Download The Shift of Function and The Application of Prayers in Reformation

Nicole Lorenz
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01307 Dresden
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The Function of Prayers in Saxon Reformation Theatre:
Shifts in Use and Application
Late medieval society was a pious one. Prayers could be found in everyday life but were also
used in literature. Their function and use in drama varied from a purely religious purpose to a
merely dramatic and rhetorical device. On one hand, the prayer was used to communicate
with God but also, on the outer communication level, it gave the opportunity to summarise
previous events, to express opinions, and to prepare for events in the future. Prayers also were
a special form of monologue (or one-sided dialogue?) in late medieval plays.
Some years after the assumed posting of Martin Luther’s ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg in
1517, there was an upsurge in Latin and vernacular play production in those central European
cities that embraced religious reform, one of these being the Lutheran biblical play in
Saxony. While in other German speaking regions different types of Protestant plays
developed, the plays in Saxony offered a type of socio-cultural orientation during a period of
cultural transition by acting out the new social, moral and political issues in several ways:
they addressed doctrinal questions, and instructed the youth in tenets of faith. These plays also
engaged the audience’s conscience and guided the audience in the proper faith by the
presentation of positive and negative characters taken from scripture. This marriage of theatre
and Reformation theology was clearly a reshaping of theatrical tradition. The intention of
didactic utility and the influence of humanist poetics changed the form of the drama and its
components – one of them being dialogue.
There are four different types of prayers1. In the 16th century the prayers were categorised
according to their function and purpose. Above all the prayer of thanksgiving stands out, and
is followed by the prayers asking for favours, both personal and general ones. There are also
prayers praising the Lord. Both the medieval and the Reformation prayers use the silent, more
personal, and community prayers. Within the Lutheran biblical plays, however, all kinds of
prayers can be found. Although each of the prayers can be categorised according to one main
1
A general overview of the different types of prayers can be found: HEILER, pp 409-417; THELEN, pp 1-5; LUTZ,
pp 109-111.
1
function, the general tone can shift from saying grace to asking for help and guidance. Not all
the prayers found in the text are real prayers, some of them are simple references to God.
Some characters only mention the Lord’s name to emphasize their religiousness. Although
there are many similar forms and structures of prayers in the play, one does not find a general
pattern of how to pray and how to address God.
Furthermore, the subtle use of prayer as a parody and mocking form has to be taken into
consideration. In addition to the truly sincere prayers, which are mostly spoken by the
virtuous characters, the playwrights used parody to emphasize the evil nature of some of the
antagonists. So it begins to become apparent that the use of prayers in these plays can be
analysed from not only a religious, theological point of view, but also from a dramatic and
rhetorical angle.
In order to analyse the prayers in the text an overview of the inner and outer communication
level, the intention, the form of prayer used, the length, context, and frequency, and of course
the character speaking the prayer, is needed. Is the prayer part of the plot and the play or is it
used as prologue or epilogue? Some of the prayers can only be found in the foreword of the
play. Therefore the prayer can be charged with new rhetorical functions. The prayer
summarizes, gives an overview, divides or combines two actions and as a special form of
monologue it also emphasizes the character’s moral nature. A prayer also can be used to mark
an important passage of action, time, and/or turning points in the narrative and give necessary
information and explanations to the audience. A closer look at some of these plays shows the
different applications of prayers in Reformation theatre in Saxony.
Greff’s Jakob
Greff’s Ein lieblich und nützbarlich spiel von dem Patriarchen Jacob und seinen zwelff
Sönen2 (“A Pleasant and Useful Play on the Patriarch Jacob and his Twelve Sons”) provides
an example of violence directed towards the main character. The play was first anonymously
published in 1534 by Michael Lotther in Magdeburg. According to the preface of the
publisher, it had been performed during the Schützenfest, the annual shooting competition in
2
Joachim Greff, Ein lieblich und nuzbarlich spil von dem Patriarchen Jacob und seinen zwelff Sonen / Aus dem
Ersten buch Mosi gezogen / und zu Magdeburg auff dem Schutzenhoff / im 1534. jar gehalten Dabey ein kurtz
und seer schon spiel / von der Susanna / itzund erst gedruckt. Magdeburg 1535. Gedruckt zu Magdeburgk durch
Michel Lotther. 8º (Ratsschulbibliothek Zwickau).Translation of title by EHRSTINE, p. 197. All quotations are
taken from here, translation provided by author of this essay.
2
Magdeburg before its first printing. Greff’s printed adaptation of this biblical history is the
first-known Protestant dramatisation, although there had been other protestant plays before
Lotther’s . In 1494 there was a performance of the play “Vom Erzvatter Jacob undt seim son
Joseph” in Loewen in the presence of Kaiser Maximilian and soon after Greff’s play and other
Protestant adaptations were to come3. In spite of the difficult nature of staging the entire life
of Joseph, this performance of biblical history belongs among the favourite and therefore best
known plays in the 16th and 17th century.
The play follows the main story of Joseph from the Old Testament, namely the book of
Genesis 37ff. and stretches over a period of 13 years. In the prologue the playwright doesn’t
neglect to mention his sources; he follows tradition and secures the credulity and authenticity
of his play. He mentions the bible and so he generates an earnestness and graveness, which
are essential for the main intention and dramatic goal this Protestant biblical play tries to
achieve. The play does not present the entire life story of Jacob or his sons, but is a succession
of four important episodes of Joseph’s life. Therefore it doesn’t follow the classical unities;
these are the so called Aristotelian unities in the Greek and Roman plays which had been
newly rediscovered in the German-speaking regions of central Europe. Greff’s Jakob violates
the unities of time, action and space. A narrative structured plot was of no importance to Greff
– there would have been too many similarities to the vitae of saints and martyrs of former
Catholic plays. He wanted to emphasize certain events in the life of Joseph underlining
intended purpose of the play, which is explicitly pointed out to the audience in the Prologue
and Epilogue.
By excluding smaller episodes, the plot jumps several years ahead and changes in the setting
of time and space occur. Despite the many-included prayers Greff succeeds in reducing the
Joseph-story to only 2090lrhymed couplets. Although the play has the formal five-actstructure a subdivision of four main episodes is also possible. The proportions of the main
parts vary and they become smaller towards the end. Nevertheless, these four chosen episodes
set an example for the importance of the trust in God.
