Download 傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度Traditional Tibetan Buddhist

傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
康嘉鐸
台灣大學音樂學研究所
摘要
如果我們會錯過事情現在的狀態，我們就可以假設，雖然音樂地位甚高，卻不是個嚴肅理論思考的
主題，不像西藏宗教文化裡對其他知識學門的一般研究。此外，一般的僧侶音樂家對這種理論文字中可
能找得到的理論解釋，似乎不感興趣。
然而，傳統上來說，西藏知識體系各種分類的脈絡中都有音樂的研究，因此努力要全部完成傳統修
道課程的人，一般認為必須要瞭解音樂研究。
依照十三世紀偉大學者薩迦班智達《音樂論文》裡找到的規定，我描述並評論了西藏早期對於應該
如何教授音樂、如何表演的態度，並與現在的西藏僧侶宗教儀式對音樂表演與傳播的態度相比較。
Traditional Tibetan Buddhist attitudes towards the performance and
transmission of music
Sakya Pandita’s and Candragomin’s prescriptions
Ricardo Canzio
Graduate Institute of Musicology, National Taiwan University
Abstract
If the present state of affairs is something we may go by, we can surmise that music though highly regarded
was not the subject of serious theoretical reflexion such as we can find in the customary study of other branches
of knowledge in Tibetan religious culture.
Besides most monk musicians in general do not appear very
interested in such theoretical explanations as may be found in theoretical texts.
However, traditionally, the study of music is put in the context of the Tibetan classification of the various
branches of knowledge and so is considered to merit the attention of all those who strive to be totally
accomplished in the traditional monastic curriculum.
Based on prescriptions found in the classic Treatise on Music by the great XIII century scholar Sakya
Pandita, I describe and evaluate early attitudes as regards the way music should be taught and performed and
compare this with present day attitudes towards performance and its transmission in current Tibetan monastic
religious practices.
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傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
Traditional Tibetan Buddhist attitudes towards the performance and
transmission of music
Sakya Pandita’s and Candragomin’s prescriptions
Ricardo Canzio
Graduate Institute of Musicology, National Taiwan University
There is no wonder in understanding the meaning of
matters that are often discussed by the elders, but
whoever comes to know that which did not arise before in
the mind of others, possesses real intelligence.
Sakya Pandita in “The Treatise on Music”
1 Contextualizing the study of music within the Buddhist framework
Sakya Pandita’s “Treatise on Music”
The place of music in the Tibetan system of knowledge
The practice of ritual music, the central concepts of Buddhist philosophy and the benefits of studying well
The reasons for playing music
The essential needs
2 On the performance and the transmission of music
What is to be taught, where and how
The faults caused by not having learned properly
The time and the circumstances of a performance
The six fundamental defects and the five causes of failure
1 - Contextualizing the study of music within the Tibetan Buddhist framework
If the present state of affairs is something we may go by, we can surmise that music though highly
regarded was not subject to serious theoretical reflection such as we can find in the customary study of other
branches of knowledge in Tibetan religious culture. Besides most monk musicians in general do not appear
today very interested in such explanations as may be found in theoretical texts.
However, traditionally, the study of music is put in the context of the Tibetan classification of the various
branches of knowledge and so is considered to merit the attention of all those who strive to be totally
accomplished in the traditional monastic curriculum. It is very interesting to see how all the musical practice
be it religious or lay is described in terms of the basic attitudes of Buddhist practice and with the aim of
guiding the practitioner to channel all musical activity to be used as means to Liberation.
Based on prescriptions found in the classic Sakya Pandita’s Treatise on Music, the commentary to the
same text by Kunga Sonam and the recently rediscovered texts by Candragomi, I describe and evaluate early
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attitudes as regards the way music should be taught and performed and compare this with present day
attitudes towards performance and its transmission in current Tibetan monastic religious practices.1
Sakya Pandita’s “Treatise on Music”
The Treatise on Music by the great XIII century scholar Sakya Pandita (1182-1251) is the only
full-length Tibetan text dealing with theoretical matters concerning music. There is a commentary to this
classic text written by Kunga Sonam in the XVII century and it we find a number of quotations from another
texts from an author cited as Candragomin.
