Download Appendix 1: Anatomical Regions

Appendix 1: Anatomical Regions
Familiarize yourself with the structures and regions listed below. Use M&O Table 1.3 for reference. All structures have
both an English and a Greek or Latin name (e.g., English “head” = Greek “cephalon”). When we talk about a structure we
will usually just use the English term (e.g., forearm, thigh), but when we talk about a region we use the adjectival form of
the Latin or Greek (e.g., antebrachial region, femoral region).
Note that these are not bold terms and you will not be tested on these. They are just helpful.
English Term
Greek/Latin Descriptor (Noun)
Regional Term (Adjective)
HeadCephalonCephalic
ForeheadFronsFrontal
NoseNasusNasal
MouthOsOral
Lower back of head
Occiput
Occipital
ChinMentumMental
NeckCervixCervical
ChestThoraxThoracic
NavelUmbilicusUmbilical
LoinLumbusLumbar
ButtockNatesGluteal
GroinInguenInguinal
Genital regionPubesPubic
(Perineum)PerineumPerineal
Point of shoulder
Acromion
Acromial
ArmpitAxillaAxillary
Arm (upper)BrachiumBrachial
ElbowCubitusOlecranal (or Cubital)
Front of elbow
Antecubitus
Antecubital
ForearmAntebrachiumAntebrachial
WristCarpusCarpal
HandManusManual
PalmPalmaPalmar
FingerDigitusDigital
ThumbPollexPollical
ThighFemurFemoral
KneeGenuGenual (Genicular)
Back of kneePopliteusPopliteal
Leg (lower)CrusCrural
CalfSuraSural
AnkleTarsusTarsal
FootPesPedal
SolePlantaPlantar
ToeDigitusDigital
Big toeHalluxHallucal
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Appendix 2: Preparing Microscope Slides
Histology is the study of tissue structure, as distinct from cytology, the study of cell structure. Over the course of this semester, we
will study the histology of the human body at the light microscopic level using prepared microscope slides. Hospital pathology labs
process huge quantities of tissue biopsies on a daily basis, producing microscope slides that can be used to determine whether tissue is
normal or pathological. Where do these slides come from?
1) Fixation. The first step in preparing a tissue to be examined under the light microscope is fixation. A small piece of tissue is
excised from the body and dropped into a fixative, such as formaldehyde. The function of the fixative is to cross-link proteins, thereby
stabilizing the structure of the tissue and preventing degradation.
2) Embedding. The fixed tissue is then dehydrated in a series of alcohols, passed through xylene into molten paraffin wax, which is
then allowed to cool. The embedded specimen is mounted on a wooden block for sectioning.
3) Sectioning. The wooden block is then mounted in a device called a microtome, and thin (5 to 10 µm) sections of the embedded
tissue are cut in series.
4) Mounting. The sections are then floated on warm water on a glass microscope slide. The water is allowed to evaporate, so that the
sections stick to the slide.
5) Staining. In this step, the paraffin wax is dissolved away with a solvent. The slides with attached sections are rehydrated, then
passed through one or more colored stain solutions that differentially stain the components of the tissue.
6) Cover slipping. Finally, the slide is dehydrated once more, and the section or sections are covered with a thin glass cover slip. A
layer of resin attaches the cover slip and prevents air from getting to the sections.
The color of tissue components depends entirely on the stains used, e.g., collagen fibers could be red, green, or purple in different
preparations. Hence, the colors you see on your slides will often not match those shown in illustrations in the text. Start training
yourself to perceive structure, regardless of color.
In addition to the standard paraffin-based procedure described here, there are other preparation techniques. Cryosectioning involves
cutting sections of unfixed quick-frozen tissue on a special cryomicrotome and immunohistochemistry uses antibodies to stain specific
tissue components. Also, while light microscopy is certainly the standard for histology, electron microscopy is often used when higher
magnification is needed to visualize greater detail in cell structure. In electronmicroscopy electrons, which have a shorter wavelength
than light, are used to visualize specimens. Tissues must still be sectioned, but they must be sectioned ultra-thin, and this is done on
an aptly named ultramicrotome.
