Download Genetic Testing For Duchenne And Becker Muscular Dystrophy

MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Original Issue Date (Created):
12/1/2013
Most Recent Review Date (Revised):
7/26/2016
Effective Date:
1/1/2017
POLICY
RATIONALE
DISCLAIMER
POLICY HISTORY
PRODUCT VARIATIONS
DEFINITIONS
CODING INFORMATION
APPENDIX
DESCRIPTION/BACKGROUND
BENEFIT VARIATIONS
REFERENCES
I. POLICY
Genetic testing for DMD gene mutations may be considered medically necessary under the
following conditions:


In a male with signs and symptoms of a dystrophinopathy in order to confirm the
diagnosis and direct treatment.
For at-risk female relatives (see policy guidelines):
o
o
To confirm or exclude the need for cardiac surveillance
For preconception testing to determine the likelihood of an affected offspring in a
woman considering a pregnancy
Genetic testing for DMD gene mutations is considered investigational in all other situations.
There is insufficient evidence to support a conclusion concerning the health outcomes or benefits
associated with this procedure.
Policy Guidelines
Heterozygous females are at increased risk for cardiomyopathy and need routine cardiac
surveillance and treatment.
At-risk females are defined as first- and second-degree female relatives and include the
proband’s mother, female siblings of the proband, female offspring of the proband, the proband’s
maternal grandmother, maternal aunts, and their offspring.
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Genetic Counseling
Genetic counseling is primarily aimed at patients who are at risk for inherited disorders, and
experts recommend formal genetic counseling in most cases when genetic testing for an inherited
condition is considered. The interpretation of the results of genetic tests and the understanding of
risk factors can be very difficult and complex. Therefore, genetic counseling will assist
individuals in understanding the possible benefits and harms of genetic testing, including the
possible impact of the information on the individual’s family. Genetic counseling may alter the
utilization of genetic testing substantially and may reduce inappropriate testing. Genetic
counseling should be performed by an individual with experience and expertise in genetic
medicine and genetic testing methods.
II. PRODUCT VARIATIONS
TOP
This policy is applicable to all programs and products administered by Capital BlueCross unless
otherwise indicated below.
FEP PPO*
BlueJourney HMO**
BlueJourney PPO**
*Refer to FEP Medical Policy Manual MP-2.04.86 Genetic Testing for Duchenne and Muscular
Dystrophy. The FEP Medical Policy manual can be found at: www.fepblue.org.
** Refer to Novitas Solutions Local Coverage Determination (LCD) L35062 Biomarkers
Overview.
III. DESCRIPTION/BACKGROUND
TOP
Mutations in the DMD gene, which encodes the protein dystrophin, may result in a spectrum of
X-linked muscle diseases. The severe end of the spectrum includes the progressive muscle
diseases Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy and dilated cardiomyopathy. Genetic testing
can confirm a diagnosis of a dystrophinopathy and distinguish the less and more severe forms, as
well as identify female carriers at risk.
The dystrophinopathies include a spectrum of muscle diseases. The mild end of the spectrum
includes asymptomatic increases in serum concentration of creatine phosphokinase and clinical
symptoms such as muscle cramps with myoglobinuria and/or isolated quadriceps myopathy. The
severe end of the spectrum includes progressive muscle diseases that lead to substantial
morbidity and mortality. When skeletal muscle is primarily affected, they are classified as
Duchenne or Becker muscular dystrophy and when the heart is primarily affected, as DMDassociated dilated cardiomyopathy (left ventricular dilation and heart failure).
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
DMD, the most common muscular dystrophy, is a severe childhood X-linked recessive disorder
that results in significant disability due to skeletal myopathy and cardiomyopathy. The disease is
characterized by progressive, symmetric muscle weakness and gait disturbance resulting from a
defective dystrophin gene.1 The incidence of DMD is estimated to be 1 in 3500 newborn male
births,2 and approximately one-third of DMD cases arise from new mutations and have no
known family history.1 Infant males with DMD are often asymptomatic. Manifestations may be
present as early as the first year of life in some patients, but clinical manifestations most often
appear during preschool, from years 2 to 5. Affected children present with gait problems, calf
hypertrophy, positive Gower sign, and difficulty climbing stairs. The affected child’s motor
status may plateau between 3 and 6 years of life with deterioration beginning at 6 to 8 years.
