Download Integrals Exponentials and Logarithms Techniques of Integration

Contents
CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
CHAPTER
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
CHAPTER
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
CHAPTER 8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
The Chain Rule
Derivatives by the Chain Rule
Implicit Differentiation and Related Rates
Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives
Inverses of Trigonometric Functions
Integrals
The Idea of the Integral
Antiderivatives
Summation vs. Integration
Indefinite Integrals and Substitutions
The Definite Integral
Properties of the Integral and the Average Value
The Fundamental Theorem and Its Consequences
Numerical Integration
177
182
187
195
201
206
213
220
Exponentials and Logarithms
An Overview
The Exponential ex
Growth and Decay in Science and Economics
Logarithms
Separable Equations Including the Logistic Equation
Powers Instead of Exponentials
Hyperbolic Functions
Techniques of Integration
Integration by Parts
Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric Substitutions
Partial Fractions
Improper Integrals
Applications of the Integral
Areas and Volumes by Slices
Length of a Plane Curve
Area of a Surface of Revolution
Probability and Calculus
Masses and Moments
Force, Work, and Energy
228
236
242
252
259
267
277
CHAPTER 4
Derivatives by the Chain Rule
1
1
4.1 The Chain Rule
1
-
You remember that the derivative of f(x)g(x) is not (df/dx)(dg/dx). The derivative
of sin x times x2 is not cos x times 2x. The product rule gave two terms, not one
term. But there is another way of combining the sine function f and the squaring
function g into a single function. The derivative of that new function does involve
the cosine times 2x (but with a certain twist). We will first explain the new function,
and then find the "chain rule" for its derivative.
May I say here that the chain rule is important. It is easy to learn, and you will
use it often. I see it as the third basic way to find derivatives of new functions from
derivatives of old functions. (So far the old functions are xn, sin x, and cos x. Still
ahead are ex and log x.) When f and g are added and multiplied, derivatives come
from the sum rule and product rule. This section combines f and g in a third way.
The new function is sin(x2)-the sine of x2. It is created out of the two original
functions: if x = 3 then x2 = 9 and sin(x2)= sin 9. There is a "chain" of functions,
combining sin x and x2 into the composite function sin(x2). You start with x, then
find g(x), then Jindf (g(x)):
The squaring function gives y = x2. This is g(x).
The sine function produces z = sin y = sin(x2).This is f(g(x)).
The "inside function" g(x) gives y. This is the input to the "outside function" f(y). That
is called composition. It starts with x and ends with z. The composite function is
sometimes written fog (the circle shows the difference from an ordinary product fg).
More often you will see f(g(x)):
Other examples are cos 2x and ( 2 ~ )with
~ , g = 2x. On a calculator you input x, then
push the "g" button, then push the "f" button:
From x compute y = g(x)
From y compute z =f(y).
There is not a button for every function! But the squaring function and sine function
are on most calculators, and they are used in that order. Figure 4.la shows how
squaring will stretch and squeeze the sine function.
4.1 The Chaln Rule
That graph of sin x2 is a crazy FM signal (the Frequency is Modulated). The wave
goes up and down like sin x, but not at the same places. Changing to sin g(x) moves
the peaks left and right. Compare with a product g(x) sin x, which is an AM signal
(the Amplitude is Modulated).
Remark f(g(x)) is usually different from g(f(x)). The order off and g is usually
important. For f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x2, the chain in the opposite order g(f(x)) gives
something different:
First apply the sine function: y = sin x
Then apply the squaring function: z = (sin x ) ~ .
That result is often written sin2x, to save on parentheses. It is never written sin x2,
which is totally different. Compare them in Figure 4.1.
1
1
n:
2
y = (sin x ) ~
Fig. 4.1 f(g(x)) is different from g(f(x)). Apply g then f,or f then g.
EXAMPLE I The composite functionfig can be deceptive. If g(x) = x3 and fly) = y4,
how does f(g(x)) differ from the ordinary product f(x)g(x)? The ordinary product is
x7. The chain starts with y = x3, and then z = y4 = x12. The composition of 2t3 and
y4 gives f(g(x)) = x12.
EXAMPLE 2 In Newton's method, F(x) is composed with itself. This is iteration.
Every output xn is fed back as input, to find xn+ = F(xn).The example F(x) = f x + 4
has F(F(x)) = f($x 4) + 4. That produces z = &x+ 6.