This text has been the object of much discussion and has been dealt by various authors (Ellingson (1979,
Canzio 1979). The Treatise was translated into Chinese by Zhao Khang (1989). The endeavours of Chinese
scholars in the field are related in an article by Mao Jizeng (1998). Earlier Tian Lientao (1989) had presented
and discussed Zhao Khan translation.
Candragomi – who had in the past been confused with the well known Indian philosopher of the same
name – has been recently identified as Zla-ba dpal-rin. He was born around 1375 and was connected with the
gSer-khang monastery in Zhwa-lu country in the Tsang region of Tibet and. He is the author of various texts
on the way to play drums and cymbals and various aspects of the performance of rituals (Tsering, 2003).
In his classic Treatise, first of all Sakya Pandita encourages the disciple to get acquainted with all
branches of knowledge as understood in their classical system of classification. A wide acquisition of
knowledge is seen a supreme value and we are told that if one does not learn all knowable things the
attainement of Enlightenment — the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice — will be as far away as the horizon.
Entering the path to Enlightenment implies not only meditation and ritual practice but study in order to
acquired the necessary intellectual insights that would lead a practitioner to liberation, psychic powers and the
perfect omniscience of a Buddha.
Therefore all those who strive for this must learn what is referred to as
“all knowable things” and should be reminded of a time-honoured maxim that “learning is the lamp that
removes the darkness of ignorance”.
It is interesting also to remark on the intellectual attitude propounded by Sakya Pandita. To the
traditional uncritical scholastic attitude towards learning and its transmission he opposes a creative attitude
where the acquisition of new knowledge is seen as the highest value. Hence the epigram quoted above in the
epigraph: “There is no marvel in understanding the meaning of matters that are often discussed by the elders,
but whoever comes to know that which did not arise before in the mind of others possesses real intelligence”.
This is indeed a remarkable attitude within the context of a traditional society such as Tibet in the XIIth
century where traditional methods of acquiring and transmiting knowledge were based on learning by rote
and not questioning the teachings or the teacher.
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傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
The place of music in the Tibetan system of knowledge
In Tibetan terms Music is a part of Arts and Crafts, one of the Five Branches of Learning in the classical
Tibetan system of knowledge. Arts and Crafts include all the highly skilled activities of a traditional society
which are to be pursued by those eager to tread the path for liberation and omniscience.
The Five Branches of Learning are: Grammar which removes mis-understandings about words, Logic
which removes misunderstandings about meaning, Arts and Crafts which is involved with the satisfaction of
every practical need, Medicine which is committed to the absence of disease and finally Philosophy which is
concerned with knowledge of the path to liberation in all its depth and extension and with putting it into
practice. It is said in Buddhist terms that if these sciences are not practiced, even beings in the higher stages
of attainment could not achieve the rank of enlightened ones.
Arts and Crafts are classified as being related to the Body, Speech and Mind. Arts in reference to the
Body and Speech emphasize the movement of the body and the operation of speech in relation to the Mind.
Arts of the Mind are so called because they stress just the operation of thought without relation to the body or
speech and comprise all that has been heard, thought and meditated upon.
We are further told that out of the Five Sciences, Arts and Crafts is the basic one. It has been looked
down upon in monastic tradition as the science for earning a livelihood and therefore not worthy of the
attention of someone striving for higher things but since Arts and Crafts in reference to the mind includes all
the objects of perception and thought it thus also includes all other sciences.
The practice of ritual music, the central concepts of Buddhist philosophy and the benefits of
studying well
There are various points of connection between the practice of ritual music and the central concepts of
Buddhist philosophy and that concerns essentially attitudes and motivation.
Those who strive for
knowledge should seek detailed oral explanations of the essence of these religious practices and that include
chant and music. They should observe carefully and repeatedly their performance, obtain insights and should
remember them. Besides, faith is an indispensable ingredient in the acquisition of knowledge and we are told
that if the practitioner strives with faith it is impossible not to understand the practices and their meaning
easily.