Episode
Contents
Act
1
Joseph’s youth at his father’s home and the betrayal by his
I - III
3
The adaptations differ vastly in volume, type, quality and intention. The better known ones include: Christian
Zyrl (1572), Mistere du vieil testament (Ende 15.Jh.), Cornelius Crocus (1535), Macrpeius (1547 oder 1544),
Jakob Rueff (1540), Thomas Brunner von Landshut (1566), Bartolomäus Leschke (1571), Johann Schlayß
(1593), Andreas Diether (1544), Colenuccio (1527), Sixt Birck (1539), Hans von Rute (1538), Peter Jordann
(1540), Agidius Hunnius (1586), Nikodemus Frischlin (1590), Andreas Gasmann (1610), Schonaeus (1592),
Rhodius (1625), Martinus Balticus (1556), Adam Puschmann (1592), Andreas Rochtius (1608), Balthasar
Voidius (1618), Thiebolt Gart (1540)
3
brothers
2
In the service of Potiphar
IV
st
3
Interpretation of the Pharaoh’s Dreams, the restoring of
Joseph’s freedom, granting his elevated social status
1 part of V
4
Reunification with his brothers and family
2nd part of V
All of the episodes are separated by time and space. Only through the prayers of Joseph and
the asides of supporting characters is the audience able to fill in he blanks. Upon closer
examination, other possibilities for interpreting the structure become apparent, but for the
purposes of this paper they will not be elaborated here.
The play also includes three long prayers: I/1 (Jacob), IV/1 (Joseph), V/2 (Joseph). All of
them are placed at the beginning or the end of one of the main episodes in Joseph’s life. In
addition to these three long prayers, several small prayers can be found in the text. Most of
them characterize the other brothers as follows.
In I/1 Ruben makes a reference to praying on a regular basis, when asked by his father where
everyone is. In III/1 Judas asks God for forgiveness for the brothers’ sinful behaviour towards
their brother Joseph, and so the audience learns of the religious status of the brothers.
Although they are not as pious as their father and Joseph, they still demonstrate their faith in
God to the audience from the very beginning. But only in the last act are the brothers shown
to pray more often and to call on God for guidance. Their change into better people is
combined with a strengthened faith.
Joseph:
Ach du mein lieber Herre Godt
Das myr yn meinem hertzen weh thutt4
(Oh, you, my dear Lord, God, My heart is in great pain)
Aser:
O Herr du almechtiger Gott
We vorlestu vns ynn dieser not5
(Oh Lord, Almighty God, How could you abandon us in our time of
need)
Leui:
O weh O weh du lieber Gott mein
Wie wird das so erschrecklich sein6
4
Greff, Jakob, p 53.
Ibid., p 54.
6
Ibid., p 55.
5
4
(Oh weh, Oh weh, , my dear God, how has everything become so
dreadful)
Nephtalim:
O weh O weh du lieber Gott
Wie sind wir so ynn grosser nott7
(Oh weh, Oh weh my dear God, how did our need become so great)
Sebulon:
O Gott ym hymel lieber Gott
Hilff vns aus dieser angst vnd nott8
(Oh God in Heaven, Dear Lord, Rescue us from this fear and need)
Other than Joseph and Jacob, the brothers are the only characters in the play who address
God, even in short prayers. They have the same beliefs as their father. In their short
comments regarding their prayers, Greff shows the audience their devoutness and their
capability to change. Also Joseph’s brothers function as an example – in their case without the
imitation effect. Since Joseph functions as a positive example to the audience, the brothers are
a TROSTEXEMPEL – an example of comfort and consolation. God forgives them although
they have sinned against their brother by their betrayal of him. Despite Luther’s belief in the
sola fide principle, he also emphasized on many occasions the importance of good deeds. Not
because they offer justification, but by being good and doing good deeds one honours God’s
creation, and therefore God himself. The importance of a God–fearing way of life can be
demonstrated in the life of the brothers. In contrast to their father, although he also is a
TROSTEXEMPEL, they are being punished because of their own personal negligence. Their
betrayal in the beginning is the reason for their suffering, but their subsequent hindsight and
reform gives them the opportunity to return to the path of virtue, their small prayers signalling
this change.
Jacob’s prayer of thanksgiving is one of the last monologues before the play ends. Together
with his first prayer which opens the play and is its counterpart, it serves to frame the play as
a whole. In addition to providing the actual prologue and epilogue, it creates a portal for the
audience to enter the plot and the play’s own reality. Jacob’s thanks accentuate God’s
graciousness, mercy and charity. Since this prayer only occurs at the end of the play, its
dramatic and rhetorical functions are limited. Its main purpose is the praise of God and it
stands as a general example for other prayers of thanksgiving. This prayer is the only one in
7
8
Ibid., p 55.
Ibid., p 55.
5
the play which does not have an additional function in the play – in contrast to the opening
prayer-monologue of Jacob and the two long prayers of Joseph.
Jacob’s opening prayer (I/1):
Jacob addresses God directly and his prayer appears to be more of a one-sided dialogue than
just a monologue. Not even he could find enough words to praise the Lord for his grace,
mercy, charity and kindness God has shown towards his family. And so, only a few minutes
into the play, the guiding theme of the play is established: God’s mercy and graciousness for
which Jacob cites evidence. Starting with the creation of man and the world, Jacob then
comes to Adam and Eve's expulsion from paradise, which could have deserved death. In
addition, Jacob promises them and the audience the Savior. Fresh evidence of God’s kindness
can be found in the flood in which Noah was the only one saved by God. Finally, Jacob
reaches a point where he is in praise of his ancestors Abraham and Isaac, whom God
promised that their generations would increase to an immense number. Jacob repeatedly
promises the coming of the Savior, who will be born of their house. Greff’s introduction of
the subject of the Savior and his connection to the house of Jacob is a preview to the exegesis
in the epilogue. The viewer's attention is directed on the one hand to the grace of God, and on
the other, the playwright is already preparing for the additional interpretation of the play in
the epilogue.