Image accessed from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ultramicrotome_2265_EM_GD_MB.jpg on 10/29/12
Copyright owned by Leica Microsystems, GmbH (CC-BY-SA)
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Appendix 3: Review of the Cell
You’ve already been exposed to cell structure in Biology 1. Be sure you can define the following structures, describe their basic
functions, and be able to recognize each in an illustration or suitable histological preparation:
4. Cell membrane (aka plasma membrane)
A. Semi-permeable membrane that separates the intracellular fluid (ICF- fluid inside the cell) from extracellular fluid (ECFfluid outside the cell)
B. Mediates exchange of materials between the cell and its environment
5. Cytoplasm (aka cytosol)
A. Watery substance that suspends all cell parts
B. Makes up the intracellular fluid of an organism (ICF)
6. Nuclear envelope
A. Surrounds and protects the DNA in the nucleus
B. Entire envelope is studded with nuclear pores that allow materials in and out
7. Nucleus
A. Contains and controls access to DNA
8. Chromatin
A. The DNA/protein complex that is loose and unwound within the nucleus.
B. Chromatin can wind up into chromosomes, packages of DNA, during cell division.
9. Nucleolus
A. Found within the nucleoplasm within the nuclear envelope
B. A dense area where ribosomal RNA is made and used to build ribosomes…
10. Ribosomes
A. The small structure (made of protein and rRNA) found in the cytoplasm; responsible for building proteins
11. Mitochondria
A. Site of cellular respiration (energy production) in the cell.
12. Cytoskeleton
A. A complex network of protein filaments of varying sizes and composition involved in maintaining cell structure (like a
skeleton), movement of materials through the cell (like monorail system!), and enabling gross movement of the cell itself
(by enabling the creation of pseudopodia!)
B. Also make up organelles like cilia and flagella…
13. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
A. A membranous maze that is an extension of the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
B. Rough ER is dotted with ribosomes.
14. Golgi bodies (or golgi apparatus)
A. Proteins from rough ER are packaged and “shipped” to appropriate locations (ECF? ICF?)
B. Looks like a flattened pancake stack…
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Appendix 4: Using the Compound Light Microscope
Microscope Parts
The compound microscope is a precision instrument. Treat it with respect. When carrying it, always use two hands, one on the base
and one on the neck.
The microscope consists of a stand (base + neck), on which is mounted the stage (for holding microscope slides) and lenses. The
lens that you look through is the ocular (paired in binocular scopes); the lens that focuses on the specimen is the objective. The total
magnification is found by multiplying the magnification of the objective by the magnification of the ocular. For example, if you have
a 10x ocular and a 10x objective, the total magnification is: 10x * 10x = 100x.
Your microscope has four objectives of varying magnifications (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x) mounted on a revolving nosepiece. The 100x
objective is a special oil immersion objective that needs to be used with oil - don’t try this without instruction.
Positioning the specimen requires that you turn the mechanical stage controls, which operate the slide bracket on the surface of
the stage. One control moves the specimen in the x-direction, and the other moves the specimen in the y-direction. Focusing on
the specimen is achieved by knobs that move the stage up and down, so that it is closer or farther from the objective. There are two
knobs, an outer coarse focus and an inner fine focus.
The substage condenser directs light through the slide into the objective. An iris diaphragm on the substage condenser controls the
amount of light reaching the objective, and also affects the contrast of the specimen (see below).
Image accessed from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optical_microscope_nikon_alphaphot.jpg on 12/20/13- in public domain
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Complete the following procedure EVERY TIME you get your microscope out and
EVERY TIME you put it away.
Getting Started
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Get your microscope out of the cabinet in the back of the room. Carry it with TWO HANDS to your table.
Before plugging in your scope, always make sure that the voltage control is at its lowest level and the light switch is off.
Plug in the microscope and turn on the light source.
Raise the substage condenser to its top position and open the iris diaphragm all the way.
Turn the nosepiece so that the 10x objective is lined up with the light source.