The derivative of F(x) is t . The derivative of z = F(F(x)) is which is f times f .
We multiply derivatives. This is a special case of the chain rule.
,
+
a,
An extremely special case is f (x) = x and g(x) = x. The ordinary product is x2. The
chain f(g(x)) produces only x! The output from the "identity function" is g(x) = x.t
When the second identity function operates on x it produces x again. The derivative
is 1 times 1. I can give more composite functions in a table:
Y=gM
z=f(y)
1
J;
COS X
y3
2Y
Y-5
-
2"
x+5
z=f(g(x))
Jn
(COSx ) ~
22x
X
The last one adds 5 to get y. Then it subtracts 5 to reach z. So z = x. Here output
f.A calculator has no button for the identity function. It wouldn't do anything.
4 Derivatives by the Chaln Rule
equals input: f(g(x)) = x. These "inverse functions" are in Section 4.3. The other
examples create new functions z(x) and we want their derivatives.
THE DERIVATIVE OF f(g(x))
What is the derivative of z = sin x2? It is the limit of AzlAx. Therefore we look at a
nearby point x + Ax. That change in x produces a change in y = x2-which moves
to y + Ay = (x + AX)^. From this change in y, there is a change in z =f(y). It is a
"domino effect," in which each changed input yields a changed output: Ax produces
Ay produces Az. We have to connect the final Az to the original Ax.
The key is to write AzlAx as AzlAy times AylAx. Then let Ax approach zero.
In the limit, dzldx is given by the "chain rule":
dz dz dy
Az - AzAy
---becomes the chain rule - = - -.
Ax; AyAx
dx
dydx
(2)
As Ax goes to zero, the ratio AylAx approaches dyldx. Therefore Ay must be going
to zero, and AzlAy approaches dzldy. The limit of a product is the product of the
separate limits (end of quick proof). We multiply derivatiues:
4A Chah Raze Suppose gCx) has a derivative at x df(y) has a derivative
Then the derivative of z =f(g(x)) is
at y = g(x).
dz
dx
dzdy
=f'(gf4) sf(*.
dydx
- 5 1 -
I The slope at x is dfldy (at y) times dg/dx (at x).
Caution The chain rule does not say that the derivative of sin x2 is (cos x)(2x).
True, cos y is the derivative of sin y. The point is that cos y must be evaluated at y
(not at x). We do not want dfldx at x, we want dfldy at y = x2:
The derivative of sin x2 is (cos x2) times (2x).
(4)
EXAMPLE 3 If z = (sin x ) ~
then dzldx = (2 sin x)(cos x). Here y = sin x is inside.
In this order, z = y2 leads to dzldy = 2y. It does not lead to 2x. The inside function
sin x produces dyldx = cos x. The answer is 2y cos x. We have not yet found the
function whose derivative is 2x cos x.
dz dz dy
EXAMPLE 4 The derivative of z = sin 3x is - = -- = 3 cos 3x.
dx dydx
Az Az Ay
dz d z d y
Fig. 4.2 The chain rule: - = -- approaches - = -Ax Ay Ax
dx d y dx'
4.1 The Chain Rule
The outside function is z = sin y. The inside function is y = 3x. Then dzldy = cos ythis is cos 3x, not cos x. Remember the other factor dy/dx = 3.
I can explain that factor 3, especially if x is switched to t. The distance is z = sin 3t.
That oscillates like sin t except three times as fast. The speeded-up function sin 3t
completes a wave at time 2n/3 (instead of 2.n). Naturally the velocity contains the
extra factor 3 from the chain rule.
EXAMPLE 5 Let z =f(y)
= yn. Find
the derivative of f(g(x)) = [g(x)ln.
In this case dzldy is nyn-'. The chain rule multiplies by dyldx:
This is the power rule! It was already discovered in Section 2.5. Square roots (when
n = 112) are frequent and important. Suppose -y= x2 - 1:
Question A Buick uses 1/20 of a gallon of gas per mile. You drive at 60 miles per
hour. How many gallons per hour?
Answer (Gallons/hour) = (gallons/mile)(mileslhour). The chain rule is (dy/d t) =
(dy/dx)(dx/dt). The answer is (1/20)(60) = 3 gallons/hour.
Proof of the chain rule The discussion above was correctly based on
Az
Ax
-
AzAy
AyAx
and
dz - dzdy
---dx
dydx'
It was here, over the chain rule, that the "battle of notation" was won by Leibniz.