Most patients will be wheelchair bound by ages 9 to 12 years, but will retain preserved upperlimb function until a later period. Cardiomyopathy occurs after 18 years of age. Late
complications are cardiorespiratory (e.g., decreased pulmonary function as a result of respiratory
muscle weakness and cardiomyopathy). These severe complications commonly appear in the
second decade of life and eventually lead to death.1 Few individuals with DMD survive beyond
the third decade.
Becker Muscular Dystrophy
BMD is characterized by later onset skeletal muscle weakness. Individuals remain ambulatory
into their 20s. Despite the milder skeletal muscle involvement, heart failure from
cardiomyopathy is a common cause of morbidity and the most common cause of death in these
patients, with a mean age of death in the mid-40s.3
Female Carriers
Females heterozygous for a DMD mutation can manifest symptoms of the disease.4 An estimated
2.5% to 7.8% of female carriers are manifesting carriers who develop symptoms ranging from a
mild muscle weakness to a rapidly progressive DMD-like muscular dystrophy.5 Female carriers
are at increased risk for dilated cardiomyopathy. Most heterozygous women do not show severe
myopathic features of DMD, possibly due to compensation by a normal X chromosome with
inactivation of the mutated DMD gene in the affected X chromosome.6 In some cases, this
compensation can be reversed by a nonrandom or skewed inactivation of X chromosome,
resulting in greater expression of the affected X chromosome and some degree of myopathic
features.7 Other mechanisms of manifesting female carriers include X chromosome
rearrangement involving the DMD gene and complete or partial absence of the X chromosome
(Turner syndrome).4
Clinical Diagnosis
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Suspicion of DMD should be considered irrespective of family history; it is most commonly
triggered by an observation of abnormal muscle function in a male child, the detection of an
increase in serum creatine kinase tested for unrelated indications, or detection of increased serum
transaminases (aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferases). Clinical examination
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
by a neuromuscular specialist for DMD includes visual inspection of mechanical function such
as running, jumping, climbing stairs, and getting up from the floor. Common presenting
symptoms include abnormal gait with frequent falls, difficulties rising from the floor or tip-toe
walking, and pseudo hypertrophy of the calves. A clinical examination may reveal decreased or
lost muscle reflexes and, commonly, a positive Gower sign. An elevation of serum creatine
kinase, at least 10 to 20 times normal levels (between 5000 IU/L and 150,000 IU/L), is
nonspecific to DMD but is always present in affected patients.1 Electromyography and nerve
conduction studies were traditional parts of the assessment of neuromuscular disorders, but these
tests are no longer believed to be necessary for assessment of DMD.8 An open skeletal muscle
biopsy is needed when a test for deletions or duplications of the DMD gene is negative. The
biopsy will provide general signs of muscular dystrophy, including muscle fiber degeneration,
muscle regeneration, and increased content of connective tissue and fat. Dystrophin analysis on a
muscle biopsy will always be abnormal in affected patients but is not specific to DMD.
Becker Muscular Dystrophy
BMD is clinically similar to DMD but is milder than DMD and has a later onset. BMD presents
with progressive symmetric muscle weakness, often with calf hypertrophy, although weakness of
quadriceps femoris may be the only sign. Activity-induced cramping may be present in some
individuals, and flexion contractures of the elbows may be present late in the course. Neck flexor
muscle strength is preserved, which differentiates BMD from DMD. Serum creatine kinase
shows moderate-to-severe elevation (5-100 times the normal level).
Molecular Diagnosis
DMD is the only gene of which mutations are known to cause DMD, BMD, and DMDassociated cardiomyopathy. Molecular genetic testing of DMD can establish the diagnosis of a
dystrophinopathy without muscle biopsy in most patients with DMD and BMD.
