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INDIAN MONSOON
INDIAN MONSOON
Monsoons are a complex meteorological phenomenon. Experts of meteorology
have developed a number of concepts about the origin of monsoons. Some of
the important concepts about the origin of monsoons have been given as
under.
1. The Thermal Concept of Halley (1686):
Halley, a noted astronomer, hypothesised that the primary cause of the
annual cycle of the Indian monsoon circulation was the differential heating
effects of the land and the sea. According to this concept monsoons are the
extended land breeze and sea breeze on a large scale, produced by the
differential heating of continents and ocean basins.During the summer season
in the Northern Hemisphere, when the Sun’s rays are vertical over the Tropic
of Cancer, the huge landmass of Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low
pressure centre near Lake Baikal (Siberia) and Peshawar (Pakistan). This
thermal low extends up to 700 mb. Moreover, the pole-ward shift of the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a position over southern Asia
reinforces the thermally induced low pressure centre. In comparison to this,
the pressure over the adjacent water of the Indian and the Pacific Oceans is
relatively high. Under these conditions, a sea-to-land pressure gradient
develops. Consequently, the surface air flow is from the high pressure over
the oceans towards the low pressure areas over the heated landmass. Under
the extreme low pressure condition on land, the wind from the southern part
of the Indian Ocean (south of Equator) is attracted towards the subcontinent
of India. The air coming from oceans towards land is warm and moist. When
land barriers like mountain ranges and plateaus come in the way of the
moisture-laden winds, they ascend and result into saturation, condensation,
and precipitation.
Contrary to this, in the Northern Hemisphere during winter season, there
develops high pressure areas near Baikal Lake (Siberia), and Peshawar
(Pakistan). As compared to these high pressures, the Indian Ocean and the
Pacific Ocean (south of Japan) remain relatively warm, having low pressure
areas. Consequently, there is an outflow of air from the high pressure of
the land to the low pressure areas of the oceans. The air blowing from high
pressure areas of land towards the sea is cold and dry. This cold and dry
air is incapable of giving precipitation unless it comes into contact with
some water body (ocean/sea).
The thermal concept about the origin of monsoon has, however, not been
accepted universally as it fails to explain the intricacies of monsoon.
Besides differential heating, the origin and development of monsoon are also
influenced by the shape of the continents, orography, and the conditions of
air circulation in the upper troposphere.
The Halley’s concept has been criticised on more than one count as follows:
I. The low pressure areas that develop over the continents during the summer
season in the Northern Hemisphere are not stationary. These low pressure areas
change their position (location) suddenly. This sudden change in the low
pressure areas are not exclusively related to low thermal conditions. The low
pressure areas stabilises in June in the north-eastern parts of the
subcontinent. In fact, they represent the cyclonic lows associated with the
dynamic factors, and therefore, these low pressure areas cannot be termed as
only thermally induced.
2. Had the monsoon been thermally induced, there would be anti-monsoon
circulation in the upper air of the troposphere, which is lacking.
3. Although high temperature and the consequent low pressure takes the northwest in its grip from the middle of April, no rain starts in northern India till
the middle of June.
4. The modern researches in meteorology have shown that the monsoon rainfall is
not wholly orographic. They are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic and
cyclonic rainfall.
5. Instead of two broad seasons (winter and summer) the monsoon climate has more
seasons (four in India), due to the highly variable characteristics of
temperature and precipitation
6. Halley did not take into consideration the Coriolis effect of rotation of the
earth on its axis. On a rotating earth, the wind has a tendency to move towards
its right in the Northern Hemisphere and towards its left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
7. The role of latent heat passing into the atmosphere through water vapour was
also not considered by Halley; water vapour also plays an important role in the
origin and development of monsoons.
2.The Dynamic Concept by Flohn :
The dynamic concept about the origin of monsoons was put forward by Flohn in
1951. According to this concept, monsoon is the result of seasonal migration
of planetary winds and pressure belts. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) is formed due to the convergence of north-east and south-east trade
winds near the equator. The northern and the southern boundaries of the ITCZ
are called NITC (Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence) and SITC (Southern
Inter-Tropical Convergence) respectively. There is a belt of doldrums within
the Inter-Tropical Convergence, characterised by equatorial westerlies. At
the time of the summer solstice (21′ June), when the Sun’s rays are vertical
over the Tropic of Cancer, the NITC is extended up to 30° N
latitude,covering South and south-east Asia. Thus, equatorial westerlies are
established over these areas. The equatorial westerlies become south-west or
summer monsoons. On a rotating earth, the trade winds of the Southern
Hemisphere after crossing the equator turn towards their right (Coriolis
effect).