The second part of the prayer is concerned with the favours that Jacob, his father, and
grandfather have received from God (miracle of Isaac's birth, salvation before the sacrifice of
Isaac, escape to Haram, Jacob’s
dream of the heavenly ladder). The prayer also lists
examples of God's counsel. He thanks God for his blessings and grace, which Jacob has
enjoyed during his life. With special thanks for the great blessing of children and the promise
to educate all his children as pious servants of God, Greff manages the transition into the
play’s unfolding of the plot. Through the subsequent appearance of Jacob’s sons, this final
prayer of thanksgiving is to be understood as a transition into the play’s action. Greff uses this
first prayer to activate and update the existing knowledge of the audience. The Bible’s first
book of Genesis is reviewed in abbreviated form. The presentation of the favours of God is
well-structured. Starting with humanity in general, Jacob gradually approaches his family,
until he arrives at his private life with his children. After this condensed overview of Genesis,
the focus of the audience is transferred to Jacob and his family. Not only does the prayer
consolidate the audience’s understanding of the play, but this prayer also establishes the
6
action’s setting. The detailed history of Jacob's character also functions as an introduction to
the play; the world of the play is established and the atmosphere for the coming events is set.
Joseph’s 1st prayer (IV/1):
In a prayer of thanksgiving to God, Joseph recounts in detail the favours that he has received
from God (interrupting his brothers’ plans to murder him, rescue from the pit through his sale
into slavery, his deliverance to Potiphar's home). The prayer offers the viewer a summary of
previous events, (some of these are not dramatised on stage), and connects the new episode to
the previous one in Joseph's life. In addition, the prayer not only summarizes earlier events,
but also divides the plot into smaller parts for the audience. In addition, it marks a break in the
scenes. The prayer is separated from the action, and only the last two lines introduce the new
episode. Nevertheless as well as functioning as an outline, it also serves to relate the
underlying theme of the play which is Joseph’s steadfastness, who has been tested by God in
his faith and patience.
Joseph’s 2nd prayer ( V / 2)
Jacob’s final prayer is dedicated in particular to thanking God for his deliverance from
prison and his elevation to the position of first counsellor to the pharaoh. It provides again a
summary for the audience which reminds them that God's ways are inscrutable. Joseph
himself has reached a high social rank, even though initially his brothers had devalued him
and even wanted to kill him. Greff contrasts the elaboration of Joseph by the pharaoh with the
murder plans of his brothers. At the same time Greff unites these two events: only through
the treachery of Joseph's brothers was his future ascension to power possible.
Similar to Joseph's other prayers, this one helps to better structure the drama and serves as a
break between two episodes in Joseph's life. It also marks another time change and explains
the new situation. Greff used the prayers in this play to provide essential information to the
viewer without the need to resolve the play’s reality and to lead it back to the current events.
Joseph’s wish for his brothers to see him in his new position connects and leads on to the
actual play. The conclusion of the prayer announces his plan not to reveal himself to his
brothers and his reasoning behind this decision. . This monologue is directly followed by the
appearance of the brothers. Therefore one can say that Greff succeeded in this transition
between the prayer and the action and exposition of the prayer from the rest of the plot.
7
Joseph presents himself only in his prayers, monologs and self reflections, where he is shown
as a person with great trust in God, who never questions His plans – despite all the misery he
is suffering and going through. In the person of Joseph and his monologues the whole
doctrine of Luther is presented. Greff’s adaptation of the Joseph-Historia allows him to show
through Joseph’s example the path of correct belief and how to lead one’s life. To emphasize
this goal of the play Joseph is reduced to only one virtue: the total trust in God and His
righteousness. Since Joseph is representing only one virtue, his characterization can be seen as
an allegory or an allegorical character, as the ones in earlier plays – but he is an exemplum
positivum with an allegorical function.
Greff follows Luther’s advice to use the stage as a pulpit to introduce the audience to the new
Protestant views and new religious ways. Critics see in the one dimensionality of Joseph’s
character a proof of Greff’s inability for character development, but other plays by him show
that he is quite capable of developing more complex characters. Nevertheless, it also has to be
pointed out that in spite of his one dimensionality, Greff’s Joseph is more of a human than of
a saint, which brings him closer to the audience and encourages the reader to follow his good
example. Despite the enrichment of this dramatic depiction of the Joseph material with some
long prayers, Greff again dissolves the reality of the play at the end with another prayer and a
hymn. Following the epilogue the printed version of the play includes the hymn: A Prayer to
God. The last lines of the epilogue invite the audience to join in on this hymn in praise of
God. The attached hymn and the request underline once more the religious nature of the play,
which stands as an example for God’s mercy, grace and kindness.
Rebhun’s Susanna
The story of Susanna has not only inspired many playwrights, but also many other artists. In
his essay written in 1627, PILGER9 noted sixteen edited editions of the Susanna-Historia including the George Marcropedius (1540) and the Nicodemus Frischlin (1577) editions. The
story of Susanna is ideal for the representation of the exemplary steadfastness of the heroine,
her piety, and her trust in God as a model for a virtuous life. Her life also serves as a negative
example for the punishment of a non-virtuous, unchaste life. In addition, the story contains
many elements for lively, popular entertainment. Staging a court scene is a common motif in
the carnival plays. The content is full of many sensational goings on:- abuse by officials, an
9
ROBERT PILGER: Die Dramatisierungen der Susanna im 16. Jahrhundert. In: ZfdPh 11, 1880, pp 129-131.
8
attempted rape, a double trial, and even an execution—that afforded playwrights plenty of
opportunities to embed the Didaxe in a varied, suspenseful, and entertaining story. So it is not
surprising that the Susanna-plot was one of the favourite narratives of the sixteenth-century.
Even for the popular play Rebhun’s Susanna was, it was relatively often performed for this
time period. The first performance was on the first Sunday of Lent in 1535 by citizens of
Kahla. Performances followed in Zwickau on April 20 in 1537 by students and then
performances by the pupils of the Latin School in 1548 and probably again for Carnival in
1596 and in February 1610, and also in 1544, 1549 and 1589 in Oelsnitz Munnerstadt.
