Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Enlightenment in Buddhism wikipedia , lookup
History of Buddhism wikipedia , lookup
Greco-Buddhism wikipedia , lookup
Pre-sectarian Buddhism wikipedia , lookup
Women in Buddhism wikipedia , lookup
History of Buddhism in India wikipedia , lookup
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism wikipedia , lookup
Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent wikipedia , lookup
1500 BCE – 600 CE India and Southeast Asia Including the Vedic Age and the rise of Buddhism & Hinduism Foundations of Indian civilization l As we have seen, the earliest Indian civilization – one with a high degree of social organization and technological sophistication – emerged along the Indus River Valley … but died out around 1900 BCE, probably due to an environmental crisis. l Attempts to link the characteristics of that ancient Harappan civilization to later Indian civilizations cannot be done conclusively because the Harappan writing has not been deciphered – but what today is India may originally have been a blend of the Harappan and Aryan cultures. l What is clear is that India – from ancient to modern times – has been highly diverse, made up of many ethnic and linguistic groups and fragmented political structures … yet with an overarching set of shared views and values, especially with regard to its relationship with religion. The Indian Subcontinent l India is called a subcontinent because it is so large (about 2,000 miles long and wide) and is set apart from the larger continent of Asia. l Capped in the northeast by the Himalayas, the world’s largest mountains, and in the northwest by the Hindu Kush Mountains. l Surrounded to the south, east and west by the Indian Ocean. l Sheltered by mountains from cold Arctic winds, India has a subtropical climate. l A major source of moisture are the monsoons (seasonal winds): temperature differences between the land (varying significantly from hot to cold) and the slow-to-change Indian Ocean create a bellows effect ⇒ wet monsoon winds from southwest to northeast June to September … dry monsoon winds from northeast to southwest October to May. l Indian mariners learned to ride these winds in carrying out trade with other regions. Indo-Europeans – group of nomadic peoples from the dry grasslands north of the Caucasus Mountains who spoke different forms of a language called Indo-European. At around the time the Harappan civilization was crumbling, a group of Indo-Europeans called the Aryans migrated down through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush Mountains and into the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic Age The Aryans left almost no archaeological record but brought with them (only in oral tradition initially) their sacred literature, the Vedas ⇒ four collections of prayers, magical spells and instructions for performing rituals. Historians thus call the period from 1500 to 500 BCE the “Vedic Age” because these religious texts provide most of the information about this period. Kinship groups and a move east l After the Harappan civilization collapsed, no central authority to organize irrigation projects ⇒ region home now to patriarchal kinship groups relying on herds of cattle, small-scale gardening. l Warrior class relished combat, celebrated with lavish feasts and heavy drinking, filled free time with chariot racing and gambling. l After 1000 BCE some groups – armed now with iron tools holding a harder edge than bronze – pushed east into the Ganges Plain l Effect: oxen. l could fell the trees in this more fertile land, work it with plows pulled by Similar thing happening in Greece l Result:major population growth. A conflict of peoples l The Aryan migration into India was not an organized invasion. l Taller and lighter-skinned, the Aryans interacted and intermarried with the darker-skinned Dravidian population already there, laying the cultural and social foundations that would influence India to this day. l They also fought amongst themselves, and with the Dasas (another name for the speakers of Dravidian languages), pushing many into central and southern India, where their descendants still live [Dravidian speech prevails in the south today while IndoEuropean languages are spoken in northern India]. Caste and varna ✓Aryans brought with them a class system that determined each person’s role in society. ✓Over time, to regulate the closer contacts with non-Aryans, it became more strict and the basis of India’s caste system. ✓Based initially on varna, a Sanskrit term meaning “color” and referring to skin color (later the term meant something akin to “class”), the four classes were: ‣ Brahmins (priests); ‣ Kshatriya (warriors and officials); ‣ Vaishya (merchants, artisans and landowners); ‣ Shudra (peasants and serfs). Shudra and the Untouchables l The bottom class, Shudra, may have been reserved for Dasas, who were given menial jobs the Aryans didn’t want to do (dasa, in fact, came to mean “slave”). l A fifth group was later added: the Untouchables l people excluded from the class system l should be avoided because their touch endangered the ritual purity of others l occupations: butchers, gravediggers, trash collectors, etc. Many birth groups emerge l Within broad class divisions the population was further