The NITC is associated with numerous atmospheric storms (cyclones) which
yield heavy rainfall during wet monsoon months (July to September).
Similarly, the north-east or winter monsoon does not originate only due to
low pressure in the Southern Hemisphere during winter solstice (when the
Sun’s rays are vertical over the Tropic of Capricorn). In fact, the northeast monsoons are north-east trade winds which are re-established over
south-east Asia due to southward shifting of pressure and wind belts. It is
obvious that due to southward movement of the Sun at the time of winter
solstice, the NITC is withdrawn from over south and south-east Asia, and
north-east trade winds occupy their normal position. These north-east
trades, thus, become winter monsoons. The north-east monsoons having their
origin on land are generally dry and devoid of rains
In brief, according to Flohn, the existence of monsoons in Asia, especially
in the subcontinent of India, is not due to temperature contrasts between
land and sea, but mainly due to the annual migration of thermally produced
planetary winds and pressure belts. Despite the relative shifting of InterTropical Convergence (thermal equator) and pressure belts, Flohn seems to
have ignored the upper atmospheric circulation (jet streams) and the
southern oscillation, which make the Asi-atic monsoon a fairly complex
system. He also could not explain the causes of early arrival of Indian
monsoons in the states of north-east India. The dynamic concept, therefore,
was also not taken as the sole explanation of the origin of monsoons.
3. Aerological ConceptGiven by a German MeterologistR. Seherhag (1948)
According to him the changes inthe direction of winds at all levels in the
atmosphereare directly related to the temperature changes in theair above the
friction layer.
4. Recent Concepts
a. Jet Streams:
Jet streams are high altitudegeostrophic winds (i.e.. Blowing parallel
toequator) blowing between middle latitude at highspeed in a meandering course.
During winterseason the upper air westerly jet streams arepositioned in Asia.
These are bifurcated in twobranches due to Tibet Himalayan obstruction.North
branch blows north of Himalayas and theTibetan Plateau. Southern branch blows
south ofthe mighty mountains The southern branchinscribes an anticyclone
(Clockwise) arc acrossAfghanistan followed by a cyclonic (Anticlockwise)are
along the southern flank of the Himalayas. Ahigh pressure system gets formed
south of the jetstream over Afghanistan and NW Pakistan whereair tends to
subside leading to atmosphericstability and dry conditions there by causing
NEwinter monsoons. The jet stream helpsdisturbances in the NW of the
subcontinent, whichtend to follow paths immediately beneath the jetstream. These
disturbances move long theeastern Mediterranean and into NW Indiaappearing here
as waves rather then as welldeveloped frontal cyclones. During summerseason as
sun falls vertically over the Tropic ofCancer the polar surface high pressure
isweakened and upper air circum polar whirl shiftnorthward as a result of which
the upper airwesterly jet are also withdrawn from southernslopes of the
Himalayas. The removal of jetstream to north of the Tibetan plateau results
inreversal of the curvature of How of free air to thenorth and north west of the
subcontinent. Thisevent may well be the trigger that sets off the‘burst’ of the
monsoon.
b. Tibet Plateau:
In 1973, the Monsoon Expedition(MONEX) was organized under the joint auspicesof
the erstwhile Soviet Union and India.Experiments concluded that summer time
heatingof Tibetan Highland plays a dominant role in theorigin of Monsoon
circulation. Due to itsprotected height Tibetan plateau receives 23° Cmore
insolation than the neighboring areas. Theplateau affects the atmosphere in two
ways
I. as a mechanical barrier
II. as a high level heat sources.
Infact theplateau accentuates the northlanddisplacement of the jet stream. The
summertime heating of the Tibetan Plateau makes ita high level heat source,
which producesthermal anticyclone over this region, therebyweakening the western
subtropical jet streamsouth of the Himalayas and intensifying themove of S. W
monsoon.
Effect because of ocean:
El Nino a warmocean current appears along the Peru coast inDecember. It replaces
the Peru or HumboldtCold Ocean current flowing over this regionduring normal
years. Under normal times thelayer over the eastern Pacific is cool andshallow,
while over the western Pacific it iswarm and deep. Such conditions are
helpfulfor strong southwest monsoons. Theappearance of El Nino reverses the
conditions(warm condition over eastern Pacific and coldin western Pacific).