Place a slide on the stage and use the mechanical stage controls to move it into place.
Turn up the light to a comfortable level.
Getting a Focused Image
8. Adjust the interocular distance (distance between the oculars) by gently pressing the oculars together or pulling them apart until
you see a single circular field of view.
9. Look through both oculars (i.e., keep both eyes open), but think right eye and adjust focus until the specimen is clear in your
right eye.
10. Now think left eye and turn the diopter adjustment (the moveable ring) on the left eyepiece to adjust the focus for your left eye.
You should have a sense of the image suddenly “popping out” at you, sharp and clear.
Optimizing Resolution and Contrast
11. Resolution is the ability to distinguish two closely spaced points on your specimen, and it is always best with the iris diaphragm
wide open. Contrast is the magnitude of difference between light and dark objects, and it increases as you close the aperture
of the iris diaphragm. Getting the best image, then, requires that you find the right balance. Slowly open and close the iris
diaphragm to get a feeling for the effect this has on your image.
Changing Magnification
12. Always start with the lowest power objective (4x) to get oriented and locate an area of interest, and then switch to higher power
to examine interesting regions more closely. To change magnification, simply rotate the nosepiece to bring one of the other
objectives into the light path.
Finishing Up
13. In this order: turn down the illumination; turn off the power; switch back to the 4X objective; remove your slide; unplug the
power cord and wrap it around the base of the scope; lower the stage to hold the cord in place; return your scope to the cabinet.
Your Task
Examine the letter “e”
Materials: Light microscope
Letter “e” slides
1. Center the slide of the letter “e” on the stage with the “e” in its normal upright position. Bring the letter in to focus under low
power using the procedures described above.
2. Note the position of the letter “e” on the slide (using your eyes only). Compare this to what you see through the eyepiece.
A. What do you notice about the position of the “e”?
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3. While looking through the microscope, move the slide to the left, notice which way the letter “e” moved. Now move the slide to
the right. Notice which way the letter “e” moved. Do the same with moving the slide away and towards you.
A. When you move the slide to the left on the stage, what direction does the image appear to move?
B. When you move the slide away from you on the stage, what direction does the image appear to move?
C. Why is it important to explore this?
Your Task
Examine the colored threads
Materials: Light microscope
Colored thread slides
1. Obtain a slide of colored threads and view them under the scanning power.
A. Which thread is on top? Which is on bottom?
2. View the threads under high power (not oil immersion). Use the fine focus to focus to figure out the order of the threads from top
to bottom. As you rotate the fine focus, different strands will go out of focus while others will become more sharply focused.
A. Are all of the threads in focus at the same time?
B. What is the order (from top to bottom)?
3. “Depth of field” refers to the thickness of the plane of focus. With a large depth of field, all of the threads can be in focused at the
same time. With a narrower depth of field, only one thread or a part of one thread can be focused at a time. In order to view the
other threads, you must focus downward to view the ones underneath and upward to view the ones that are above.
A. What happens to the depth of field when you increase to a higher magnification (increases, decreases, or remains the same)?
B. Explain how the slide with threads could be used to answer the question above.
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Appendix 5: Image sources
Creative Commons Licenses
1. External Brain icon used throughout. Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license - no author recorded.
Accessed on 12/21/13 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_lobes.png
2. Microscope image in Appendix 2. Copyright owned by Leica Microsystems, GmbH (CC-BY-SA).
Accessed on 10/29/12 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ultramicrotome_2265_EM_GD_MB.jpg
3. Lung image from connective tissue lecture notes (pg 14). Copyright licensed under CC-BY-SA-3.0-MIGRATED by Serephine.
Accessed on 10/29/12 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Serous_organ_invagination.gif
In the Public Domain
4. Brain image on front page by Henry Gray (1821–1865). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918. In the public domain.
Accessed on 12/20/13 from http://www.bartleby.com/107/146.html
5. Microscope image in Appendix 4 by GcG(jawp). In the public domain.
Accessed on 12/20/13 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optical_microscope_nikon_alphaphot.jpg
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