The dystrophinopathies are X-linked recessive and penetrance is complete in males. The gene
that codes for dystrophin is the largest known human gene.1 A molecular confirmation of DMD
and BMD is achieved by confirming the presence of a pathogenic variant in this gene by a
number of available assays. The large size of the dystrophin gene results in a complex mutational
spectrum with over 5000 different reported mutations, as well as a high spontaneous mutation
rate.9
Treatment
There is no cure for DMD or BMD. Treatment is aimed at controlling symptoms to improve
quality of life. However, the natural history of the disease can be changed by strategies such as
corticosteroid therapy, proper nutrition, or rehabilitative interventions. Glucocorticoids can slow
the loss of muscle strength and may be started when a child is diagnosed or when muscle
strength begins to decline.8 The goal of this therapy is to preserve ambulation and minimize later
respiratory, cardiac, and orthopedic complications. Glucocorticoids work by decreasing
inflammation, preventing fibrosis, improving muscle regeneration, improving mitochondrial
function, decreasing oxidative radicals, and stopping abnormal apoptosis pathways.1 Bone
density measurement and immunization are prerequisites for corticosteroid therapy initiation,
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POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
which typically begins at 2 to 5 years of age, although there has been no demonstrated benefit of
therapy before 5 years of age.1
New therapeutic trials require accurate diagnoses of these disorders, especially when the therapy
is targeted at specific mutations.10 Several therapies are currently in clinical trials. Two of the
more promising are antisense oligonucleotide‒induced exon-skipping and gene repair and
replacement with an adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector.11,12 Exon-skipping is a molecular
therapy aimed at skipping the transcription of a targeted exon to restore a correct reading frame
using antisense oligonucleotides. The result is a DMD protein without the mutated exon and a
normal, nonshifted reading frame. Exon-skipping might restore DMD protein function so that the
treated patient’s phenotypic expression more closely resembles BMD. Gene transfer using AAV
vector therapy involves the transfer of a functional DMD gene to the patient using this
nonpathogenic and low immune response vector.13
Regulatory Status
Clinical laboratories may develop and validate tests in-house and market them as a laboratory
service; laboratory-developed tests (LDTs) must meet the general regulatory standards of the
Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA). Laboratories that offer LDTs must be
licensed by CLIA for high-complexity testing. To date, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
has chosen not to require any regulatory review of this test.
IV. RATIONALE
TOP
The most recent literature review was performed through January 28, 2016 (see Appendix Table
1 for genetic testing categories).
Analytic Validity
Analytic validity refers to the technical accuracy of the test in detecting a mutation that is present
or in excluding a mutation that is absent.
Deletions of 1 or more exons account for 60% to 70% of mutations in individuals with Duchenne
(DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD).14,15 Duplications account for 5% to 10% of
mutations in DMD and BMD.14
Multiplex polymerase chain reactions (PCR) may be used to amplify exons known to be most
frequently deleted in patients with DMD. Results obtained from testing 2 multiplex PCR sets
suggest a detection rate of 98% with this methodology.16,17 Multiplex PCR is the most widely
available testing choice, but only detects deletions. In addition, this method does not cover the
whole gene, so a deletion might not always be fully characterized.8 An alternative to multiplex
PCR is a quantitative assay (e.g., multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification or
chromosomal microarray analysis [CMA]) of all exons. These methods are able to detect whole
exon deletions and duplications.18,19
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POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Point mutations (small deletions or insertions, single-base changes, splicing mutations) account
for 25% to 35% of mutations in males with DMD and 10% to 20% of males with BMD. If
deletion/duplication detection is negative, then dystrophin gene sequencing should be done to
look for point mutations or small deletions/insertions.8
Sequencing of the entire DMD gene to detect point mutations can be performed by traditional
PCR and Sanger sequencing, or by more automated methods such as universal long PCR
combined with massive pyrosequencing. Wang et al (2014) used next-generation sequencing
(NGS) of the entire DMD gene to detect point mutations in 10 males with DMD, 5 of whom
were negative and 5 of whom were positive for deletions and duplications.20 In the 5
deletion/duplication-negative patients, all identified mutations were considered pathogenic and
validated by Sanger sequencing, including 4 novel variants. In the 5 deletion/duplication-positive
patients, NGS detected deletions and duplications by breakpoint analysis. Because NGS
breakpoint analysis requires development of precise primers to identify and verify breakpoints,
clinical use of NGS for this purpose is limited.
