAM ADV
\t simi
vunan
a te nga rongmitsikien mi vinavsor
leong
\m si - mi vuna -n a te nga rongmitsikien mi -in- vavsor leong
\g LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS 3S.SR CMPL PAST feel
ART.C -NOM- painful large
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON PRON TAM TAM Vt
ART -NOM- V
V
\t simi
ngutsuon
ma mi keme-n.
\m si - mi ngutsu -n ma mi keme -n
\g LOC - ART.C mouth -3S.PS and ART.C foot -3S.PS
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON CONJ ART N -PRON
\ft The female pig was not able to walk well again because
she felt a great pain on his mouth and his leg.
\ref 026
\t I murien
ne
e Tames a te buer nga pere mi kina to.
\m i muri -n ne
e Tames a te buer nga pere mi kina to
\g ART.L rear -3S.PS DEIC.prox ART.P Tames 3S.SR CMPL again PAST look ART.C female
chicken
\p ART N -PRON DEIC
ART PROP PRON TAM ADV TAM Vt ART N
N
\ft After this Tames saw the hen again.
\ref 027
\t Samo a te nga oeng sen, “E tate
res,
\m samo a te nga oeng sen e ta - te res
\g then 3S.SR CMPL PAST say 3S.OBJ ART.P IRR - CMPL happy
\p ADV PRON TAM TAM Vi PRON ART TAM - TAM Vi
\t simi
vunan
mi kina bor a te por man vinatereis
\m si - mi vuna -n mi kina bor a te por man -in- vatereis
\g LOC - ART.C origin -3S.PS ART.C female pig 3S.SR CMPL get 3S.PI -NOM- punish
\p PREP - ART N
-PRON ART N
N PRON TAM Vt PRON -NOM- V
\t mi sinavein
ta tsana sibu
natu.”
\m mi sinavei -n ta tsana si - bu natu
\g ART.C behavior -3S.PS IRR make LOC - ART.PL off.spring
\p ART N
-PRON TAM Vt PREP - ART N
\ft Suddenly he said to her, "Be happy because the female pig
got the punishment for his behavior that he was doing to
your children.
\ref 028
\t A te voto.
\m a te voto
\g 3S.SR CMPL finish
\p PRON TAM Vi
\ft It is finished.
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