We are referring here to the performance of rituals and all musical practice within this context has not
got a merely esthetic objective but a religious one. Therefore results going beyond a good performance are
expected. Through the practice of those rites common people will be satisfied, the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
will be pleased and the merit accumulated by such practices will confer immeasurable benefits. The reason
given for this is that in order to obtain full Enlightenment, both merit and wisdom are needed and in turn
wisdom is dependent on the accumulation of merit. Then by means of the practice of music those people
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karmically fit for enlightenment, may liberate themselves from worldly fetters and from falling into any of the
unfortunate rebirths.
These are classical arguments in line with accepted doctrinal principles and we can see here the efforts
made to try to incorporate and assimilate musical practices into the framework of existing doctrine. This
attitude is not new among Tibetans; in fact Tibetans can usually provide explanations for almost everything in
terms of the doctrine of Buddhism as they understand it or in terms of folk beliefs or just plain common
sense.
In the same vein an attempt is made to establish a connection between the practice of chant and music
and its skillful utilization as a means to realize the Six Perfections of Buddhism. The Six Perfections are
fundamental practices required of someone following the path of Buddhism.
1) One should practice Giving by performing well composed chants and chant and music with the
thought that all beings may reach Enlightenment and in order to honour the Buddhas with one’s body,
speech and mind. So that chant may become a gift to all beings;
2) One should practice Discipline by restraining wrong doings of the body, speech and mind during
practice and during performance;
3) One should practice Forbearance by enduring cheerfully the tiresome difficulties that one may
experience during protacted ceremonies;
4) One should practice Perseverance by taking interest and wishing earnestly to participate in ceremonies
and the various monastic activities;
5) One should practice Meditation by concentrating one-pointedly on the melody, the words and the
meaning of the chants one is performing;
6) Finally one should practice Wisdom by trying to perceive the essence of all phenomena and realizing
that theevery existing thing possesses no independent self-existence.
It is said that according to the undeceiving truth issuing from the causal nexus, by assimilating all of
these, the Six Perfections will be attained to the highest degree. This is corroborated by Candragomin in his
Treatise on Chant who says that ‘practices in connection with the Six Perfections are the fundamental
consideration’. Within a monastic context this was of the utmost importance since ritual practice and
musical practices which consisted essentially of chant was seen as the cause of all excellence and the
grounds for the attainement of superior powers of speech. Besides chant was seen also as a form of offering
to gods and men. Candragomi said: “May chant become a gift to all beings.” ‘If all is auspicious the wise
man will perform for the increasing of everybody’s happiness.’
The reasons for performing
Though the Treatise on Music deals mostly with religious performances and the commentator enlarges
exclusively on them we find a number of general recommendations applicable to all musical practices lay as
well as religious.
Here the author offers some reasons for the practice of music. One is that it satisfy what he calls the
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傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
immediate needs of the religious man or of the layman. This refers to is worship of the Three Precious
Jewels of Buddhism (the Buddha, the teachings and the religious community) by the faithful, the livelihood of
the poor and excitement for the sensuous, all that can be produced by one who knows music.
We are told that although a person may be of average intellect or of unattractive physical form, be of low
class extraction or possess no wealth if he becomes a master in the art of music he will stand out of the crowd
like a beautiful crown ornament.
Besides wherever we can see finely dressed people, freshly washed hair, dance, song, music and the
sound of laughter, all that is a sign of the absence of both physical disease and mental suffering. Therefore
music is to be praised.
We also find that while some people find certain things not beautiful or unsuitable (such the wearing of
gold and turquoise ornaments for monks) and for others different things are considered unsuitable (such as
patched up monk robes for women) on the other hand man and woman, child wise and fool all find music
beautiful.
These acute observations shows the pragmatic attitude propounded by Sakya Pandita whose Treatise on
Music, seen as a musicological monograph, show that the author possessed to a high degree an intuitive
perception of the practicalitiesand the function of music both within the liturgy and in society at large.
The essential needs
Kunga Sonam the commentator to Sakya Pandita’s Treatise says that even though music can satisfy
worldly desires, its performance in the appropriate context can help to realize our higher aims and is seen as a
cause for the quick attainment of psychic powers. It can serve to praise realized beings like the Boddhisattvas
and can help common man to advance to higher stages of spiritual development.