Since El Nino representslarge atmospheric perturbations to which theocean
responds with warm of colder surfacetemperature, it lands to extreme events,
suchas drought, flood and poor monsoons. TheSouthern Oscillation is the name
ascribed to aseesaw pattern of meteorological changesthat are often observed
between the Pacific,the pressures over the Indian Ocean tend tobe low, and vice
versa. The oscillation wasdiscovered by Sir Gilber Walker and istherefore also
known as “Walker circulation”The oscillation has a period varying from 27years.
The intensity of the SouthernOscillation is measured by the difference insea
level pressures of Tahiti and Port DarwinEl Nino Southern OscillationsIV. The
Somali Current: It is one of the fewcurrents, which reverse its direction with
theoverlying wind. Summer Flows northwardWinters Flows southward
Alock Ranjan Sir Geography
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Tapping the offshore wind
The main benefit of going offshore is that wind conditions are
known to be steadier and less seasonal and provide power close
to load centres compared to onshore
For long, Tamil Nadu has not been able to tap the vast
potential of wind energy a long coastline offers.
While onshore wind farms, mostly located in the Shencottah and
Palakkad passes, have been able to harness wind energy to the
maximum, the offshore potential has only been talked about
till now – primarily due to the prohibitive costs.
Now, the Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy
(CSTEP) is carrying out a pre-feasibility study, wherein eight
zones between Kanyakumari and Ramanathapuram districts have
been identified as high potential areas — excluding fishing
areas, military zones and oil and gas industry.
The main benefit of going offshore is that wind conditions are
known to be steadier and less seasonal and provide power close
to load centres compared to onshore. Also, land availability
is less likely to be a bottleneck for development.
Lot of aspects are being explored as part of the study. The
geographical aspect of shallow water depth and economic
criteria, including proximity to ports, infrastructure
facility to export the power produced and the wind
availability, are all being considered.
“In a State having a long coastline and with a proven record
in producing wind energy by installing onshore wind mills, the
potential of generating power from offshore wind mills is
high,” a senior official of the Energy Department said.
With substantial funding from the European Union, Global Wind
Energy Council (GWEC)-led consortium is undertaking the study
in close cooperation with the Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) under the Indo-European Cooperation on Renewable
Energy program. The study is called Facilitating Offshore Wind
in India (FOWIND), the official said.
“It is too early to put out any numbers about the energy
potential, as it is directly linked to the ocean block
availability and a more accurate knowledge of wind resource,”
said Meera Sudhakar, a researcher at CSTEP.
The most promising zones identified in the pre-feasibility
study extended over an area of about 10,500 square kilometres
of ocean floor and could support around 63,000 MW of offshore
wind capacity. The preliminary estimates of cost of energy
from offshore wind in Tamil Nadu would be at Rs. 12 to Rs.13 a
unit – four times higher than current tariffs offered for
onshore wind in Tamil Nadu, she said.
Although the turbine technology was similar to onshore wind,
the reason for the high cost difference was because of the
high foundation costs as well as installation and maintenance
cost, she noted.
T. Shivaraman, vice-chairman of Orient Green Power Company
Ltd., said: “Only when work begins, the industry will know
what it actually costs. It’s too early to talk about cost
now.”
An industry analyst said, “Offshore foundation has to be put
in shallow waters. It also depends on how the shallow the
water is. Thus the cost varies. You need wind first, then you
need the grid line there and the machine should be in a
working condition. Getting dredger ships are also expensive.”
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Researchers gain insight into
how earth’s crust forms
By monitoring how magma flows through cracks in the rock away from a volcano,
scientists have shed light on how the earth’s crust forms.
When the Baroarbunga volcano in Iceland erupted in August, scientists found that
the molten rock forms vertical sheet-like features known as dykes, which force
the surrounding rock apart.
“New crust forms where two tectonic plates are moving away from each other.
Mostly this happens beneath the oceans, where it is difficult to observe.
However, in Iceland this happens beneath dry land,” explained Andy Hooper from
University of Leeds and co-author.
“Using radar measurements from space, we can form an image of caldera movement
occurring in one day. Usually we expect to see just noise in the image, but we
were amazed to see up to 55cm of subsidence,” said Karsten Spaans from
University of Leeds and co-author.
The rate of dyke propagation was variable and slowed as the magma reached
natural barriers. The dyke grows in segments, breaking through from one to the
next by the build up of pressure.
Thus magma under central volcanoes is effectively redistributed over large
distances to create new upper crust at divergent plate boundaries.
Like other liquids, magma flows along the path of least resistance, which
explains why the dyke at Baroarbunga volcano in Iceland changed direction as it
progressed.
Geography UPSC
Question Paper
Mains
2014
Geography Paper I: Download
Attempt 5.