CREIZENACH10 refers to performances in Worms in 1538, Strasbourg in 1541, and Frankfurt
1545,but he does not provide sufficient evidence for these performances. These dates could
also have involved performances of Susanna amended by Sixt Birck. According to
GOEDECKE11 between 1536-1544 Rebhun’s Susanna was published in four different versions,
including the Worms edition of 1538 which Paul Rebhun himself did not authorise because it
had been changed too much by a friend without Rebhun’s knowledge.
Rebhun uses God's name often with his greeting formulas which underscores the general piety
of the speaker. In addition, he uses short prayers, which are integrated into the action.
Susanna’s pious supplication in I/2, which asks for the prompt return of Joachim, stands in
direct contrast to the subsequent two-line prayer-parody of Resatha, in which he asks God to
keep Joachim away so that he and his men “can get their way” with Susanna:
Susanna:
Gott helff euch gsund herwider schir
Das yhr mit freuden kumt zu mir
(With God’s help you will return safely, and you will come back to
me with great joy.)
Resatha:
Got geb ds er ein jahr auss bleib
Wenn uns nur wurd zu theil sein weib.12
10
WILHELM CREIZENACH: Geschichte des neueren Dramas, Vl 3, Renaissance und Reformation, zweiter Teil.
Halle 1903, p ; JULIUS TITTMANN: Paul Rebhun. In: Schauspiele aus dem 16. Jahrhundert, Leipzig 1868, p 22.
11
GOEDEKE, KARL: Grundriß der deutschen Dichtung, II, Halle 1886; ROLOFF, Nachwort, In: Paul Rebhun,
Susanna. Stuttgart 1980, pp 121-142. Ein Geistlich spiel / vō / der Gotfurchtigen vn keusch- / en Frawen
Susannen / gantz lustig / vnd fruchtbarlich zu lesen. Gedruckt yn der Chur- / fürstlichen Stadt Zwic / kaw durch
Wolff- / gangk Meyer- / peck. M.D.XXXVI; Ein Geist / lich spiel / von / der Gottfürchtigen / vnd keuschen
Frawen / Susannen / gantz lustig / vnd fruchtbarlich zu lesen. Wittemberg / Gedruckt / Nickel Schirlentz. / 1537;
Ein Geistlich spil / von der Gotfurchtigen vn / keuschen Frawen Susannen / auffs new / gemehrret vnd gebessert
/ gantz lustig / vnd fruchtbarlich zu lesen / durch / Paulum Rephun. Gedruckt zu Zwickaw durch Wolffgang
Meyerpeck. / 1544; Worms edition: Susannen der Gottsförchtigen vnd keuschen frawen gechicht, in eyn
geystlich Spiel bracht vnd jetztund gemehrt vnd gebessert mit personen vnd reimen gantz lustig vn fruchtbarlich
zu lesen. Zu Wormbs truckts Sebastianus Wagner, im jar nach Christi Geburt M.D.XXXVIII.
12
Rebhun, Susanna, p 19.
9
(With God’s help you will stay away, so we can get our way with your
wife.)
Through these prayers the different personalities of Susanna and the elderly are placed in
opposition. Susanna's prayer springs from her piety and her love for her husband, and the
motivations of the men’s parody of a prayer are lust, desire, and general sinfulness.
The invocation-prayer of Olympia in II/2 about the hard-heartedness of the judges carries over
to a supplication to God, and the desire to speak an opinion of the elderly. This prayer creates
a connection to the execution scene in V/5 where Olympia refers to her opening prayer in the
second Act. Thereby it ties back in the loose plotline of the second act and confirms the
judgment in the character of the judges. Ruth's prayer in II/4, in which she asks God to be her
witness to the injustice of the two greedy men, has a similar function. Both prayers make a
prediction at this point that God will judge the judges. By referring back to the prayers in V/5
the plot can be connected and linked back to the second Act, which is integrated from this
point on into the main plot.
In the actual seduction scene in III/2 Susanna asks God twice for help but otherwise doesn’t
look for divine assistance. In III/4 Elizabeth holds a longer intercession speech in which she
addresses God directly. This prayer is superficially integrated into the plot, and is not essential
to it. It has no dramatic function other than emphasizing the religious character of Susanna's
family. The following prayer spoken by Joachim in V/1 has a similar purpose, in which he
asks for God's intervention and for deliverance as well as help for his wife. The prayers show
the support of the family. But only in V/1 Susanna asks God to judge directly about their
innocence:
Ach Gott in ewigkeit der du alleine
All heymlich ding erkennst / beyd groß und kleine
Der du zuvor weist alls / ehedans geschihet
Dein auge auch in das verborgen sihet
Du du erkennst / das diese haben geben
Ein falsch gezeΦgnus / das sie mich vom leben
Zum tode brengen unverdienter sache
Darumb o mein Gott dich zu mir bald mache
Und richt mein unschuld mit gerechtem grichte
Dann ich des lasters schuldig bin mit nichte
Das sie mit lΦgen haben auff mich ertichtet
Und drauff zum tode verurteilt / und gerichtet /
Die weil ich dann nu soll auffgebn mein sele
So will ich dirs in deine hendt bevelen
Dann du o mein Gott wirst mich nicht verlassen
Und dieser rach zur zeit dich recht anmassen. 13
13
Ibid., p 57.
10
(Oh God in all eternity, you alone recognize all hidden secrets, both
big and small. The one who knows beforehand what is going to
happen. Nothing stays hidden from your eye. You know those who
gave false testimony, that they deliver me from life to death, although
I am innocent. Therefore, oh God, please come to me and justify my
innocence. I did not commit the crime they wrongly accuse me of.
Now I am convicted and sentenced to death. If it is your will that I
give up my soul, I will give myself into your hands, because you will
never abandon me and you will revenge me in fitting time)
This prayer, together with the prayer in V/2, emphasizes the dramatic climax of the play:
O Almechtiger herr und Gote
Der du kanst mitten aus der note
Die deinn erretten / und verwalten
Die sich an dein Verheissung halten
Du wollst dich auch zu mir her keren
Und deine trew anmir beweren
Auff das nahme werde geehret
Und vieler hertz zu dir bekeret14
(Oh almighty Lord and God, who came to us in this hardship to rescue
and to guide the ones who live by your word. You also came to me
and proved your constancy. Your name shall be worshipped and many
hearts shall be converted to you.)