Sakya Pandita was referring to same thing when he said that “an agreeable voice can praise the
Boddhisattvas, satisfy the aims of all beings and is the cause of attainment of the two kinds of psychic
powers”
If music is so helpful as mentioned above then the great four yearly and seasonal festivals, the lama’s
anniversaries or when people gather to praise The Three Objects of Refuge were the most common, suitable
and commendable occasions for the performance of music in traditional Tibet. To cite Sakya Pandita again:
“when people gather to praise the Three Jewels or to meet one another when circumstances are auspicious he
who has mastered music must perform.”
So the essential need form the standpoint of Buddhism, the need of benefitting others, praising the Three
Precious Jewels and so accumulating merit to attain Buddhahood can depend on one’s ability to be proficient
in music.
2 - On the performance and the transmission of music
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Based mostly on quotations from Candragomin’s “Treatise on Chant”, Kunga Sonam, the commentator
to Sakya Pandita’s Treatise deals with the qualities expected of the teacher and the pupil, the way of teaching
and the ideal conditions for the transmission of musical knowledge.
What is to be taught, where and how.
The quality of the musical material and the performance are paramount. One must not just sing or play
anything. Compositions should have certain characteristics. If they are long they should be well structured, if
they are short they should nonetheless be a complete whole, if there are dances, movements should be
graceful but dignified, firm but also supple, chant should be clearly articulated and the words should be
intelligible. In short, it should seize the mind of simple people, increase the pleasure of the connoisseur,
delight the man of taste, attract the high-minded, gratify the common man and be praised by all, captivate the
expert disperse mental obstacles and its practice should help accumulate psychic powers.
The practice of music should not be carried just anywhere. To practice one should choose a place which
is clean, secluded, advantageous to the voice and agreeable to the mind.
Who should teach it?
An expert and renowned teacher who is patient, gentle and forbearing, who does
not get distracted and who knows the right amount to teach.. This latest injuction appears full of common
sense
Which kind of person should learn music?
One who is intelligent and interested, who has a good voice
and faith both in his teacher and the chant, who possesses an unbiased mind and is untiring, persevering and
courageous.
How should be taught? The teacher adopting the Boddhisattva’s attitude of benefiting others should ask
himself: whether what he is teaching is really suitable for his student to learn. He should teach first singing in
a soft voice, then a little louder making the student repeat after him. He should teach the melodic contour of
the chant and then the fine inflexions. He should take sometimes the place of the student and act as his
assistant and above all he should teach him how to recognize faults. To a not very bright student who has not
understood that which he has been taught, he should explain a piece systematically, section by section. These
are the basic skills of a teacher.
The faults caused by not having learned properly
Candragomin in his Treatise on Chant introduces long series of faults commited while singing. It is
interesting to remark that the prescriptions concern either being not properly prepared to sing or doing it with
the wrong attitude.
For instance singing a song which has been learned in haste; singing a song in which one has introduced
one’s own ideas; singing a chant affected with bad enunciation; singing a song which is not remembered
properly; inging a shallow song, just the rough outline of a melody.
Other injunctions are warnings against adopting a bad or light attitude towards singing like using chant
as a means for joking; singing with of lack of control and clear-mindedness; singing with a mind that wonders
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傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
after the objects of perception; singing in a careless and inconsiderate manner like a madman; singing without
faith, just to please others; singing with a competing mind out of envy and doing it boastfully with the desire
of being well known.
Still other injunctions are frankly cryptical like singing chants which possess no blessing because their
secret has been divulged or singing melodies leading to a lower rebirth.
The list of prescriptions as regard singing continues but this small sample give us an idea of the general
tone of the advice given to performers.
The time and the circumstances of a performance
It seems that it was believed that music and dance were banned by the Buddha because they were a
cause for distraction. If they constituted a mere entertainment they were classed, in monastic tradition, along
with useless speech and meaningless activity. On the other hand they are seen here as a skilful means to attain
Enlightenment. Sakya Pandita defended chant and dancing and considered them a kind of ritual activity and
not mere entertainment, so this justified its practice. Therefore there were no objections as regards the
playing of music as a special skilful means for benefitting of others (the ideal of the Boddhisattva) or with the
thought of praising the Three Precious Jewels and so accumulate merit to obtain a better reincarnation in a
nest life.