His notation practically tells you what to do: Take the limit of each term. (I have to
mention that when Ax is approaching zero, it is theoretically possible that Ay might
hit zero. If that happens, Az/Ay becomes 010. We have to assign it the correct meaning,
which is dzldy.) As Ax + 0,
AY
Ax g'(x)
---+
and
Az
AY+f '( y) =f '(g(x)).
-
Then AzlAx approaches f '(y) times gf(x),which is the chain rule (dz/dy)(dy/dx).In the
~ x. That extra factor cos x is easy
table below, the derivative of (sin x ) is~ 3(sin x ) cos
to forget. It is even easier to forget the - 1 in the last example.
z = (x3 + 1)5
dz/dx = 5(x3 +
times 3x2
z = (sin x ) ~
dzldx = 3 sin2x
times cos x
z = (1 - x ) ~
dz/dx = 2(1 - x)
times - 1
Important All kinds of letters are used for the chain rule. We named the output z.
Very often it is called y, and the inside function is called u:
dy = cos u -.
du
The derivative of y = sin u(x) is dx
dx
Examples with duldx are extremely common. I have to ask you to accept whatever
letters may come. What never changes is the key idea-derivative of outside function
times derivative of inside function.
4 Derivatives by the Chain Rule
EXAMPLE 6 The chain rule is barely needed for sin(x - 1). Strictly speaking the
inside function is u = x - 1. Then duldx is just 1 (not - 1). If y = sin(x - 1) then
dyldx = cos(x - 1). The graph is shifted and the slope shifts too.
Notice especially: The cosine is computed at x - 1 and not at the unshifted x.
RECOGNIZING f( y) AND g(x)
A big part of the chain rule is recognizing the chain. The table started with (x3 + 1)'.
You look at it for a second. Then you see it as us. The inside function is u = x3 + 1.
With practice this decomposition (the opposite of composition) gets easy:
cos (2x + 1) is cos u
x sin x is ... (product rule!)
is
In calculations, the careful way is to write down all the functions:
&
z = cos u u = 2x + 1 dzldx = (- sin u)(2) = - 2 sin (2x + 1).
The quick way is to keep in your mind "the derivative of what's inside." The slope
of cos(2x + 1) is - sin(2x + I), times 2 from the chain rule. The derivative of 2x + 1
is remembered-without z or u or f or g.
EXAMPLE 7 sin J& is a chain of z = sin y, y =
&,u = 1 - x (threefunctions).
With that triple chain you will have the hang of the chain rule:
The derivative of sin
f i is (cos J
K )
(2&)
(-
This is (dz/dy)(dy/du)(du/dx).Evaluate them at the right places y, u, x.
Finally there is the question of second derivatives. The chain rule gives dzldx as a
product, so d 2 z / d ~needs
2
the product rule:
dz dy
dz - -dx
dydx
leadsto
----+d2z - dz d2y
dx2
dydx2
d (dz)
- dy
dx dy dx'
That last term needs the chain rule again. It becomes d2z/dy2times ( d ~ / d x ) ~ .
EXAMPLE 8 The derivative of sin x2 is 2x cos x2. Then the product rule gives
d2z/dx2= 2 cos x2 - 4x2 sin x2. In this case ytt= 2 and (yt)2= 4x2.
Read-through questions
z =f(g(x)) comes from z =f(y) and y = a . At x = 2, the
chain (x2- equals b . Its inside function is y = c ,
its outside function is z = d . Then dzldx equals e .
The first factor is evaluated at y = f
(not at y = x).
For z = sin(x4- 1) the derivative is g . The triple chain
z = cos(x 1)' has a shift and a h and a cosine. Then
dzldx = 1 .
+
cos u(x) has dyldx = m . The power rule for y = [u(x)Inis
the chain rule dyldx = n . The slope of 5g(x) is 0 and
the slope of g(5x) is P . When f = cosine and g = sine and
x = 0, the numbers f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) and f (x)g(x)are s .
dz
In 1-10 identify f(y) and g(x). From their derivatives find -.
dx
2 z = (x3- 3)2
1Z = ( X ~ - ~ ) ~
-
The proof of the chain rule begins with Az/Ax=
( I )
k ) and ends with
I
. Changing letters, y =
3 z = cos(x3)
4 z = t a n 2x
5z=,/G
6 z = sin
&
159
4.1 The Chain Rule
because
is continuous, there is a 6 such that
Ig(x) - 71 < 6 whenever Ix - 41 < 8. Conclusion: If Ix - 4) < 6
then
. This shows that f(g(x)) approaches f(g(4)).