subdivided into numerous birth groups called jati (the English term caste came from casta, Portuguese for “breed,” and was used after European sailors first reached India in 1498 CE). l Each jati had proper occupation, duties and rituals l lived with, ate with, married ONLY members of that group. l Since purity became all important, elaborate rules governed interactions of jati l higher-status individuals feared the polluting effects of contact with lower-status individuals, so the taint had to be removed ritually. Life after life l The caste system connected to prevailing belief in reincarnation. l Brahmin priests said every living creature had the atman (“breath”) ⇒ immortal essence that separated from body at death and later reborn in another body. l People generate good or bad karma based on their deeds in life (governed by the dharma, or the law l good deeds are those conforming to expectations of one’s caste l determine whether reincarnation is as insect, animal or human l reincarnation as higher or lower caste (or even male or female, which was considered evidence of bad karma in former life). Vedic Age sacrifice l The essential ritual was sacrifice (the dedication to one of the many (predominantly male) gods of a valued possession, often a living creature l offering meant to invigorate the gods and thus help their creative powers, bring stability to the world l The priestly class, the Brahmins, played key role in ceremonies using their “knowledge” (the translation of the very term veda) l knowledge next l protection handed down orally from one generation of priests to the of this knowledge may explain why writing was not widespread until the Gupta period (320-550 CE). Divisions with a purpose l The sharp internal divisions of Indian society and the conveyance of superiority from one group down to the next doesn’t comport with modern notions of egalitarianism, but it did serve important social functions by providing: q each q the q a l person with a clear identity and role. benefits of group solidarity and support. mechanism to work out social friction. This elaborate system of castes was not entirely static, either: some evidence suggests groups were sometimes able to upgrade their status. Challenging the Vedic order l After 700 BCE, some began to balk at Brahmin power and privilege – and the constraints of the rigid class system – and retreated to the forests surrounding a community. l Charismatic individuals offered alternative path l individual pursuit of insight into the self, nature and universe through physical and mental discipline l yoga. l By distancing oneself from the desires of this world one could achieve moksha – a state of perfect understanding, a release from the cycle of reincarnations (“the wheel of life”) and union with the divine force that animates the universe Challenging the Vedic order l By distancing oneself from the desires of this world one could achieve moksha – a state of perfect understanding, a release from the cycle of reincarnations (“the wheel of life”) and union with the divine force that animates the universe l perfect insight to how atman relates to Brahman, the world soul that contains and unites all atmans. Challenging the Vedic order Upanishads and Jainism l Upanishads – a collection of more than a hundred mystical dialogues between teachers and disciples that reflect the questioning of Vedic religion; written sometime between 750 and 550 BCE. l Jainism (JINE-iz-uhm) – a religion established by Mahavira (540-468 BCE), who was known to his followers as Jina (“the Conqueror”) ⇒ emphasized holiness of the life force animating all living creatures. Challenging the Vedic order Jainism (cont.) The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain vow of nonviolence. l Mahavira and followers practiced strict nonviolence. l Wore masks to prevent even the accidental inhalation of bugs. l Zealous adherents practiced extreme asceticism (self-denial) l l nudity l ate only what others gave them l eventually died of starvation. Less zealous followers, restricted from agriculture by the injunction against killing, lived in cities and engaged in commerce, banking l no missionaries Challenging the Vedic order Jainism (cont.) 5 l l a y l r a e n , y Toda f the world’s million o in India, e v i l s n i t a Ja h t f o e n o g n i form s wealthiest ’ y r t n u o c . s e i t i n u comm The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain vow of nonviolence. l Mahavira and followers practiced strict nonviolence. l Wore masks to prevent even the accidental inhalation of bugs. l Zealous adherents practiced extreme asceticism (self-denial) l l nudity l ate only what others gave them l eventually died of starvation. Less zealous followers, restricted from agriculture by the injunction against killing, lived in cities and engaged in commerce, banking l no missionaries Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism l Another religion that arose as a threat to Vedic religion – and of far greater significance to history than Jainism – was Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (sihd-DAHR-tuh GOW-tuhmuh). q Known as the Buddha, “the Enlightened One,” Siddhartha lived from 563 to 483 BCE … and historians struggle with separating fact from legend in the stories told about him. q Came from a Kshatriya family living in the foothills of the Himalayas ⇒ eventually gave up princely life of his upbringing for the life of a wandering ascetic searching for enlightenment. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism l Another religion that arose as a threat to Vedic religion was Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (sihd-DAHR-tuh GOWtuh-muh). ‣Known as the Buddha, “the Enlightened One,” Siddhartha lived from 563 to 483 BCE … and historians struggle with separating fact from legend in the stories told about him. ‣Came from a Kshatriya family living in the foothills of the Himalayas ‣Eventually gave up princely life of his upbringing for the life of a wandering ascetic searching for enlightenment. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) l After six years of wandering, concluded ascetic life no more likely than a life of luxury to produce spiritual insight. l Decided to adhere to a “Middle Path” of moderation, which he set forth as “Four Noble Truths”: A guide to behavior to be mastered one step at a time, the Eightfold Path consists of right views, aspirations, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and meditation. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) A guide to behavior to be mastered one step at a time, the Eightfold Path consists of right views, aspirations, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and meditation. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) ‣ By following the Eightfold Path, anyone could reach – either in this lifetime or across multiple lifetimes – the state of nirvana, the Buddha’s word for the release from selfishness and pain perpetual tranquility. ‣ In original form, Buddhism focused on the individual ‣ ‣ some early followers took vows of celibacy, nonviolence and poverty. Siddhartha ‣ accepted idea of reincarnation ‣ rejected the hierarchal Vedic social structure ‣ taught that all human beings could aspire to nirvana in this life Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) ‣ Siddhartha ‣ accepted idea of reincarnation ‣ rejected the hierarchal Vedic social structure ‣ rejected the panoply of Vedic gods ‣ taught that all human beings could aspire to nirvana in this life ‣ forbade his followers to worship his person or image after his death ‣ As a result, many Buddhists view Buddhism as a philosophy rather than a religion ‣ This message likely helped Buddhism attract support among people at lower end of the social scale. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) l The Buddha’s message spread l by missionaries l by traders along the Silk Road throughout India and into Central, Southeast and East Asia l Following his death, its own successes began to subvert the individualistic and essentially atheistic tenets of the founder l Buddhist monasteries were established and a hierarchy of Buddhist monks and nuns came into being. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) Great Stupa at Sanchi (3rd to 1st century BCE) Springing up throughout the countryside were temples and stupas – initially earthen mounds symbolizing the universe but which became over time stone towers housing relics of the Buddha. Challenging the Vedic order Buddhism (cont.) Buddhism soon split into two large movements: Theravada and Mahayana. q Theravada Buddhism (“the Way of the Elders” or “the Lesser Vehicle”) – Buddha himself is not considered a god; emphasizes meditation, simplicity, interpretation of nirvana as the renunciation of human consciousness and of the self. q Mahayana Buddhism (“the Greater Vehicle”) – Buddha is a godlike deity; other deities appear, including bodhisattvas (those who’ve achieved enlightenment and are nearing nirvana but choose to remain on Earth to lead others); more complicated and ritualistic than Buddha intended; detractors say it’s too much like the Hinduism Buddha disapproved of. The rise of Hinduism l Challenged by new, spiritually satisfying and more egalitarian movements, Vedic religion morphed into Hinduism … which today is the world’s thirdlargest religion (about 1 billion followers) behind Christianity and Islam. l Its creation cannot be linked to a specific time or person – there was no “Mr. Hindu” – but rather evolved over time by about the fourth century CE. l The term Hinduism was imposed by others: Islamic invaders in the 11th century CE labeled the diverse range of practices they saw in India as Hinduism (“what the Indians do”). l Foundation was the Aryan Vedic tradition, but Hinduism also incorporated elements drawn from the Dravidian cultures of the south as well as elements of Buddhism. An evolving religion l Much of what we’ve already discussed about Vedic religion are components of Hinduism: dharma, karma, reincarnation, moksha, etc. l Closely linked with Hinduism, and reinforced by the ideas of karma and reincarnation, is the caste system. l The world soul, Brahman, sometimes seen as having the personalities of three gods: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the protector; and Shiva, the destroyer. Brahma A multiplicity of gods Shiva is often represented performing dance steps symbolizing the acts of creation and destruction – both part of a single, cyclical process. l Reflecting the ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity of India, Hinduism has a vast array of gods (330 million according to one tradition), sects and local practices. l Example: Vishnu, the protector, also took on other forms or personalities (as Krishna, the divine cow herder; as Rama, the perfect king; and as Buddha ⇒ a clear attempt to co-opt its rival religion’s founder!). l Brahma gradually faded into the background, while the many forms of Devi, the great Mother Goddess, grew in importance. Hinduism reigns in India l Hindus today are free to choose the deity they worship l Vishnu l Shiva and its Aryan pedigree is more popular in the north is dominant in the Dravidian south l or choose none at all; most follow a family tradition that may go back centuries. l They are also free to choose among three different paths for achieving moksha, though with some exceptions only men of top varnas can expect to achieve it in their present life. l Buddhism in its austere, most authentic form may have demanded too much from most people … and the features that made Mahayana Buddhism more accessible (gods, saints, myths) also made it easier to be absorbed by Hinduism. l Thus, Buddhism was driven from the land of its birth … though we’ll see that it firmly took root elsewhere in Asia. Imperial expansion and collapse l India’s habitual political fragmentation can be explained by two things: qgeographically diverse zones (mountains, foothills, forests, steppes, deserts) on the subcontinent led to divergent forms of organization because of differences in economic activity … and those same zones featured different languages and cultural practices. qpeople identified themselves primarily in terms of their caste … so allegiance to a higher, central political authority wasn’t called for. l Despite this, two empires arose in the Ganges Plain to unite much of the subcontinent between 324 BCE and 650 CE. (324-184 BCE) The Mauryan Empire Not until the 17th century CE would a sing government rule so much of India. Winter monsoon q India’s first centralized empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya when he conquered then expanded the kingdom of Magadha, which had a wealth derived from agriculture, iron mines and its strategic location astride trade routes of the eastern Ganges Basin. q Chandragupta may have been inspired by Alexander the Great’s foray into the Punjab in 326 BCE. Summer monsoon (324-184 BCE) The Mauryan Empire q India’s first centralized empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya when he conquered then expanded the kingdom of Magadha, which had a wealth derived from agriculture, iron mines and its strategic location astride trade routes of the eastern Ganges Basin. q Chandragupta may have been inspired by Alexander the Great’s foray into the Punjab in 326 BCE. Not until the 17th century CE would a single government rule so much of India. Winter monsoon Summer monsoon Mauryan Empire Pragmatic means to an end l Chandragupta (r. 324-301 BCE) and his successors Bindusara (r. 301-269 BCE) and Ashoka (r. 269-232 BCE) extended Mauryan control over the entire subcontinent except for the Tamil kingdoms of the extreme south. l Chandragupta was guided by a crafty, elderly Brahmin named Kautilya, who may be the initial source of the Arthashastra, a coldly pragmatic treatise on government that: q advocates the so-called mandala theory of foreign policy (“My enemy’s enemy is my friend.”). q relates a long list of schemes for enforcing and increasing the collection of tax revenues. q prescribes the use of spies to keep watch on everyone in the kingdom. Mauryan Empire Trade and government l Mauryan India was characterized by a strong military – with infantry, cavalry, chariot and elephant divisions – and royal control of mines, shipbuilding and arms manufacturing. l An extensive trade network – anchored by cotton, a key Indian export – stretched all the way to Mesopotamia and the eastern parts of the Roman Empire. l Taxes equal to one-fourth of the value of an annual harvest funded Mauryan kings and government, administrated by relatives and associates in districts based on traditional ethnic boundaries. l Standard coinage fostered support for the government and military throughout the empire and promoted trade. Mauryan Empire Ashoka promotes Buddhism l Best known of the Mauryan emperors was Ashoka, who led the empire to its greatest heights. l Ashoka was a great warrior as a young man but later became sickened by the brutality of war. l After hundreds of thousands of people were killed, wounded or deported during his conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka converted to Buddhism and preached nonviolence, morality, moderation and religious tolerance. l He wasn’t naïve, however … to wit: “The king, remorseful as he is, has the strength to punish the wrongdoers who do not repent.” Mauryan Empire Carve it in stone Until the time of the Mauryans, Aryan buildings were made of wood … but stone artisans arriving from the defeated Persian Empire were put to work by Ashoka in building three main types of religious structures: the pillar, the stupa and the rock chamber (carved out of mountainside cliffs and resembling Roman basilicas in the West). Ten polished sandstone pillars remain standing today from the many erected during Ashoka’s reign. Erected alongside roads to