Shortly before the execution, Susanna passes her fate into the hands of God; her faith in him
is unwavering. In the following scene she entrusts him with her parents and children and is
willing to submit herself to his grace and to sacrifice her worldly life.
The frequent application of prayers and invocations of God increases the play’s suspense,
while the salvation through the boy Daniel is delayed. These prayers support not only the
characterization, but also the strong faith of Susanna and her family. They also serve as a
means of delaying the action. The invocations of God in V/3 refer indirectly to the end of the
play. The salvation of Susanna seems imminent and there is no doubt that it will happen. The
judgment can be closed in the name of God.
O Gott der du allein gerecht
Du hast mich nu gerochen recht
Und mich errett aus disem todt
Denn du allein in aller not
Der helffer bist / und nicht verlest
Dich sich auf dich verlassen fest
Die zusag bleibet allzeit wahr
Kein mensch dich lΦge zeihen thar
Du hast deinn kindern / zusag than
Du w=lst sie nimmer mehr verlahn
Sie s=lln die rachnur dir zugebn
Du w=llest sie wol rechen ebn
14
Ibid., p 59.
11
Das hast an mir auch wahr gemacht
Und diner zusag recht gedacht
Darumb ich dich auch preysen will
Weil ich in mir das leben fΦl
Und will auch weiter des zu dir
Versehen mich / du werdest mir
Mein leben lang in aller noth
Erzeygen dich einn trewen Gott.15
(Oh God, the only one who judges rightly, you saved me from this
misery and revenged the injustice. Only you are the Saviour, whom
we rely on and whom we trust. Your promise remains true into
eternity. No human can call you a liar. You promised our children you
would never abandon them. They should leave the revenge to you.
And you will avenge them. You proved to me that you keep your
promises. Therefore, I will praise you, because I can still feel the life
in me. And I will continue doing so, trusting you, since you prove to
be the God, who is there for me in all my misery.)
After her salvation Susanna speaks a longer prayer of thanks, which marks the end of the
action in conjunction with the subsequent prayers of thanksgiving of her family and servants.
The prayers in this play emphasize the most important points of the drama: Susanna's strength
and faith in her rescue and salvation. Therefore Susanna’s supplication and prayer of
thanksgiving constitute the framework for God's intervention. Her family’s prayers play a
twofold role: on the one hand they accentuate the distinctive sites of the characters; on the
other hand they assist Susanna's prayers. Rebhun succeeds in the combination of dramatic and
religious functions of prayer in this play and uses them to communicate his message.
4.3.9. Ackermann’s Tobias
The play Ein Geistlich v] fast nutzbarlichs Spiel / von dem frommen GottfΦrchtigen man]
Thobia 16 (A Religious and Profitable Play about the God-fearing Tobias) was printed in 1539
in Zwickau and is based on the apocryphal Book of Tobit. It was performed by students for
the city council during Shrovetide in 1603 in Zwickau. The main theme is God's wonderful
providence for his followers and the rewards for confidence in him. Hans Ackermann
excluded additional embellishments and the prehistory of Tobias in his adaptation. The story
of Sarah and her seven dead husbands was submitted by Ackermann as a kind of second
exposure of the play. Although Luther encouraged adaptations of the Tobias story,
15
Ibid., p 73.
Dramen von Ackermann und Voith. Hrsg. von HUGO HOLSTEIN. Mit Vorwort von HUGO HOLSTEIN. Tübingen
1884.
16
12
Ackermann's version was the only one for a long time. Ackermann dedicates his Tobias to
Paul Rebhun because Rebhun had prompted him to compose a spiritual play, after he had
desired for a long time to do so, but was prevented by his disbelief in his potential to write a
play. The drama has no act or scene divisions; this structure was only added later by the
publisher.
Ackermann’s play begins with a prayer of thanksgiving by Tobias, in which he gives thanks
to be alive and not to be a prisoner:
Ach Herr, mein Gott, ich danck dir fast,
Das du mich so begnadet hast
Und mich errettet bis daher,
Das sag ich dir gros lob und ehr.
Du hast mir, Herr, groß gnad erzeigt,
Das mir der König ist geneigt,
Helt mich nicht wie ein gefangen man,
Das ich mag schaffen, was ich kann,
Und ob ich gleich wol bin verstrickt,
Noch hastu als zum besten gschickt.
Ich will dir alzeit danckbar sein,
Dieweil ich hab das leben mein.
Ich weis gewiß und glaubs auch vehst,
Das du inn keiner not mich lest,
Drumb wil ich hoffen stets zu dir,
Weil ich inn mir das leben spür.17
(Oh Lord, my God, I thank you dearly that you have blessed me, and
saved me until now. Therefore I praise and worship you. Lord, you
have shown me great mercy. That the king does not hold me like an
imprisoned man. So that I can do what is in my power, although I am
restricted. Still, you turned everything to its best. As long as I am alive
I always will be thankful to you. I know for sure and believe strongly
that you will never abandon me no matter in what distress I am in.
Therefore I will always trust in you because I can feel the life within
me.)
Not only do these prayers identify his piety, but also show the place, time and situation of the
onset of the action. Tobias mentions God in almost every one of his speeches, but also the
other personnel bear his name. The play has an amazing number of formulaic mentions of
God, words of surrender to God, and calls for help and assistance, which emphasize a most
consistent piety of both families.
In contrast to Tobias, his wife Hanna repeatedly accuses God for their suffering and asks for
help:
Nu, lieber Gott, was sol ich thon?18
17
18
Ackermann, Tobias, p 15.
Ibid., p 19.
13
(Now, dear God, what shall I do?)
Hilff Gott, was ist euch geschehen nun?
Wer hat euch am gesicht gethan?
Hilff, lieber Gott, was richt ihr an?
Hilfft doch an euch kein straf noch bit,
Erst weis ich gar kein hölffe nit.
Es kann nu anders nicht geschen,
ich muß mit euch nu betteln gehen.
Wie kom ich nu inn solche not?
Ey, Ey, nu hilff, du lieber Gott!19
(Help me God, what happened to you [my husband] now? Who hurt
your face? Help, dear God, what did you do? Nothing works on you
[husband] not punishment or plea. I cannot help myself anymore.