Certain types of assays may cause false-positive results if the method identifies an apparent
single-exon deletion or duplication based on the absence or increased amplification, respectively,
of a single PCR amplification or hybridization; when this occurs, the result must be confirmed
using an alternative assay. This different assay will verify whether the initial result could have
been caused by a sequence variant preventing hybridization of, e.g., a primer, probe, or for
duplications, if the result was an anomaly. Therefore, false positives are expected to be
infrequent.
There is a lack of peer-review literature evaluating analytic validity. According to information
from the website of a large reference laboratory, deletion/duplication analysis by CMA and point
mutations by full gene sequencing detects 98% to 99% of mutations in both males and females.
Clinical Validity
Clinical validity refers to the diagnostic performance of the test (sensitivity, specificity, positive
and negative predictive values).
Virtually all males with DMD or BMD have identifiable DMD mutations, indicating a high
clinical sensitivity for genetic testing. In males with DMD and BMD, phenotypes are best
correlated with the degree of expression of dystrophin, largely determined by the reading frame
of the spliced message obtained from the deleted allele.
A reading frame is the way in which a messenger RNA sequence of nucleotides can be read as a
series of base triplets, and affects which protein is made. In DMD, the function of the dystrophin
protein is lost due to mutations that disrupt the reading frame. Therefore, prematurely truncated,
unstable dystrophins are generated. In contrast, patients with BMD have low levels of full-length
dystrophin or carry in-frame mutations that allow for the generation of partially functional
proteins. This so-called reading frame rule explains the phenotypic differences between DMD
and BMD patients.23 Thousands of mutations have been reported for DMD and BMD, of which
an estimated 90% fit this rule.24
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POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Testing Strategy
To establish the diagnosis of a male proband with DMD or BMD with clinical findings that
suggest a dystrophinopathy:





Perform DMD genetic testing for deletion/duplication analysis first.
If a mutation is not identified, perform sequence analysis for a point mutation.
If a disease-causing DMD mutation is identified, the diagnosis of a dystrophinopathy is
established.
Where a distinction between DMD and BMD is difficult, the reading frame rule states
that the type of deletion/duplication (those that alter the reading frame [out-of-frame],
which correlates with the more severe phenotype of DMD, versus those that do not alter
the reading frame [in-frame] which correlate with the milder BMD phenotype) can
distinguish the DMD and BMD phenotypes with 91% to 92% accuracy.
If no disease-causing DMD mutation is identified, skeletal muscle biopsy is warranted for
Western blot and immunohistochemistry studies of dystrophin.
For carrier testing in at-risk female relatives:


When the proband’s DMD mutation is known, test for that deletion/duplication or point
mutation using appropriate testing method.
When an affected male is not available for testing, test by deletion/duplication analysis
first and, if no mutation is identified, by sequence analysis.
The evaluation of relatives at risk includes females who are the sisters or maternal female
relatives of an affected male, and females who are a first-degree relative of a known or possible
carrier female.
Clinical Utility
Clinical utility is how the results of the diagnostic test will be used to change management of the
patient and whether these changes in management lead to clinically important improvements in
health outcomes.
No published studies showing clinical utility of testing for DMD gene mutations were identified.
As outlined next, clinical utility is established based on the benefits of testing for symptomatic
individuals to establish diagnosis, and for female relatives of affected individuals to assess risk.
The clinical utility of testing for DMD gene mutations for the index case includes:



Establishing the diagnosis and initiating or directing treatment of the disease (e.g.,
glucocorticoids), evaluation by a cardiologist, avoidance of certain agents (e.g.,
botulinum toxin injections), and prevention of secondary complications (e.g.,
immunizations, fracture risk reduction).
Distinguishing between DMD and BMD.
Avoidance of a muscle biopsy in most cases.