commemorate the events in the Buddha’s life and mark pilgrim routes to holy places, they weighed up to 50 tons and rose more than 30 feet, topped with a carved capital, usually depicting lions uttering the Buddha’s message. Mauryan Empire Mahabodhi Temple Rock and pillar The inscriptions on Ashoka’s so-called Rock and Pillar Edicts constitute the earliest decipherable Indian writing: “Now with the practice of morality by King (Ashoka), the sound of war drums has become the call to morality. … King (Ashoka) … desires that there should be the growth of the essential spirit of morality or holiness among all sects.” – Bulliet, p. 161 Site of the first temple built by Ashoka in the third century BCE, on the site of Buddha’s enlightenment: Bihar, India. After Ashoka l In the half century following Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire weakened and collapsed, giving way to a succession of dominant foreign powers ruling in the northwest (present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan), who extended some influence east and south: qthe Greco-Bactrian kingdom (180-50 BCE) descended from troops and settlers left in Alexander’s wake. qthe Shakas (50 BCE to 50 CE), an Iranian people known as Scythians in the Mediterranean world. qthe Kushans (50-240 CE), originally from Xianjiang in northwest China. Fragmented but not floundering l Despite political fragmentation during the five centuries following the Mauryan era (the eastern Ganges reverted back to a hodgepodge of small principalities), economic, cultural and intellectual development remained dynamic, just as in archaic Greece and Warring States China: l Economic: q the network of roads and towns that had sprung up under the Mauryans fostered trade ⇒ Indians became middlemen in the international trade routes (over land and, increasingly, by sea) linking China, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, East Africa and the Mediterranean. q with no central government authority, merchant and artisan guilds became politically powerful and patrons of culture. Fragmented but not floundering (cont.) Cultural: q during the last two centuries BCE the two greatest Indian epics – the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (containing the renowned Bhagavad-Gita, which is self-contained and perhaps originally separate) – achieved final form ⇒ based on oral tradition, supposedly describing events millions of years in the past, probably reflect conditions of the early Vedic period when Aryan warrior societies were moving onto the Ganges Plain. § Mahabharata – eight times longer than Greek Iliad and Odyssey, tells the story of a cataclysmic battle between two sets of cousins quarreling over succession to the throne. § Bhagavad-Gita – god Krishna tutors hero Arjuna (who is reluctant to fight own kinsmen) on the necessity of fulfilling his duty. Fragmented but not floundering l (cont.) Intellectual: q era saw significant advances in science and technology. q doctors had knowledge of herbal remedies. q following Panini, who had earlier analyzed Sanskrit word forms and grammar, Indian scholars standardized the language ⇒ paved way for Prakrits (popular dialects), the ancestors of modern Indo-European languages of northern and central India. l In the turbulent Tamil kingdoms of the south, a “classical” period of literary and artistic productivity ⇒ music, dance, drama … as well as grammatical treatises, collections of ethical proverbs, poems about love, war, wealth and beauty. (320-550 CE) The Gupta Empire q More than 500 years after the fall of the Mauryan Empire, another power ushered in a “golden age.” q The Gupta Empire was founded by a man who called himself Chandra Gupta (no relation to the Mauryans, but he was clearly modeling himself after them) … he and successors took title of “Great King of Kings.” q More decentralized and smaller than Mauryan Empire. (320-550 CE) The Gupta Empire q More than 500 years after the fall of the Mauryan Empire, another power ushered in a “golden age.” q The Gupta Empire was founded by a man who called himself Chandra Gupta (no relation to the Mauryans, but he was clearly modeling himself after them) … he and successors took title of “Great King of Kings.” q More decentralized and smaller than Mauryan Empire. The Gupta Empire A good example of a “theater-state” l Also headquartered in the northeast, the Guptas were similar to their Mauryan predecessors (25% tax on agriculture, monopolies on mining of iron and salt) but not nearly as capable of imposing their will on people outside the empire’s core. q Gupta administrative bureaucracy and intelligence network was smaller, less pervasive. q Governors l The of outlying areas free to exploit people. Guptas maintained power by producing a so-called “theaterstate” – they persuaded others to follow its lead through the splendor and ritualistic ceremony of its capital and royal court ⇒ advertisement for the benefits of association. The Gupta Empire Ruler and subjects l In the Gupta theater-state: q distant subordinate kingdoms (and areas made up predominantly of kinship groups) were expected to make annual tribute donations. q the empire set up garrisons at key frontier points to keep open the avenues of trade and help with the collection of customs duties (taxes on goods). q the