There is no other way. I have to go begging for alms with you. How
could I get into such misery? Please help, my dear God.)
Although Tobias looks for a conversation with God in which he laments his fate of blindness,
he nevertheless accepts this challenge and asks for patience to exist:
Ach Gott, mein Herr, wie wunderlich
Seynd deyn gericht und gantz heimlich
[…]
Ach Herr, mein Gott, dich ruff ich an,
Durch meine sünd hab ichs verschuld
Ach Herr, mein Gott, gib mir gedult.
Ich weis, mein Gott, das du gemein
Die strafst, die dir die liebsten sein.
Dein guter will gescheh an mir,
Dann all mein hoffnung steht zu dir.20
(Oh God, my Lord, how mysterious is your law and so secret […] Oh
Lord, my God, I call to you. I have sinned and it’s my fault. Oh Lord,
my God, give me patience. I know, my Lord, that you punish the ones
who are dearest to you. Your good will shall come to pass in me, for
all my hope is for you.)
Although he sees his blindness as a just punishment for his sins, he also shows a tendency for
despair. But in his desperation and willingness to give up his life, he proves his faith in God's
righteousness:
O Gott, mein Herr, du bist gerecht,
Gesündigt hat mein gantz geschlecht,
All mein Veter her vor mir
Seind alle ungerecht vor dir.
Drumb, weil wir haben dein gepot
[…]
Veracht, hastu uns auch inn not
Und unsern feinden zu gethan,
Die uns also zustrauet han.
19
20
Ibid., p 21.
Ibid., p 20.
14
Erschrecklich, herr, seind deine gricht,
Wel wir dein wort haben ghalten nicht,
Jedoch durch deine barmhertzigkeit,
Die man auch sicht zu aller zeit;
Schaff, das ich inn der not nict bleib
Und nim mein Seel von meinem lieb!
Dann ich viel lieber todt will sein,
Dann das ich leb inn solcher pein.21
(Oh God, my Lord, you are just. All of my people have sinned. All my
fathers before me were unrighteous before your eyes. […]. Because
we broke your commandments, Lord, your judgement can be terrible,
when we break your law. But through your mercy, which can be
recognized at all times, please free me from my misery and separate
my soul from my body, because I would rather be dead than live in
such agony.)
Sara's prayer stands out with its shorter amount of retained complaints, thanks, prayers for
favour, and blessing prayers for others. It expresses Sara's humility and deep faith in God's
justice, at the same time it is also full of confidence that everything can still return to the best.
By waiving formulaic invocations, she laments her suffering to God, but asks also for advice
and help, patience and strength. She doesn’t want to complain to her father, she doesn’t want
to upset him. Therefore she prefers to suffer in solitude and only to lament to God:
O gott, mein Herr, erhör mein klag,
Was ich mus leyden alle tag!
O Herr, verley mir dein gedult!
Dann du allein weist mein unschuld.
Gelobet sey dein heiliger nam!
Wer in der not nur zu dir kam,
Den selben lestu gwißlich nicht.
Drum ker zu mir, Herr, dein gesicht,
Ich ruff zu dir inn dieser sach,
Nim hyn von mir die grosse schmach
Du weist, ich hab keins mans begert,
Mein hertzt von böser lust gekert,
Mich böser gselschaft abgethan.
Das ich zum mann verwilligt han,
[…]
Wer dir vertraut, auf dich sich lest,
Der wird inn aller angst getröst.
Ich weis, du hast kein lust daran,
So wir verderbn und untergan,
Ob gleich ungwitter felt herein,
So schickts doch auch der sonnen schein,
Nach grosem weynen gibstu zhand,
Das freud und wonn uns wird bekand,
Drumb sey deim namen lob und ehr
Itzund nu und auch immer mehr!22
21
22
Ibid., p 23.
Ibid., p 26f.
15
(Oh God, my Lord, please hear my laments. I have to suffer all and
every day. Oh Lord please give me patience, because only you know
about my innocence. Your name is praised; whoever came to you in
his misery was not abandoned by you. Please turn to me, Lord, I call
to you in this matter. Please take the great disgrace from me. You
know I never desired a man. My heart never turned to evil lust. I
avoided bad company. And a man never got his will with me. […]
Whoever trusts in you will be consoled in his fear. I know you don’t
take pleasure in our decay and doom. After every thunderstorm you
will send sunshine. After all this weeping you will let us find joy and
blissfulness. Therefore your name shall be praised and worshipped;
now and in all eternity.)
Unlike other plays, the applicaton of God's name is not restricted to a few prayers. Especially
in the last third of the play, there are many short prayers and formulaic invocations. After the
expulsion of the devil the play moves into many prayers of thanksgiving by Hanna and
Raguel. They all include similar phrasings:
Hanna:
Gott sey gelobt inn ewigkeit! 23
(God be praised in all eternity.)
Raguel:
Gott sey gelobt im höchsten tron!.24
(God be praised on the highest throne.)
Hanna:
Gott sey gelobet und gepreist,
das er uns hat sein gnad beweist!25
(God be praised and worshipped because he showed us his mercy..)
There are also some prayers of blessing for the young couple and their parents. Gabel praises
for many children (till the 4th generation) for them, who shall secure their gender and family
name. The end of the play is dominated by Tobias' thanksgiving prayers:
Tobias:
Gott, dir sey lob im höchsten tron,
Mein gsicht hab ch nu wider schon.
Herr, du mein Gott, hast mich gestrafft,
Hast mir mein gsicht nu wider gschafft.
Groß gnad hastu an mir gethan,
Das ich mein son nu sehen kann.
Herr Gott, ich sag dir lob und ehr
Itzund nu und auch immer mehr.26
(God, praise to you on the highest throne, I have my sight back. Lord,
you, my God, who has punished me, has returned my sight. You have
23
Ibid., p 50.
Ibid., p 50.
25
Ibid., p 50.
26
Ibid., p 62.
24
16
shown great mercy towards me since I can now see my son .. Lord,
God, I praise and worship you, now and forever more.)
Tobias:
Herr, dir sey lob in ewigkeit!