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
The clinical utility of testing for DMD gene mutations for at-risk female relatives includes:


Testing to identify heterozygous females to confirm or exclude the need for cardiac
surveillance.
Preconception testing of a woman considering offspring who would alter reproductive
decision-making based on test results.
Ongoing and Unpublished Clinical Trials
A search of ClinicalTrials.gov in February 2016 did not identify any ongoing or unpublished
trials that would likely influence this review.
Summary of Evidence
The evidence for genetic testing for a DMD gene mutation to confirm a diagnosis in individuals
who are male and have signs and symptoms of a dystrophinopathy includes case series and
database entries describing screening and results of types of mutations found in patients with
clinical signs of Duchenne (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD). Relevant outcomes
are test accuracy and validity, symptoms, change in disease status, morbid events, quality of life,
medication use, and resource utilization. Published studies of analytic validity are lacking,
however, for deletion/duplication analysis by chromosomal microarray analysis and point
mutations by full gene sequencing, analytic validity has been reported to be high (98%-99%),
with false positives being rare. Virtually all males with DMD or BMD have identifiable DMD
mutations, indicating a high clinical sensitivity for genetic testing. Clinical utility of DMD gene
testing can be established for the index case to confirm the diagnosis without a muscle biopsy, to
initiate effective treatment, and to distinguish between DMD and the less severe BMD. The
evidence is sufficient to determine qualitatively that the technology results in a meaningful
improvement in the net health outcome.
The evidence for targeted DMD mutation testing for the known pathogenic mutation in a family
in individuals who are female and are a relative of a patient with a DMD-associated
dystrophinopathy is lacking. Relevant outcomes are test accuracy and validity, changes in
reproductive decision making, symptoms, change in disease status, morbid events, quality of life,
medication use, and resource utilization. Published data for the analytic and clinical validity for
testing for a known familial mutation are lacking, but the validity is expected to be high. Direct
evidence on the clinical utility of DMD gene testing in at-risk female relatives is lacking, but an
indirect chain of evidence exists, in that confirmation or exclusion of a pathogenic mutation
necessitates or eliminates the need for routine cardiac surveillance and can indicate the
likelihood of an affected offspring in women considering children. The evidence is sufficient to
determine qualitatively that the technology results in a meaningful improvement in the net health
outcome.
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Practice Guidelines and Position Statements
A meeting of 29 senior scientists from the United States, Europe, India, and Australia established
consensus best practice guidelines for the molecular diagnosis of DMD and BMD.
Recommendations for testing are: if there is a clinical suspicion of a dystrophinopathy, first
screen for deletions and duplications. If no deletion or duplication is detected, but the clinical
diagnosis is verified, screen for point mutations.10
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendations
Not applicable.
Medicare National Coverage
There is no national coverage determination (NCD).
V. DEFINITIONS
TOP
N/A
VI. BENEFIT VARIATIONS
TOP
The existence of this medical policy does not mean that this service is a covered benefit under
the member's contract. Benefit determinations should be based in all cases on the applicable
contract language. Medical policies do not constitute a description of benefits. A member’s
individual or group customer benefits govern which services are covered, which are excluded,
and which are subject to benefit limits and which require preauthorization. Members and
providers should consult the member’s benefit information or contact Capital for benefit
information.
VII. DISCLAIMER
TOP
Capital’s medical policies are developed to assist in administering a member’s benefits, do not constitute medical
advice and are subject to change. Treating providers are solely responsible for medical advice and treatment of
members. Members should discuss any medical policy related to their coverage or condition with their provider
and consult their benefit information to determine if the service is covered. If there is a discrepancy between this
medical policy and a member’s benefit information, the benefit information will govern. Capital considers the
information contained in this medical policy to be proprietary and it may only be disseminated as permitted by
law.
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
VIII. CODING INFORMATION
TOP
Note: This list of codes may not be all-inclusive, and codes are subject to change at any time. The
identification of a code in this section does not denote coverage as coverage is determined by the
terms of member benefit information. In addition, not all covered services are eligible for separate
reimbursement.
