Download Study Guide for Bio225 Lecture Exam 1

Study Guide for Bio102 Lecture Exam 1
Please note that this study guide is a listing of general concepts that will
be tested on the exams for this course. However, items mentioned in
class or in laboratory as being ‘important for you to know’ may also
appear on the exams. **This is NOT a legal contract – it is a STUDY
GUIDE designed to help you focus your study efforts.
This exam will cover Marieb’s Chapters 17 through 21 and Lectures 1
through 6. This exam is worth 100 points. There will be 50 multiple
choice, true-false, and matching questions. Some bonus questions will
be given. Bonus questions can come from ANY of the material in this
study guide, and are usually short answer type questions and typically
worth about 5 points.
RESOURCES YOU MAY WANT TO USE TO AID YOUR
UNDERSTANDING:
1. Study aids and quizzes on the Mastering A&P Web site.
2. 'Links to Explore' (if any) in the Supporting Materials column of
the Lecture materials for each lecture.
Chapter 17 (Blood & Blood Vessels)
Lecture 1
1. List the functions of blood.
2. Describe the general composition of the blood in terms of % cells (hematocrit) and %
liquid. [Something to think about: How would changes in body water (plasma levels)
and blood cell overproduction or underproduction relate to changes in these
percentages. For example, in dehydration, how would hematocrit change? If too many
RBCs were produced, how would the hematocrit change?]
3. Recall the average normal blood volume in adults. [Something to think about: How
many liters of this is formed elements (cells) and how many liters are plasma?]
4. Blood cell counts
a. Recall the average numbers of RBCs (erythrocytes) /mm3 (µl) of blood
b. How is the RBC count related to oxygen-carrying capacity?
c. What term describes the condition that can result from a deficiency of RBCs or
Hb?
d. What is the average life span of a RBC?
e. Recall the average number of WBCs (leukocytes), and platelets/mm3 (µl).
f. What is meant by the root word '-cytosis'? What is meant by the root word 'penia'.
g. What is a deficiency of leukocytes called?
h. What is too high a number of leukocytes called?
5. List the three general components of a hemoglobin (Hb) molecule. Which portion
binds O2?
6. Define viscosity and osmolarity as those terms relate to the properties of blood. How
will blood flow be affected by changes in viscosity? How will the osmolarity be
influenced by changes in the blood's concentrations of Na+, proteins (especially albumin),
and RBCs? How is osmolarity related to viscosity?
7. Define the terms: serum, thrombus, embolus.
8. Explain the difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes, and list the types of
cells that are included in each group.
9. Leukocytes
a. List the general function(s) of each type of leukocyte (WBC).
b. Which two types of WBCs constitute most of the leukocytes in the blood?
c. What are the percentages in the blood of the two types of cells in b.?
d. What is the name given to the process of a WBC leaving the bloodstream and
migrating into the tissues?
10. List the four major proteins in blood plasma. Explain the function/importance of
each of these proteins. (See Table 17.1 in Marieb.)
13. Hemostasis
a. Define hemostasis. How does it differ from blood coagulation?
a. List the three main phases of hemostasis?
b. During which of those phases does the clotting cascade occur?
c. What occurs in the other two phases?
d. What chemicals do platelets secrete that causes blood vessel constriction?
e. What important ion that is vital for the clotting process is released by platelets?
f. Diagram the common pathway of blood clot formation (hemostasis) from
prothrombin activator until the formation of a fibrin clot (See Marieb’s Figure
17.14 from Factor X -> Xa in Phase 1, and all of Phases 2 and 3).
g. Name the two pathways that can trigger the common pathway of blood
clotting. What are the initiating factors that trigger those two pathways?
h. Explain the ways in which blood coagulation is normally prevented or
minimized.
Chapter 18 (The Heart and Cardiovascular Function)
Lecture 2 and 3 (Heart)
1. Flow of blood and heart valves
a. Describe or diagram the pathway of blood through the chambers of the
heart, including the position and names of the heart valves.
b. Which heart valves depend upon papillary muscles and chordae
tendineae for their correct function?
2. Name all of the CT/serous coverings of the heart and the layers of the heart in
their proper order from deep to superficial or from superficial to deep.
3. Electrical activity of the heart (lecture 2) and EKG (lecture 3)
a. Name the components of the cardiac conduction system.
b. Describe the order in which an impulse travels within the heart and why
it's important for cardiac conduction to take place in the correct order.
c. What is the pacemaker of the heart? Why is it called the pacemaker?
d. At what rate do the following pacemaker cells of the heart fire (send
depolarizing impulses): S-A node, A-V node, [Purkinje fibers]?
e. Why is it important that a delay in conduction occur at the A-V node?
f. If the SA node resigned as the pacemaker, what would be next in line to
take over its job?
g. Depolarization precedes what? Repolarization precedes what?
h. What do the P, QRS, and T waves on the EKG represent?