1 and 5 compulsory. From remaining attempt 3 with one from
each section.
1. Answer the following : 150 each
(a) Define the term ‘meander’ and describe the basic
characteristics of entrenched meander and ingrown meander.
(b) Discuss the salient features of ‘sirocco’ and ‘mistral’.
(c) Discuss an account of the nature of biosphere as an
ecosystem.
(d) State the uniqueness of the Eurasian Steppe Biome.
(e) Illustrate the origin and nature of Sargasso Sea and
Lagoon
2.
(a) State the concept of plate tectonics. How does it help in
explaining the formation of Himalayas and Appalachain
Mountains.
(b) Describe the origin and development of thunderstorms with
examples.
(c)
Enumerate the major causes of increasing degradation of
environment in
hills and hillslopes, and state its down-valley impact.
3. (a) Discuss the nature and origin of Indian monsoon and
recent techniques of its prediction.
(b) State the concept of erosion surfaces and highlight the
factors responsible for their development.
(c) Give a critical account of reasons and consequences of
marine pollution.
4. (a) Explain weathering and mass wasting, and describe their
geomorphic significance.
(b) Define zoogeographic region.Also describe he basic faunal
makeup of the Neo-Arctic zoogeographic region.
(c) Give an account of recent observation on coral bleaching
with reference to Clive Wilkinson’s Report.
SECTION B
5. Answer in 150 :
(a) Elaborate the concept of mental map.
(b) Give an account of food security issues in developing
countries.
(c) Discuss the factors responsible for counter-urbanisation.
(d) Explain the relevance of bottom-up and top-down approaches
in the development of agrarian economy.
(e) Critically analyse application of models in geography.
6.(a) Explain the necessary conditions of takeoff and
subsequent stages of development of a nation as propounded by
Rostow.
(b) Discuss environmental and economic problems associated
with coal production.
(c) Discuss the contribution of geographers in the development
of radical geography.
7. (a) Giving suitable examples, describe the importance of
system analysis in geographical studies.
(b)
“Rural sustainability is necessary for urban sustainability.”
Discuss
the statement in the backdrop of integrated development
approach.
(c) “Indo-Gangetic hearth is considered to be one of the
world’s richest cultural realms.” Examine.
8. (a) Explain the qualitative and quantitative methods of
delineation of sphere of urban influence.
(b) “World is passing through a global resource dilemma.”
Comment
(c) “Food productivity with purity of the ecosystem is the
need of the hour.” Elaborate.
Paper 2
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Surface temperature in India
follows global warming trend
(IndianExpress)
A scientific study published in the journal of American
Meteorological Society suggested that last year’s Uttarakhand
floods could be directly linked to climate change. (Source:
PTI)
Earlier this week, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) reiterated its earlier warnings on global
warming, saying there was now “unequivocal” evidence that
global temperature was rising, leading to “unprecedented”
changes in climate systems. The IPCC report said the period
from 1983 to 2012 was probably the warmest 30-year period in
the last 1400 years.
Though data for that long is not available in India, a
consistent rise in temperature is being observed in the
surface temperature over the country, in conformity with the
global trend. The opening decade of the 21st century was the
warmest decade in the last 110 years at least. The mean
temperature, averaged over the entire country, between
2000-2010 was almost 1 degree Celsius higher than that between
1901-1910. Eight of the ten warmest years since 1900 have
also been recorded in this decade.
This is very similar to the rise in average global
temperatures which increased by about 0.85 degrees between
1880 and 2012, according to the latest IPCC report. The IPCC
says the world must limit the rise in global temperatures to
within 2 degree Celsius, as compared to 1850 levels, to avoid
“catastrophic” effects.
According to the data kept by the Ministry of Earth Sciences,
the rate of increase in mean temperatures over India in the
last three decades has been relatively higher than in the
previous decades.
The maximum and minimum temperatures, averaged over the
country as a whole, have also been showing an increasing
trend. The average maximum temperature in the decade 2000-1010
was 1.27 degree higher than that in the decade 1901-1910. The
corresponding difference in the average minimum temperature
was relatively less at 0.54 degree Celsius.
The warming is projected to have wide-ranging impacts in the
subcontinent. Food production is likely to be affected, water
availability might go down, sea-levels are expected to rise,
and the frequency of extreme events like floods, squalls,
prolonged and excessive rainfall, and droughts is likely to
increase.
Recently, a scientific study published in the journal of
American Meteorological Society suggested that last year’s
Uttarakhand floods could be directly linked to climate change.
It was probably the first time that any individual weather
event in India was attributed to climate change.