Covered when medically necessary:
CPT Codes®
81161
81408
Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) copyrighted by American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ICD-10-CM
Diagnosis
Code*
G71.0
R63.8
Z31.430
Description
Muscular dystrophy
Other symptoms and signs concerning food and fluid intake
Encounter of female for testing for genetic disease carrier status for procreative management
*If applicable, please see Medicare LCD or NCD for additional covered diagnoses
IX. REFERENCES
TOP
1. Verma S, Anziska Y, Cracco J. Review of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) for the
pediatricians in the community. Clin Pediatr (Phila). Nov 2010;49(11):1011-1017. PMID
20724320
2. Kalman L, Leonard J, Gerry N, et al. Quality assurance for Duchenne and Becker muscular
dystrophy genetic testing: development of a genomic DNA reference material panel. J Mol
Diagn. Mar 2011;13(2):167-174. PMID 21354051
3. Darras BT, Miller DT, Urion DK. Dystrophinopathies. In: Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger
HH, et al., eds. GeneReviews(R). Seattle (WA)1993.
4. Yoon J, Kim SH, Ki CS, et al. Carrier woman of Duchenne muscular dystrophy mimicking
inflammatory myositis. J Korean Med Sci. Apr 2011;26(4):587-591. PMID 21468271
5. Soltanzadeh P, Friez MJ, Dunn D, et al. Clinical and genetic characterization of
manifesting carriers of DMD mutations. Neuromuscul Disord. Aug 2010;20(8):499-504.
PMID 20630757
6. Bonilla E, Schmidt B, Samitt CE, et al. Normal and dystrophin-deficient muscle fibers in
carriers of the gene for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Am J Pathol. Dec 1988;133(3):440445. PMID 3059802
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GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
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7. Yoshioka M, Yorifuji T, Mituyoshi I. Skewed X inactivation in manifesting carriers of
Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Clin Genet. Feb 1998;53(2):102-107. PMID 9611069
8. Bushby K, Finkel R, Birnkrant DJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of Duchenne muscular
dystrophy, part 1: diagnosis, and pharmacological and psychosocial management. Lancet
Neurol. Jan 2010;9(1):77-93. PMID 19945913
9. Mah JK, Selby K, Campbell C, et al. A population-based study of dystrophin mutations in
Canada. Can J Neurol Sci. May 2011;38(3):465-474. PMID 21515508
10. Abbs S, Tuffery-Giraud S, Bakker E, et al. Best practice guidelines on molecular diagnostics
in Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophies. Neuromuscul Disord. Jun 2010;20(6):422-427.
PMID 20466545
11. Laing NG. Genetics of neuromuscular disorders. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. Mar-Apr
2012;49(2):33-48. PMID 22468856
12. Koo T, Wood MJ. Clinical trials using antisense oligonucleotides in duchenne muscular
dystrophy. Hum Gene Ther. May 2013;24(5):479-488. PMID 23521559
13. Bowles DE, McPhee SW, Li C, et al. Phase 1 gene therapy for Duchenne muscular
dystrophy using a translational optimized AAV vector. Mol Ther. Feb 2012;20(2):443-455.
PMID 22068425
14. Takeshima Y, Yagi M, Okizuka Y, et al. Mutation spectrum of the dystrophin gene in 442
Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy cases from one Japanese referral center. J Hum
Genet. Jun 2010;55(6):379-388. PMID 20485447
15. Chen WJ, Lin QF, Zhang QJ, et al. Molecular analysis of the dystrophin gene in 407
Chinese patients with Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy by the combination of multiplex
ligation-dependent probe amplification and Sanger sequencing. Clin Chim Acta. Aug 23
2013;423:35-38. PMID 23588064
16. Beggs AH, Koenig M, Boyce FM, et al. Detection of 98% of DMD/BMD gene deletions by
polymerase chain reaction. Hum Genet. Nov 1990;86(1):45-48. PMID 2253937
17. Chamberlain JS, Gibbs RA, Ranier JE, et al. Deletion screening of the Duchenne muscular
dystrophy locus via multiplex DNA amplification. Nucleic Acids Res. Dec 9
1988;16(23):11141-11156. PMID 3205741
18. Sansovic I, Barisic I, Dumic K. Improved detection of deletions and duplications in the
DMD gene using the multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) method.