In 11-16 write down dzldx. Don't write down f and g.
37 Only six functions can be constructed by compositions (in
any sequence) of g(x) = 1 - x and f(x) = llx. Starting with g
and f, find the other four.
16 z = (9x + 4)312
15 z = x2 sin x
Problems 17-22 involve three functions z(y), y(u), and u(x).
Find dzldx from (dz/dy)(dy/du)(du/dx).
17 z=sin
J3
39 Construct functions so that f(g(x)) is always zero, but f(y)
is not always zero.
18 z = d w )
+ 1)
19 z = , / m
20 z = sin($
21 z = sin(l/sin x)
22 z = (sin x ~ ) ~
38 If g(x) = 1 - x then g(g(x))= 1 - (1 - x) = x. If g(x) = llx
then g(g(x)) = l/(l/x) = x. Draw graphs of those g's and
explain from the graphs why g(g(x))= x. Find two more g's
with this special property.
In 23-26 find dzldx by the chain rule and also by rewriting z.
27 If f(x) = x2 + 1 what is f(f(x))? If U(x) is the unit step
function (from 0 to 1 at x = 0) draw the graphs of sin U(x)
and U(sin x). If R(x) is the ramp function i(x + [XI),draw the
graphs of R(x) and R(sin x).
28 (Recommended) If g(x) = x3 find f(y) so that f(g(x)) =
x3 + 1. Then find h(y) so that h(g(x))= x. Then find k(y) so
that k(g(x))= 1.
29 If f(y) = y - 2 find g(x) so that f(g(x)) = x. Then find h(x)
so that f(h(x)) = x2. Then find k(x) so that f(k(x)) = 1.
40 True or false
(a) If f(x) =f(-x) then fl(x) =f1(-x).
(b) The derivative of the identity function is zero.
(c) The derivative of f(l/x) is - l/(f ( ~ ) ) ~ .
(d)The derivative of f ( l + x) is f '(1 + x).
(e) The second derivative of f(g(x)) is f "(g(x))gW(x).
41 On the same graph draw the parabola y = x2 and the
curve z = sin y (keep y upwards, with x and z across). Starting
at x = 3 find your way to z = sin 9.
42 On the same graph draw y = sin x and z = y2 (y upwards
for both). Starting at x = n/4 find z = (sin x ) on
~ the graph.
43 Find the second derivative of
(b)
(a) sin(x2+ I)
J'm
44 Explain why
(c) cos
((") ($)(2)
-
- -
4
in equation (8).
30 Find two different pairs f(y), g(x) so that f(g(x)) =
dx .dy
.
Check this when z = y2, y = x3.
31 The derivative of f(f(x)) is
your formula on f(x) = l/x.
Final practice with the chain rule and other rules (and other
letters!). Find the x or t derivative of z or y.
,
Jrn.
. Is it ( d f l d ~ ) ~Test
?
,
.
,
32 If f(3) = 3 and g(3) = 5 and f '(3) = 2 and g'(3) = 4, find the
derivative at x = 3 if possible for
(a)f(xlg(x)
(b)f(g(x))
( 4 g(f(x))
( 4 f (f(x))
33 For F(x) = i x + 8, show how iteration gives F(F(x))=
dx + 12. Find F(F(F(x)))-also called F(~)(x).
The derivative
of F( 4 ) ( ~is)
.
34 In Problem 33 the limit of F("'(x) is a constant C =
. From any start (try x = 0) the iterations x,, =
F(x,) converge to C.
55 Iff = x4 and g = x3 then f ' = 4x3 and g' = 3x2. The chain
rule multiplies derivatives to get 12x5. But f(g(x)) = x12 and
its derivative is not 12x5. Where is the flaw?
35 Suppose g(x) = 3x + 1 and f(y) = i(y - 1). Then f(g(x)) =
and g ( f ( ~ )=) . These are inversefunctions.
56 The derivative of y = sin(sin x) is dyldx =
,
36 Suppose g(x) is continuous at x = 4, say g(4) = 7. Suppose
f ( y ) is continuous at y = 7, say f(7) = 9. Then f(g(x)) is con-
tinuous at x = 4 and f(g(4)) = 9.