Du stöst und wirffst ein bald darnidr,
Du hilffst auch auff, errettest widr,
Drumb ists gewiß, wer dir vertraut,
Inn aller not auff dich fest baut,
Dem lestu gar kein leid geschen,
Wie wir denn itzund haben gesehn.
Stellt er sich gleich als sey er weit,
Noch kumbt er doch zu seiner zeit.
Demselben sey auch lob und ehr
Itzund nu und auch immer mehr!27
(Lord, may you be praised in all eternity. Although you throw
and kick one down, you always help him get up and save him. It
is for sure, the one who trusts in you and relies on you in all his
misery, will be saved by you from his suffering as we have
witnessed in our case. Even if it seems he is far away he comes
in due time. The same one be praised and worshipped. Now and
forevermore.)
The identification of the specific nature of Sarah and Tobias is achieved mainly on the extent
application of prayers. Both Tobias' and Sara’s first appearance, are accompanied by these
lengthy religious discussions, which ostensibly characterize them. The introduction of people
as positive examples is combined with the presentation of possible forms of prayers. Many of
the smaller prayers are embedded into the action and lead the plot forward. Ackermann
achieves a good synthesis of actual prayers as a means of dramatic expression. Without these
prayers, the play would be too lengthy and unoriginal.
Criginger’s Lazarus28
This play was first published in 1553 in Zwickau and dedicated to the council of
Joachimsthal29; unfortunately the second edition was lost, but a modified and extended
version was published in Dresden in 1555. Criginger’s third version of the parable of the rich man
and poor Lazarus is an exception among early Protestant plays. The first version of it had already been
performed and published in 1547, only one year after Luther had died. There are nevertheless a few
27
Ibid., p. 65f.
Johann Criginger, Die Historia vom Reichen man und armen Lazaro, Dresden 1555. 4 º (Bayrische
Staatsbibliothek München), all quotations are taken from here, translation provided by author of this article.
29
Johann Criginger, Die Comoedia von dem Reichen Mann und Armen Lazaro, Luce am 16., Zwickau 1543.
28
17
elements in Criginger’s Lazarus which indicate a rapprochement towards early religious plays. This
play marks the end of the first generation of Lutheran biblical plays in Saxony. The application of
short prayers stands out in this play.
Although Nabal is not addressing God directly in his first monologue, he makes several
references to him. In the play, God is in favour of the rich, since he overwhelms them with
amenities, and punishes the poor for their profane life. In the third part of the play Nabal talks
again about God's alleged attitude towards the poor.
With this shifted view about God, Criginger illustrates not only Nabal’s perverse
understanding of the rich and poor, but also his ignorance of the doctrine of God, a lack of
knowledge which borders on blasphemy. As in the other plays, the name of God is used in
formulaic greetings. In this play it is striking when the introductory lines of each prayer
reoccur. The neighbour presents his request to Nabal to provide financial and material
assistance with:
Ach lieber Herr / Ich bitt durch Gott30
(Oh dear lord, I beg through God.)
Lazarus opens his petitions with similar words. Adressing the neighbor:
Ach lieber freundt ich bitt durch Gott..31
(Oh dear friend, I beg through God.)
A favour asked from Nabal:
Ach Herr / durch Gott thut euch erbarm)32
(Oh lord, by God, show mercy.)
Then to Syrius this similar plea is addressed shortly before the feast begins:
Ach lieber freundt ich bitt durch Gott.33
(Oh dear friend, I beg through God.)
The climax is achieved by Lazarus’ desperately voiced plea:
Ach lieben freundt durch Gott bit ich34
(Oh dear friend, I beg through God.)
30
Ibid., p 54.
Ibid., p 65.
32
Ibid., p 77.
33
Ibid., p 89.
34
Ibid., p 104.
31
18
Only once the request is answered positively when the poor neighbour gives some money to
Lazarus. Through these similar or identical introductions Criginger demonstrates the contrast
between the pious and the non-pious. Even before his benevolent actions towards Lazarus the
neighbor is drawn as a pious and God-trusting man. He stands out from the group of hardhearted characters.
Most of the prayers in the play are spoken by Lazarus because despite his deplorable
condition and desperation on earth, his faith in God is unshakable. After hearing of the feast,
he kneels:
HERR der du alle ding erhelst
Ich bit das du mich speisen w=lst /
Ist doch kein thier in dieser welt
So klein / welchs dein gnad nicht erhelt.
Die blΦmlein ziehrst in grΦnen gras
Auff dich o Herr ich mich vorlas.
[…]
Doch HERR alzeit dein will gescheh
So werden wir nichts klagen meh /
Gib mir gedult in dieser not
Das ich besteh / O Herre Gott /
Es ist gewis dein Vatter sinn
Wenn du ein nΦmbst zustrafen hin /
So liebstu ihn von hertzen sehr
Was solt ein mensch begehren mehr?35
(Lord, who enlightens everything, I beg you to feed me. There is no
animal in this world, no matter how small, which is not in the light of
your mercy. You ornament the flowers within the green grass. I rely
on you, oh Lord. […] Oh lord, thy will be done always. We won’t
complain. Give me patience to survive in this time of need. Oh Lord
God, this is certainly your father’s wisdom. If you punish someone,
you love him from your heart. What more can we desire from you?
)
The first prayer is initially a song of praise and develops into an invocation. Although Lazarus
has every reason to complain, there is not a plaintive tone in his prayer. Humbly he follows
God's will, as punishment, temptation, and misery are signs of God's love. After his request
was rejected by the servants before the feast, he prays for the second time. While he asked for
food and preservation of his life in the first prayer, he now wishes to leave this world. Using
Lazarus' words, Criginger criticizes the spiritual decline of the world, where there is no fear of
God and love of one’s neighbour because the first commandment of God is not respected.
Whether this is a criticism of the Catholic viewpoint or it is a general criticism of apostasy, is
35
Ibid., p 80.
19
not apparent from the text and is not of huge importance, since the general moral decline is
cause enough for complaint. Shortly after, Lazarus turns again to God seeking help:
Ach Gott reich mir dein milde hendt
Bescher mir doch vor meiner endt /
Das ich mein hunger mΦge stilln
Wenns nicht ist wider deinen willn /
Ich hab es dir als heimgestelt
Machs Herr mit mir wie dirs gefelt.