Biochem Genet. Apr 2013;51(3-4):189-201. PMID 23224783
19. Yang J, Li SY, Li YQ, et al. MLPA-based genotype-phenotype analysis in 1053 Chinese
patients with DMD/BMD. BMC Med Genet. 2013;14:29. PMID 23453023
20. Wang Y, Yang Y, Liu J, et al. Whole dystrophin gene analysis by next-generation
sequencing: a comprehensive genetic diagnosis of Duchenne and Becker muscular
dystrophy. Mol Genet Genomics. Oct 2014;289(5):1013-1021. PMID 24770780
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21. Ishizaki M, Fujimoto A, Ueyama H, et al. Life-threatening Arrhythmias in a Becker
Muscular Dystrophy Family due to the Duplication of Exons 3-4 of the Dystrophin Gene.
Intern Med. 2015;54(23):3075-3078. PMID 26631896
22. Palazzolo G, Quattrocelli M, Toelen J, et al. Cardiac Niche Influences the Direct
Reprogramming of Canine Fibroblasts into Cardiomyocyte-Like Cells. Stem Cells Int.
2016;2016:4969430. PMID 26681949
23. Monaco AP, Bertelson CJ, Liechti-Gallati S, et al. An explanation for the phenotypic
differences between patients bearing partial deletions of the DMD locus. Genomics. Jan
1988;2(1):90-95. PMID 3384440
24. Aartsma-Rus A, Van Deutekom JC, Fokkema IF, et al. Entries in the Leiden Duchenne
muscular dystrophy mutation database: an overview of mutation types and paradoxical
cases that confirm the reading-frame rule. Muscle Nerve. Aug 2006;34(2):135-144. PMID
16770791
Other Sources:
Novitas Solutions. Local Coverage Determination (LCD) L35062 Biomarkers Overview.
Effective 01/01/16. [Website]: https://www.novitas-solutions.com Accessed May 3, 2016.
X. POLICY HISTORY
MP 2.257
TOP
CAC 9/24/13. New policy BCBSA adopted. Considered medically
necessary for male with signs and symptoms of a dystrophinopathy in order
to confirm the diagnosis and direct treatment and for females to confirm or
exclude the need for cardiac surveillance and for preconception testing to
determine the likelihood of an affected offspring in a woman considering a
pregnancy.
CAC 7/22/14 Consensus review. References and rationale updated. No
changes to the policy statements. FEP variation added for this review.
CAC 7/21/15 Consensus review. No change to the policy statements.
Reference and rationale update. No coding changes.
CAC 7/26/16 Minor revision. Investigational policy statement added for
genetic testing for DMD gene mutations in all other situations than those
outlined as medically necessary. Medicare variation added. Categories of
Genetic Testing Appendix added. Description/Background, Regulatory
Status, Rationale and Reference sections updated. Coding reviewed.
Variation section reformatted.
Admin update 1/1/17: Product variation section updated with BlueJourney
product name.
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MEDICAL POLICY
POLICY TITLE
GENETIC TESTING FOR DUCHENNE AND BECKER MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
POLICY NUMBER
MP-2.257
Appendix
Appendix Table 1. Categories of Genetic Testing Addressed in MP-2.257
Category
1. I esting of an affected individual's germhne to benefit the individual
1a. Diagnostic
1b. Prognostic
1c. Therapeutic
2. Testing cancer cells from an affected individual to benefit the individual
2a. Diagnostic
2b. Prognostic
2c. Therapeutic
3. Testing an asymptomatic individual to determine future risk of disease
4. Testing of an affected individual's germline to benefit family members
S. Reproductive testing
Sa. Carrier testing: preconception
Sb. Carrier testing: prenatal
Sc. In utero testing: aneuploidy
Sci. In utero testing: mutations
Se. In utero testing: other
Sf. Preimplantation testing with in vitro fertilization
Addressed
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
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