Proof E is given. Because
is continuous, there is a
6 such that I f(g(x)) - 91 < E whenever Ig(x) - 71 < 6. Then
57 (a) A book has 400 words per page. There are 9 pages per
section. So there are
words per section.
(b) You read 200 words per minute. So you read
pages per minute. How many minutes per section?
160
4 Derivatives by the Chain Rule
59 Coke costs 113 dollar per bottle. The buyer gets
bottles per dollar. If dyldx = 113 then dxldy =
58 (a) You walk in a train at 3 miles per hour. The train
moves at 50 miles per hour. Your ground speed is
miles per hour.
(b)You walk in a train at 3 miles per hour. The train is
shown on TV (1 mile train = 20 inches on TV screen).
Your speed across the screen is
inches per hour.
60 (Computer) Graph F(x) = sin x and G(x) = sin (sin x)not much difference. Do the same for F1(x)and G1(x).Then
plot F"(x) and G"(x) to see where the difference shows up.
4.2 Implicit Differentiation and Related Rates
We start with the equations xy = 2 and y5 + xy = 3. As x changes, these y's will
change-to keep (x, y) on the curve. We want to know dy/dx at a typical point. For
xy = 2 that is no trouble, but the slope of y5 + xy = 3 requires a new idea.
In the first case, solve for y = 2/x and take its derivative: dy/dx = - 2/x2. The curve
is a hyperbola. At x = 2 the slope is - 214 = - 112.
The problem with y5 + xy = 3 is that it can't be solved for y. Galois proved that
there is no solution formula for fifth-degree equations.? The function y(x) cannot
be given explicitly. All we have is the implicit definition of y, as a solution to
y5 + xy = 3. The point x = 2, y = 1 satisfies the equation and lies on the curve, but
how to find dyldx?
This section answers that question. It is a situation that often occurs. Equations
like sin y + sin x = 1 or y sin y = x (maybe even sin y = x) are difficult or impossible
to solve directly for y. Nevertheless we can find dyldx at any point.
The way out is implicit differentiation. Work with the equation as it stands. Find
the x derivative of every term in y5 + xy = 3. That includes the constant term 3, whose
derivative is zero.
EXAMPLE I The power rule for y5 and the product rule for xy yield
Now substitute the typical point x = 2 and y = 1, and solve for dyldx:
5 dy
- + 2 - +dy1 = 0
dx
dx
produces -dy= - - 1
dx
7'
This is implicit differentiation (ID), and you see the idea: Include dyldx from the
chain rule, even if y is not known explicitly as a function of x.
EXAMPLE 2 sin y
dy
+ sin x = 1 leads to cos y + cos x = 0
dx
dy
EXAMPLE 3 y sin y = x leads to y cos y + sin y-dy
dx
dx
=
1
Knowing the slope makes it easier to draw the curve. We still need points (x, y)
that satisfy the equation. Sometimes we can solve for x. Dividing y5 + xy = 3 by y
-
-
.
-
+That was before he went to the famous duel, and met his end. Fourth-degree equations do
have a solution formula, but it is practically never used.
4.2 Implicit Differentiation and Related Rates
gives x = 3/y - y4. NOWthe derivative (the x derivative!) is
Again dyldx = - 117. All these examples confirm the main point of the section:
+
The example xy = 2, done implicitly, gives x dyldx y = 0. The slope dyldx is - y/x.
That agrees with the explicit slope - 2/x2.
ID is explained better by examples than theory (maybe everything is). The essential
theory can be boiled down to one idea: "Go ahead and diferentiate."
D W P L E 4 Find the tangent direction to the circle x2
We can solve for y = f
+ y2 = 25.
d m , or operate directly on x2 + y2 = 25:
Compare with the radius, which has slope y/x. The radius goes across x and up y.
The tangent goes across - y and up x. The slopes multiply to give (- x/y)(y/x) = - 1.
To emphasize implicit differentiation, go on to the second derivative. The top of the
circle is concave down, so d2y/dx2is negative. Use the quotient rule on - x/y:
RELATED RATES
There is a group of problems that has never found a perfect place in calculus. They
seem to fit here-as applications of the chain rule. The problem is to compute
dfldt, but the odd thing is that we are given another derivative dgldt. To find dfldt,
we need a relation between f and g.