Du bist mein Vatter / vnd ich dein kindt
Ich weis wol das ich gnade findt.
Ists nicht in dem zeitlichen leben /
So kanstu mir das ewig gebn.36
(Oh God, please reach me your hand and help me to erase my
huger before my end. If it is against your will, my Lord, do with
me as it pleases you. I leave it to you. You are my father and I’m
your child. I know I will meet your mercy; if not in this world
than in the afterlife.)
Ready to die, Lazarus asks again for bread. He is sure of God's grace. Even dying, he says a
prayer. He asks God for strength, guidance and help. Lazarus also expresses his hope for the
afterlife:
All meine krefft verlassen mich
O Herr Gott hilff mir gnediglich /
In meiner letzten angst vnd not
Kom mir zu hilff mein Herr vnd Gott.
Ich hoff auff den Messiam zart
Der helff mir in der hynnefart.
Sey mir gnedig O Herre mein
Das ich des Himmels Erb mag sein.
Wens zeit ist / nim in deine Hendt
Mein geist / gib mir ein seligst endt.37
(All my power and energy is leavingme. Oh God help me in your
mercy through my last sorrows and need. Come to my help, dear Lord
and God, I hope for the kind Messiah, who will help me on my way to
the life hereafter. Please show mercy towards me. Oh Lord, that I will
enter Heaven when it’s time, please take my soul into your hands and
provide a blessed end.)
After an interruption by a speech addressed to the angels by God, Lazarus’ last words on earth
are addressed to God. His prayers of thanks in the last part of the play form a unit with the
preceding prayers:
Danck sey dem Allmechtigen Gott
Der sich mein angenommen hat /
Wiewol ich war verachtet gar
Bey ihm ich doch erkoren war /
36
37
Ibid., p 95.
Ibid., p 112.
20
Das sag ich ihm lob allezeit
Von nun an bis in ewigkeit /
Will ihn mit aller Engel schar
Loben von nun vnd immerdar.38
(Thanks to the almighty God, who accepted me, although I was
condemned. I was still chosen by him. I will always praise him from
now to all eternity. Together with all the angels I will forever praise
and worship him.)
While he directly addresses God in his other prayers, this voice changes now to third person.
His pleas are heard; he is rescued from the vale of tears and experiences God's goodness. His
unshakable belief has been affirmed.
Criginger dispensed not only having Nabal pray in the act of dying, but also points out the
difference in spiritual attitude through a prayer parody. At the beginning of the feast Nabal
calls the jester to speak the grace. As the landlord, this prayer normally would be his duty, but
he passes the task to the jester, who complies in keeping with his character: .
Ex benedix vobis / Rips reps / fisch vnd krebs / karpen vnd fohren / fein nicht gefroren / den
hasen bey den ohren / ist vnuerlorn / gesotten gebraten / ist wol gerathen / ein kΦler wein /
sol dabey sein / in nostrum rostrum / per Epicurum dominum nostrum / Amen.39
(Ex benedix vobis/ Rips reps/ fish and crayfish/ crab and trout/ fine not frozen/ the rabbit by
its ears/ nothing is lost/ boiled and roast/ it’s properly done/ a cool wine mustn’t be missing/
in nostrum roastrum/ per Epicurum dominum nostrum / Amen.)
For a more detailed explanation Criginger added a marginal note to elucidate the jester’s
prayer’s intention:
Der Epicurer Vater vnser. De] man pflegt gemeiniglich des gebets bey solchen leuten
zuuorgessen / vnnd ein anderes b=slen dafΦr zureiss) gelechter damit anzurichten /40
(The Epicure pater noster. This kind of people tends to forget such prayers and invent others
instead to ridicule and entertain.)
The spiritual attitude of the rich is clearly outlined. The jester’s misconception of God's will
and the emptiness or parodying of religious practices, as well as his statements about Jesus'
miracles also justify his condemnation.. A distinction between poor and rich was not enough
anymore for the theologically-trained audience of the sixteenth- century. It has already been
emphasized in the paratexts that possession and ownership is not necessarily bad, just the
wrong use of it. Luther did not condemn material possessions. An additional nuanced
discussion of the reasons for salvation or damnation was essential for Criginger, therefore
38
Ibid., p 162.
Ibid., p 104.
40
Ibid., p 104.
39
21
both dramatic figures had to be additionally charged with a spiritual attitude. Through the use
of prayers, invocations of God, or prayer parodies, blasphemous statements, and even the
absence of prayers Criginger succeeds in his portrayal of the play’s main characters as pious
towards or as drawn away from God.
The prayers support here, first of all, the characterization of the personal, a structured,
explanation or other function is not directly apparent. Like other authors, Criginger wanted to
show how to live, or not to lead, one’s life and the resulting consequences in the life hereafter
- and this included the application of prayer.
Conclusion
It seems that the prayers in these plays are used in many places for many different reasons and
usually did not stand for real prayers. While the prayer functioned in medieval religious plays
on an emotional level, its function has shifted to rational tendencies in Reformation drama.
The opening prayer of the Passion, Easter, Christmas and Corpus Christi plays emphasized
the religious character of the play, created a spiritual and solemn mood, and primarily
contained a request from the author for the ability of the audience to understand the spiritual
teaching for their own lives and the sermon-like exhortations to a Christian life. Prayers were
also included in the plays’ epilogues and were intended to strengthen the emotional effect of
the play the audience had just witnessed. During the Reformation however, the medieval
devotional element of the prayers in the plays received a new purpose. They no longer served
primarily as an emotional inspiration to the public, but as argumentative proofs of the
correctness of the new Reformation doctrine. The prayers emphasized the effectiveness of the
true faith, as well as the grace and goodness of God's righteous. At the same time the prayers
and the mentioning of God's name is an expression of true spiritual setting. Only the pious
prayed properly. The right form of prayer made the positive example stand out even more and
was a demonstration of proper moral conduct in life.
The prayer helped on one hand to strengthen the author's intention, but also served as a
dramatic element and helped to structure the play. It includes the old knowledge and
consolidates the new. At the same time it provides a guide for the audience during the play
and highlights important narrative and theological points.
22