4. Brady- and tachycardia
a. Define bradycardia and tachycardia in words and recall the heart rates
associated with each.
b. What factors discussed in class can cause each of these?
c. What will happen to CO during each of these states if there is no other
change in the factors affecting CO?
5. Autonomic activity and its effect on the heart
a. Explain the effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulation on
heart rate and force of contraction.
b. Which branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) affects BOTH
the rate and force of contraction?
c. In what way (increase or decrease)? What is the major parasympathetic
nerve called that innervates the heart?
continued...
6. Describe the effects of various increases or decreases of the following
substances on cardiac output:
a. potassium ions
b. calcium ions
c. epinephrine/norepinephrine
d. thyroid hormone
e. body temperature
See review table, Summary of Factors Affecting Cardiac Output (Table
Form), in Review Slides.
You should be able to correctly identify the terms describing an abnormal
increase or decrease in the ions that affect the CO, e.g., hypokalemia,
hyperkalemia, etc.
7. List the major vessels of the coronary circulation and which area of the heart is
served by each. Do the coronary vessels fill with blood during ventricular systole
or diastole? Why?
8. Define systole and diastole.
9. Explain the events in the heart that occur during atrial and ventricular systole
and diastole, e.g., contraction or relaxation of the muscle, which valves are open
or closed, what happens to pressure within the chambers, and how this relates to
the EKG.
**You should be able to label the major events that are taking place as indicated
on the slide, Review of Events of the Cardiac Cycle.
- What does the term 'isovolumetric' mean?
- How does it apply to the cardiac cycle, and why is it important?
- When the left ventricle is generating its highest pressure, what other
things are happening in the cardiac cycle at the same time?
- When the left ventricle is generating its lowest pressure, what other
things are happening in the cardiac cycle at the same time?
**For objectives 9 and 10 below, refer to the flow chart/arrow diagram from
Lecture 3, Regulation of Cardiac Output. Be sure to consider all the factors listed
on the chart and how they ultimately affect CO. It is important that you know this
flow chart when we discuss blood pressure in Lecture 4 and it is vital to
understand this flow chart when reasoning through clinical situations.
When learning this flow chart, begin at the top and select one of the factors listed
there and choose whether it increases or decreases. Then, move DOWN the chart
and trace what would happen to CO when that factor either increases or decreases
(whatever you chose). You should do something similar for each of the factors
listed on the top of the chart.
Now begin at the BOTTOM of the chart, and imagine that CO is either increased
or decreased. What factors could have caused that? So, essentially, now you're
moving 'backwards' UP the chart and considering factors that can change CO.
And if you thought that wasn't enough...imagine that SV increases or
decreases. What would have to happen in order for CO to remain the SAME as
before the increase or decrease? Now imagine that HR increases or
decreases. What would have to happen in order for CO to remain the SAME as
before the increase or decrease? Be sure you are specific as to HOW these things
happen, i.e., be sure you know the factors from the upper portion of the chart that
can increase/decrease SV and HR.
10. Cardiac Output (CO)
a. Define cardiac output (CO) both in words and mathematically.
b. Explain how CO is changed when the factors that determine CO are
changed, e.g., if you increase SV what happens to CO?
c. If you increase ESV what happens to CO?
d. If EDV decreases but you want to maintain the same CO that was
present before the decrease in EDV, what factors would have to change?
11. Preload, afterload, Frank-Starling law (mechanism)
a. Define the following terms: Preload, afterload, Frank-Starling
mechanism.
b. How does an increase or decrease in preload or afterload affect CO?
c. What kinds of situations would activate the Frank-Starling mechanism?
d. How does and increase or decrease in venous return change CO?
e. What factors determining CO are affected when venous return changes?
12. List/identify the structural and physiological differences between cardiac and
skeletal muscle. Sounds like a job for a table! Remember from A&P I that
skeletal muscle can be tetanized if nerve impulses arrive fast enough. Can cardiac
muscle normally be tetanized? Why or why not?
Lecture 4 and 5 (Ch 19 Blood Pressure & Blood Vessels)
1. Describe/diagram the pathway of blood flow through the pulmonary and
systemic circuits, listing the names of the major blood vessels involved and
whether the blood in those vessels is well-oxygenated or poorly oxygenated.
Continued next page...
2. Blood vessel anatomy and major function
a. Name the different types of blood vessels,
b. State the major function of each type of blood vessel
c. What are the three layers (tunics) in all blood vessels (except
capillaries)?
d. How can veins influence venous return to the heart?
e. What are three things that help venous blood return to the heart?
3. Capillary fluid exchange
a. What are the three types of capillaries?
b. Describe the major factors influencing fluid exchange in the systemic
capillaries.
c. What kinds of things would increase or decrease these factors?
d. What effect would an increase or a decrease in each of the factors above
have on the amount of fluid that leaves (or enters) the circulation at the
capillaries?