All this is in accordance with classical Buddhist thought where religion is a full and all-encompassing
activity for the monk who had chosen to follow the strict path of discipline and self-negation. Therefore any
extraneous activity not directed towards the ultimate goal of Enlightenment was considered a distraction. But
these strictures did not apply to lay folk. Besides it seems that Sakya Pandita was aware of how Buddhism
functioned in society and the presentation of the religious community to the larger world was a matter of
concern to Buddhists.
Performance refers here to all aspects of a presentation not only the strictly musical ones but also social
considerations such as regard for the audience and one’s fellow musicians as well as paying attention to
aesthetical matters and psychological attitudes.
Those who have learned music and chant should master not only technical skills but should be aware of
the place, the time and the circumstances of their performance. There are three essentials which according to
the expert teachers concern the performance of music. They regard confidence, suitability of the occasion and
practice.
Not to hesitate when playing slowly, not to hurry while playing quickly, not to confuse tempi when
changing from one to another, breathing smoothly without panting and not being fainthearted of body or
speech are essential aspects of confidence during performance.
If the melody is too elaborate little of the meaning of the words will be understood. If there are too many
words in a melody, that will bore ordinary people. If much is missed of the meaning of the words because of
poor enunciation, that will displease the connoisseurs. Only when the occasion is ripe must one perform.
These are essential aspects regarding suitability of the occasion for performance.
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As regards practice we are told that practicing is essential and from it results a soft and agreeable voice.
Musicians who have studied poetry and chant will be satisfied with their own performance. Having mastered
the melodies their voices will flow smoothly and when they apply words to melody properly they will delight
people.
The six fundamental defects and the five causes of failure
The six fundamental defects concern the 1) mind, 2) words and their enunciation, 3) speech delivery, 4)
behaviour and bodily attitudes, 5) the blunders committed when performing in a group and 6) the defects of
the listener.
To sing in a very excited or drowsy state of mind, not grasping the significance of the place and
circumstances or not caring about it, letting the attention wander elsewhere. These are the defects of the mind.
Cutting short the end of the words, repeating too much, introducing unwanted sounds, pronuncing
unclearly, making mistakes in phrasing. These are defects concerning words.
To add or take away any part of a chant, to accelerate or slow down too much, to sing constricting the
throat, to speak with a false accent. These are the defects of singing.
To rock, frown, to close one’s eyes or stare blankly. To be fidgety or uneasy with one’s legs or hands are
defects of the body.
Whether our singing companions are good or bad musicians to rush before or lag behind the chanting
leader; to sing louder or softer than the rest or not to blend with the choir are faults as regards performing
with others. In a monastic situation sitting down after the rest of the assembly has gathered or stop singing
before them is seen as breach of discipline.
Moving around, talking to each other, purposely not attending to the performance, being dissatisfied or
not understanding the meaning of what is being sung are the defects of the listeners.
The causes of failure as enumerated by Candragomi refer to ignorance of the circumstances in which the
song is to be performed and to misjudging one’s own capabilities as a musician. For instance a singer who is
ignorant of words and their usage, particularly in a song, will muddle the sense and fail to produce the desired
effect.
Ignorance of words causes one to be looked down upon by connoisseurs and laymen alike. Mishandling
of the melody will cause the experts to laugh. Lack of regard for the circumstances or the duration of the
performance will engender boredom in ordinary people. At a gathering of connoisseurs when surrounded by
many critics and with few friends for support, someone unskilled, faint-hearted or of poor intellect will cause
himself suffering.
These are general recommendations that apply mostly in a lay context. As regard monastic musical
activity singing praises to the Three Precious Jewels and the like without purpose would be seen as a cause
for the accumulation of sin.
Attitudes of the sort that Candragomi suggests are to a great extent pursued today in Tibetan Buddhist
organizations were monastic discipline is of importance. And although Sakya Pandita's text is hardly read
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傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
outside the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism and Candragomi's manuscript has not yet been published we
can see that most of the advice given is based on common sense but even so it would be of great value if
musicians of all cultures and persuasions would follow it. We would have better performances and better
performers sensitive to the public, their fellow musicians and not the least the music they play.