empire then redistributed some of the profit from trade as gifts to its dependents. q subordinate princes gained prestige by emulating the Gupta center on whatever scale they were capable of pulling off, and benefited by visits, gifts and marriages to the royal family. The Gupta Empire Mathematical minds l Gupta rulers supported astronomers, scientists and mathematicians … and Indian mathematicians around this time came up with one of the world’s great intellectual achievements – the concept of zero and the place-value system. l The Indian method of arithmetic notation using a base-10 system (with separate columns for ones, tens, hundreds, etc.) was much more efficient than the numerical systems of the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans … and has come to be more widely used than even the alphabet derived from the Phoenicians. The Gupta Empire Mathematical minds (cont.) l The power of this new Indian math was immediately recognized in other lands when it spread through cultural diffusion. l Muslim Arabs and Persians adopted the “Hindi” numerals in the eighth century, and Europeans later learned of it from them … hence, the misnomer “Arabic” numerals. l Some scholars – in trying to answer why it was the Indians who came up with this system – argue that it may align with Indian religion and cosmology ⇒ they conceived of innumerable universes being created and destroyed across immense spans of time (trillions of years, which is far longer than the estimated age of the universe – 14 billion years) … so the Indian number system may have emerged from a desire to express concepts of this magnitude. The Gupta Empire The role of women l Evidence suggests that the status of women deteriorated during the Gupta era. l Originally, Indian women were in a subordinate situation common among agricultural societies (men did most of the work in the fields; females viewed as economic burden because of need to supply a dowry to acquire a husband; family unit wasn’t maintained after wife joined family of husband following marriage). l But in some ways – before the Gupta era – women came to play an influential role in Indian society. The Gupta Empire The role of women (cont.) l Hindu code stressed that women should be treated with respect. l Indians appeared to be fascinated by female sexuality, and tradition held that women often used their sexual powers to achieve domination over men (the tradition of the “henpecked husband” is as prevalent in India as in many Western societies). l Paintings and sculptures often showed women in a role equal to that of men. The Gupta Empire The role of women (cont.) l But over time women in India lost ground. l With the rise of increasingly complex social structures and the emergence of a nonagricultural (i.e., merchant or artisan) middle class that placed high value on the acquisition and inheritance of property ⇒ women lost rights (e.g., the right to own or inherit property) as males gained greater control over their behavior. Women were: q barred from reading sacred texts and participating in the sacrificial ritual. q treated equal to the lowest class, the Shudra. q expected, as in China, to obey first her father, then husband, then sons. The Gupta Empire The role of women (cont.) q Men came to marry girls as young as 6 so that his wife’s virginity was ensured, and he could raise her to suit his purposes. The most extreme form of subjugation: a widow was expected to cremate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre to keep her “pure” in a ritual called sati (suh-TEE). Women who refused were shunned, forbidden to remarry and given little opportunity to earn a living. The Gupta Empire The role of women (cont.) l Not all women found themselves dominated by men. l Women could retain social status if they: q belonged to a powerful family. q joined a Jainist or Buddhist religious community as a nun. q became courtesans trained in poetry and music. Gupta dancing girl The Gupta Empire Odds and ends … The classic architectural form of the Hindu temple evolved during the Gupta era. l Whereas the Mauryans had been Buddhists, the Gupta monarchs were Hindus – though religiously tolerant, allowing Buddhist pilgrims from Southeast and East Asia to visit the birthplace of their faith. l Coined money served as medium of exchange. l Artisan guilds played important role in economic, political and religious life of towns. l Because of the Indian conception of time (the particulars of a given moment were unimportant), historiographic texts weren’t written. The Gupta Empire … and the final end l Trade with the merchants and societies to the west declined as the Roman Empire weakened … but commerce increasingly turned to the sea routes of the east l sailors reached the Malay Peninsula and islands of Indonesia to exchange Indian cloth, ivory, metalwork, exotic animals … for Chinese silk, Indonesian spices. l By the late fifth century, the Guptas were under increased pressure on the northwestern frontier from invading White Huns. l Although a lack of tax revenue to pay its army and the rising power of its regional governors may have contributed to the fall of the empire, the White Hun invasion was the main reason for the final collapse of the Gupta Empire in 550. Southeast Asia, 50 – 600 CE l Southeast Asia comprises three geographic zones: 1) the Indochina mainland; 2) the Malay Peninsula; and 3) thousands of islands extending east to west into the Pacific Ocean. l Present day countries: Myanmar (myahn-MAH) a.k.a. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei (broo-NIE) and the Philippines. l This region – situated between India and China – was greatly influenced by the ancient civilizations and cultures of those two big neighbors … and it first rose to prominence and prosperity thanks to its intermediary role in trade. Southeast Asia, 50 – 600 CE l Southeast Asia comprises three geographic zones 1) the Indochina mainland 2) the Malay Peninsula; 3) thousands of islands extending east to west into the Pacific Ocean. l Present day countries: Myanmar (myahn-MAH) a.k.a. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei (brooNIE) and the Philippines. l This region – situated between India and China – was greatly influenced by the ancient civilizations and cultures of those two big neighbors … and it first rose to prominence and prosperity thanks to its intermediary role in trade. Southeast Asia Geography l The region lies along the equator, which gives it consistent yearround temperatures around 80 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius). l Rainforest l Monsoon covers much of the land. winds provide predictable rainfall. l Islands are the tops of a chain of volcanoes ⇒ volcanic soil, and the floodplains of silt-bearing rivers, provides fertile agricultural potential. l Add several growing seasons annually and you get an area of the world capable of supporting a large population. Southeast Asia The local foods A wet-rice field in Bali, Indonesia. The labor-intensive crop of rice was the staple food of the region. A number of plant and animal species native to this region spread elsewhere, which significantly transformed societies and economies around the world: wet rice (grown in flooded fields), soybeans, sugar cane, yams, coconuts, bananas, chickens and pigs. Southeast Asia Malay migrations l Scholars believe that the Malay peoples came to dominate the region following several waves of Chinese migration south beginning around five thousand years ago. l Indigenous peoples sometimes merged with the Malay newcomers, sometimes retreated to mountain and forest zones. l Population pressures coupled with disputes within and among communities ⇒ the longest colonization movement in history, as Malay peoples in large, double outrigger canoes spread across half the circumference of the world to settle thousands of islands across several millennia, from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Southeast Asia Politics, commerce and culture l First political units were organized water “boards,” which met to allocate and schedule the use of common sources of water – a critical resource. l China exerted political control over northern Indochina from the late second century BCE to the tenth century CE. l Farther south, in the early centuries CE, larger states emerged thanks to commerce and the influence of Hindu-Buddhist culture Southeast Asia Silk by way of the sea l When nomadic migrations destabilized the politics of Central Asia and compromised the overland trade route that merchants used to bring silk from China to India, demand was still strong in India – both for domestic use and transshipment to the Arabian Gulf and Red Sea to satisfy the seemingly insatiable luxury market in the Roman Empire. l So much of the trade shipments – now including Southeast Asian goods such as aromatic woods, resins, cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nutmeg and other spices – shifted to the south: across the South China Sea, by land over an isthmus on the Malay Peninsula, and across the Bay of Bengal. l The rising numbers of merchants in the area meant a rising awareness of Buddhism ⇒ Southeast Asia became a way station for Indian missionaries and East Asian pilgrims heading east and west, respectively. l First major Southeast Asian center – called Funan (FOO-nahn) by the Chinese and centered in the delta of the Mekong River in southern Vietnam – flourished from the first to sixth centuries CE, extending control over most of southern Indochina and the Malay Peninsula. l Chinese visitors observed that Funan was prosperous and sophisticated, with walled cities and palaces, and supported by systems of taxation and state-organized agriculture. Southeast Asia Catering to trade Portage – carrying small quantities of goods and sometimes the boat itself across an isthmus – was common in early seafaring trade. But larger cargoes later on made the overland shortcut less practical. q For a price, Funan stockpiled food and provided security to merchants choosing the portage across the Malay Peninsula (instead of the longer, more treacherous sea route around it). q Probably when international trade routes finally changed and it no longer held a strategic location, Funan declined in the 500s CE. Sources l The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History (Bulliet et al.) l Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past (Bentley & Ziegler) l World History (Duiker & Spielvogel) l Patterns of Interaction (McDougal Littell, publisher) l AP World History review guides: The Princeton Review, Kaplan and Barron’s