**For objectives 4 - 6 below, refer to the flow chart/arrow diagram from Lecture
4, Regulation of Cardiac Output, as modified to include MAP (this is the same as
blood pressure, or BP) and the factors affecting MAP. Be sure to consider all the
factors listed on the chart and how they ultimately affect CO and MAP.
Use the same process you did when using this chart to predict the effect of factors
on CO, but now consider the effect of these same factors on CO and MAP. When
learning this flow chart, begin at the top and select one of the factors listed there
and choose whether it increases or decreases. Then, move DOWN the chart and
trace what would happen to CO/MAP when that factor either increases or
decreases (whatever you chose). You should do something similar for each of the
factors listed on the top of the chart.
Now begin at the BOTTOM of the chart, and imagine that BP is either increased
or decreased. What factors could have caused that? So, essentially, now you're
moving 'backwards' UP the chart and considering factors that can change MAP.
Imagine that MAP increases or decreases. What things could happen in order for
MAP to remain the SAME as before the increase or decrease? While using this
chart to learn about the factors affecting CO, be sure you are specific as to HOW
these things happen, i.e., be sure you know the factors from the upper portion of
the chart that can increase/decrease MAP.
4. Explain what blood pressure (BP) is, and define the terms used with BP
(systolic, diastolic, pulse pressure, mean arterial pressure).
5. Predict the effect of various factors on BP, e.g., CO and SV. (These are shown
on the Factors Affecting Blood Pressure flow chart that includes MAP.)
6. Explain how an increase or decrease in BP affects cardiac output and the means
by which BP homeostasis is maintained after a change in cardiac
output. Remember that the body is always striving to maintain stable levels in
homeostasis. So, when the BP goes up or down outside of the normal range the
body will try to bring it back to normal (homeostatic) levels.
7. Describe the effects of some common vasodilators and vasoconstrictors, e.g.,
nitric oxide, lactic acid, oxygen, carbon dioxide, potassium ions, on the blood
vessels and BP.
For each of the factors listed in red in the Autoregulation of Cardiovascular
Function slide in lecture 4, you should be able to predict what effect on the blood
vessels (and BP) will be when these factors are increased or decreased in
concentration in the local area.
8. Define central venous pressure and explain its importance.
9. Blood vessels - You should be able to recall the names and locations of the
arteries and veins marked with an * in Lecture 5. These are the same vessels you
have looked at in lab. Specifically, for the lecture exam you should be able to do
the following:
a. Name the major blood vessels in the abdomen that drain into the hepatic
portal vein.
b. Name the different segments of the aorta, and the vessels that branch from it
(See Figure 19.24 in Marieb)
c. Name the veins of the arm that are important for venipuncture (drawing
blood)
d. Recall the areas served by the major vessels of the head, i.e.,
internal/external carotid arteries and jugular veins.
e. Name the blood vessels used to take a pulse
f. Name the vessels that make up the cerebral arterial circle (Circle of Willis)
Chapter 20 (Lymphatic System and Immunity) - Lecture 6
1. List the functions of the lymphatic system
2. Describe/diagram the flow of lymph from the lymphatic capillaries to the lymphatic
ducts using the major types of vessels involved. Into what blood vessel does lymph
eventually get emptied?
3. What is lymph, and what does it contain?
4. List the areas of the body drained by the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct.
5. Describe the structural features of lymphatic capillaries and lymphatic vessels and
explain how these features allow them to perform their function. What similarities do
lymph vessels have to other types of vessels that we've already studied?
6. Describe the two arrangements of lymphatic tissues (diffuse, nodular).
7. Describe the major functions of the lymph nodes, the thymus, and the spleen.
8. What is a pathogen?
9. Define innate defenses. What general mechanisms are used by this type of defense to
fight pathogens?
10. Define adaptive (specific) immunity. What general mechanisms are used by this type
of defense to fight pathogens?
11. What is an antigen?
12. What are the two major types of lymphocytes that function in adaptive immunity?
What general mechanism does each use to fight pathogens?
13. Describe/diagram how T and B lymphocytes interact together with macrophages
(antigen presenting cells) to produce an immune response against a pathogen (see the
slides 'T and B cell Activation' and 'B Cell Proliferation' in your lecture slides). What
type of cell secretes antibodies?
14. List the major classes of antibodies, and identify the classes that can 1) cross the
placenta, 2) activate Complement, and 3) mediate allergic reactions.
15. Describe the functions (actions) of antibodies in the body.
16. What activities are stimulated by Complement activation?
17. Explain/identify the major differences between the primary and secondary immune
responses in terms of the time it takes for each to reach maximum effect, and which types
of antibodies predominate (See the slide, Immune Responses in your lecture slides).
18. Explain the difference between natural and artificial, and active and passive
immunity and give relevant examples of each (see the slide Practical Classification of
Immunity in your lecture slides)
20. Define autoimmunity.
21. During an allergic reaction:
1) What type (class) of antibody binds to mast cells to make them degranulate?
2) What substances are released by mast cells during an allergic reaction that
produce symptoms?
3) What is anaphylaxis?