What to do then? How to conciliate the performance of music and the higher aims of a Buddhist seeking
for Liberation in a traditional way? Having taken into account all the above mentioned prescriptions if
conditions are unfavourable, a wise man should forgo singing but by performing on propitious occasions, the
competent singer will cause virtue to increase. A wonderful and human way of approaching art.
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Notes
1.
I must thank Tashi Tsering of the Amnye Machen Institute, Dharamsala, India for kindly providing a
copy of Candragomi’s text.
References
Canzio, Ricardo
1979 ‘Sakya Pandita’ Treatise on Music and its Relevance to Present-day Sakya Ritual Practices’. Ph.D.
Thesis. School of Oriental & African Studies: London, 1979.
Ellingson, Ter
1979 Don rta dbyangs gsum: Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories in: Asian Music 10/2, 1979.
Mao, Jizeng （毛繼增）
1998
《惹麥丹覺》樂論 ‘Discussion on the Rol-mo’i bstan-bcos’ in Essays on the Structure of the Court
Musics of East and Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the 4th Asia Pacific Society for Ethnomusicology.
Taipei: Council for Cultural Affairs, Executive Yuan, 1998.
Tien, Lientao （田聯韜）
1989
〈西藏古典音樂論著樂論及其作者〉‘A Tibetan
classical music treatise (The Treatise on
Music) and its author’ in 《中央音樂學院學報》 vol 4, 1989 (pp. 31-34).
Tsering, Tashi
2003
Reflections on Thang sting rgyal po as the founder of the ache lha mo tradition of Tibetan
performing arts in Lungta, # 15, note 14 p.41.
Zhao, Khang（雪康）
1990
明阿旺貢噶索南扎巴堅贊著趙康譯 “Kunga Sonam’s commentary to SP’s Treatise on Music” in
《音樂研究》 In two parts: the first in vol 2,
1991
(pp. 89-93) and the second part in vol 4, 1990 (pp. 84-93).
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傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
傳統西藏對音樂表演及傳播的態度
康嘉鐸
台灣大學音樂學研究所
與談（Discussion）
與談人：劉國威 / 佛光人文社會學院宗教學系助理教授兼研究所所長
這篇論文是針對薩迦派四祖薩迦班智達 (1182-1251) 所寫的《樂論》(rol mo'i bstan bcos) 的相關譯
注研究。這是 Dr. Canzio 的博士論文主題的延續，也是一篇相當難得的論文主題，因為對西藏宗教音樂
的研究，我們大部分只能看到人類學者的田野調查資料分析，比較沒有人從往昔西藏學者的文獻著作上
來下手。薩迦班智達的這篇著作，是現存西藏已知對音樂理論方面的最早著作，其中有相當的部份吸收
了來自印度的音樂理論見地，這當然也跟作者本身是位優秀的梵文學者有關。只是很可惜的是，限於論
文篇幅，Dr. Canzio 僅能將全篇《樂論》做重點歸納。
我對這篇論文的評論主要分為以下幾點意見：
1.
這篇論文在開頭直接就對《樂論》下手，比較缺乏對作者的介紹。當然薩迦班智達在歷史上是位著名
學者，讀過西藏佛教史的人對他並不陌生，但是如果能加上一些簡介，以及對薩迦班智達為何寫這篇
著作的一些背景分析，相信會更完整。
2.
這篇論文較缺乏學術上的相關注釋，全篇僅有正文，我相信 Dr. Canzio 原來應當有作注釋，只是因
時間上的關係而拿掉了。對此主題不熟悉的讀者來說，將會讀得較為吃力。
3. Dr. Canzio 因為是法國人，所以不得不用英文寫作。未來如果能夠將這篇極有貢獻的獨特論文譯為中
文，將可以讓更多有興趣的人分享這篇論文的研究成果。
4. Dr. Canzio 提到在西藏學者札西策仁的幫助下，得到以前夏魯派學者月官 (Candragomin) 的《樂論注
釋》，這項前人未注意到新發現相當重要，我們也期待 Dr. Canzio 在此領域的進一步分析。
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