The chain rule is dfldt = (df/dg)(dg/dt).Here the variable is t because that is typical
in applications. From the rate of change of g we find the rate of change off. This is
the problem of related rates, and examples will make the point.
EXAMPLE 5 The radius of a circle is growing by drldt = 7. How fast is the circumference growing? Remember that C = 2nr (this relates C to r).
Solution
That is pretty basic, but its implications are amazing. Suppose you want to put a
rope around the earth that any 7-footer can walk under. If the distance is 24,000
miles, what is the additional length of the rope? Answer: Only 14n feet.
More realistically, if two lanes on a circular track are separated by 5 feet, how
much head start should the outside runner get? Only 10n feet. If your speed around
a turn is 55 and the car in the next lane goes 56, who wins? See Problem 14.
Examples 6-8 are from the 1988 Advanced Placement Exams (copyright 1989 by
the College Entrance Examination Board). Their questions are carefully prepared.
4 Derhrathres by the Chain Rule
Fig. 4.3 Rectangle for Example 6, shadow for Example 7, balloon for Example 8.
EXAMPLE 6 The sides of the rectangle increase in such a way that dzldt = 1 and
dxldt = 3dyldt. At the instant when x = 4 and y = 3, what is the value of dxldt?
Solution The key relation is x 2 + y2 = z2. Take its derivative (implicitly):
dx
dy
dz
dx
dy
produces 8 - + 6 - = l o .
2x-+2y-=2zdt
dt
dt
dt
dt
We used all information, including z = 5, except for dxldt = 3dyldt. The term 6dyldt
equals 2dx/dt, so we have l0dxldt = 10. Answer: dx!& = 1.
EXAMPLE 7 A person 2 meters tall walks directly away from a streetlight that is 8
meters above the ground. If the person's shadow is lengthening at the rate of 419
meters per second, at what rate in meters per second is the person walking?
Solution Draw a figure! You must relate the shadow length s to the distance x from
the streetlight. The problem gives dsldt = 419 and asks for dxldt:
(;)
x s
d x 6 ds
By similar triangles - = - so - = - - - (3)
6 2
dt 2 dt
4
= j.
Note This problem was hard. I drew three figures before catching on to x and s.
It is interesting that we never knew x or s or the angle.
EXAMPLE 8 An observer at point A is watching balloon B as it rises from point C .
( T h e Jigure is given.) The balloon is rising at a constant rate of 3 meters per second
(this means dyldt = 3) and the observer is 100 meters from point C.
(a) Find the rate of change in z at the instant when y
z=
J S K i i % P = ~ o f i= -dz
=
dt
= 50.
( T h e y want dzldt.)
2.5003 - 3 f i
2050fi-7'
(b) Find the rate of change in the area of right triangle BCA when y = 50.
(c) Find the rate of change in 8 when y
Y
tan I!?=100
=
= 50.
dB
1dy
sec28 - = -dt
100 di
( T h e y want dB/dt.)
dB
2 2 3 - 3
z =(3)i66-125
4.2 Implicit Differentiation and Related Rates
In all problems Ifivst wrote down a relationfrom the figure. Then I took its derivative.
Then I substituted known information. (The substitution is after taking the derivative
of tan 8 = y/100. If we substitute y = 50 too soon, the derivative of 50/100 is useless.)
"Candidates are advised to show their work in order to minimize the risk of not
receiving credit for it." 50% solved Example 6 and 21% solved Example 7. From
12,000 candidates, the average on Example 8 (free response) was 6.1 out of 9.
D U P L E 9 A is a lighthouse and BC is the shoreline (same figure as the balloon).
The light at A turns once a second (d8ldt = 211 radianslsecond). How quickly does
the receiving point B move up the shoreline?
Solution The figure shows y = 100 tan 8. The speed dyldt is 100 sec28d8/dt. This is
200n sec28, so B speeds up as sec 8 increases.
Paradox When 8 approaches a right angle, sec 8 approaches infinity. So does
dy/dt. B moves faster than light! This contradicts Einstein's theory of relativity. The
paradox is resolved (I hope) in Problem 18.
If you walk around a light at A, your shadow at B seems to go faster than light.
Same problem. This speed is impossible-something has been forgotten.
Smaller paradox (not destroying the theory of relativity). The figure shows y = z sin 8.
Apparently dyldt = (dzldt) sin 8. This is totally wrong. Not only is it wrong, the exact
opposite is true: dzldt = (dyldt) sin 9. If you can explain that (Problem IS), then ID
and related rates hold no terrors.
4.2 EXERCISES
Read-through questions
For x3 + y3 = 2 the derivative dyldx comes from a
differentiation. We don't have to solve for b . Term by
term the derivativeis 3x2 + c = 0. Solvingfor dyldx gives
d . At x = y = 1 this slope is
e . The equation of the
tangent line is y - 1 = f .
A second example is y2 = x. The x derivative of this
equation is a . Therefore dyldx = h . Replacing y
by
this is dyldx = I .
&,
In related rates, we are given dgldt and we want dfldt. We
need a relation between f and I . Iff = g2, then (dfldt) =
k
(dgldt). If f 2 + g 2 = 1 , then df/dt=
I . If the
sides of a cube grow by dsldt = 2, then its volume grows by
dV/dt = m . To find a number (8 is wrong), you also need
to know n .
By implicit differentiation find dyldx in 1-10.
11 Show that the hyperbolas xy = C are perpendicular to the
hyperbolas x2 - y2 = D. (Perpendicular means that the product of slopes is -1.)
12 Show that the circles (x - 2)2 + y2 = 2 and x2 + (y - 2)2 =
2 are tangent at the point (1, 1).
13 At 25 meterslsecond, does your car turn faster or slower
than a car traveling 5 meters further out at 26 meters/second?
Your radius is (a) 50 meters (b) 100 meters.
+
14 Equation (4) is 2x 2y dyldx = 0 (on a circle). Directly by
ID reach d2y/dx2in equation (5).
Problems 15-18 resolve the speed of light paradox in
Example 9.
15 (Small paradox first) The right triangle has z2 = y2 + 1W2.
Take the t derivative to show that z' = y' sin 0.
16 (Even smaller paradox) As B moves up the line, why is
dyldt larger than dzldt? Certainly z is larger than y. But as 0
increases they become
7 x2y = y2x
8 x = sin y
17 (Faster than light) The derivative of y = 100 tan 0 in
Example 9 is y' = 100 sec208' = 2OOn sec20. Therefore y'
164
4 Derivatives by the Chain Rule
passes c (the speed of light) when sec28 passes
.
Such a speed is impossible-we forget that light takes time
to reach B.
8 increases by 27t
in 1 second
A
~(t)
A
100
t is arrival time
of light
8 is different from 2nt
18 (Explanation by ID) Light travels from A to B in time
z/c, distance over speed. Its arrival time is t = 8/2n+ Z/C SO
8'/2n = 1 - z1/c. Then z' = y' sin 8 and y' = 100 sec28 8' (all
these are ID) lead to
y' = 20hc/(c cos28+ 20071 sin 8)
As 8 approaches n/2, this speed approaches
.
Note: y' still exceeds c for some negative angle. That is for
Einstein to explain. See the 1985 College Math Journal, page
186, and the 1960 ScientiJic American, "Things that go faster
than light."
19 If a plane follows the curve y =f(x), and its ground speed
is dxldt = 500 mph, how fast is the plane going up? How fast
is the plane going?
20 Why can't we differentiate x = 7 and reach 1 = O?
Problems 21-29 are applications of related rates.
21 (Calculus classic) The bottom of a 10-foot ladder is going
away from the wall at dx/dt = 2 feet per second. How fast is
the top going down the wall? Draw the right triangle to find
dy/dt when the height y is (a) 6 feet (b) 5 feet (c) zero.
shadow is 8 miles from you (the sun is overhead); (c) the plane
is 8 miles from you (exactly above)?
25 Starting from a 3-4-5 right triangle, the short sides
increase by 2 meters/second but the angle between them
decreases by 1 radianlsecond. How fast does the area increase
or decrease?
26 A pass receiver is at x = 4, y = 8t. The ball thrown at
t = 3 is at x = c(t - 3), y = 10c(t- 3).
(a) Choose c so the ball meets the receiver.
*(b) At that instant the distance D between them is changing at what rate?
27 A thief is 10 meters away (8 meters ahead of you, across
a street 6 meters wide). The thief runs on that side at 7 meters/
second, you run at 9 meters/second. How fast are you
approaching if (a) you follow on your side; (b) you run toward
the thief; (c) you run away on your side?
28 A spherical raindrop evaporates at a rate equal to twice
its surface area. Find drldt.
29 Starting from P = V = 5 and maintaining PV = T, find
dV/dt if dP/dt = 2 and dT/dt = 3.
30 (a) The crankshaft AB turns twice a second so dO/dt =
(b) Differentiate the cosine law 62 = 32 + x2 - 2 (3x cos 8)
to find the piston speed dxldt when 0 = 7112 and 0 = n.
31 A camera turns at C to follow a rocket at K.
(a) Relate dzldt to dyldt when y = 10.
(b) Relate dO/dt to dyldt based on y = 10 tan 8.
(c) Relate d28/dt2to d2y/dt2and dyldt.
22 The top of the 10-foot ladder can go faster than light. At
what height y does dyldt = - c?
23 How fast does the level of a Coke go down if you drink
a cubic inch a second? The cup is a cylinder of radius
2 inches-first write down the volume.
24 A jet flies at 8 miles up and 560 miles per hour. How fast
is it approaching you when (a) it is 16 miles from you; (b) its
There is a remarkable special case of the chain rule. It occurs when f(y) and g(x) are
"inverse functions." That idea is expressed by a very short and powerful equation:
f(g(x)) = x. Here is what that means.
Inverse functions: Start with any input, say x = 5. Compute y = g(x), say y = 3. Then
compute f(y), and the answer must be 5. What one function does, the inverse function
4.3 Inverse Functions and Their Derhrathres
undoes. If g(5) = 3 then f(3)
input x.
= 5.
The inverse function f takes the output y back to the
EXAMPLE 1 g(x) = x - 2 and f(y) = y + 2 are inverse functions. Starting with x = 5,
the function g subtracts 2. That produces y = 3. Then the function f adds 2. That
brings back x = 5. To say it directly: The inverse of y = x - 2 is x = y + 2.
EXAMPLE 2 y = g(x) = $(x - 32) and x =f(y) = :y + 32 are inverse functions (for
temperature). Here x is degrees Fahrenheit and y is degrees Celsius. From x = 32
(freezing in Fahrenheit) you find y = 0 (freezing in Celsius). The inverse function takes
y = 0 back to x = 32. Figure 4.4 shows how x = 50°F matches y = 10°C.
Notice that $(x - 32) subtracts 32 first. The inverse gy + 32 adds 32 last. In the
same way g multiplies last by $ while f multiplies first by 3.
domain off = range of g
5
y = -(x9
32)
y=G
x20
range 0f.f= domain of g
Fig. 4.4 "F to "C to
O F .
Always g- '(Ax)) = x and g(g-
The inverse function is written f
=g -
= y.
'
Iff = g- then g =f -
'.
' and pronounced "g inverse." It is not l/g(x).
If the demand y is a function of the price x, then the price is a function of the demand.
Those are inverse functions. Their derivatives obey a fundamental rule: dyldx times
dxldy equals 1. In Example 2, dyldx is 519 and dxldy is 915.
There is another important point. When f and g are applied in the opposite order,
they still come back to the start. First f adds 2, then g subtracts 2. The chain g(f(y)) =
(y + 2) - 2 brings back y. Iffis the inverse of g then g is the inverse off. The relation
is completely symmetric, and so is the definition:
Inverse function:
If y = g(x) then x = g - '(y). I f x = g - '(y) then y = g(x).
The loop in the figure goes from x to y to x. The composition g - '(g(x)) is the "identity
function." Instead of a new point z it returns to the original x. This will make the
chain rule particularly easy-leading to (dy/dx)(dx/dy) = 1.
EXAMPLE 3 y = g(x) =
f i and x =f(y) = y2 are inverse functions.
Starting from x = 9 we find y = 3. The inverse gives 32 = 9. The square of
f(g(x)) = x. In the opposite direction, the square root of y 2 is g(f(y)) = y.
f i is
Caution That example does not allow x to be negative. The domain of g-the set
of numbers with square roots-is restricted to x 2 0. This matches the range of g - '.
The outputs y2 are nonnegative. With domain of g = range of g-', the equation x =
(&)2 is possible and true. The nonnegative x goes into g and comes out of g-'.
In this example y is also nonnegative. You might think we could square anything,
but y must come back as the square root of y2. So y 2 0.
To summarize: The domain of a function matches the range of its inverse. The inputs
to g-' are the outputs from g. The inputs to g are the outputs from g-'.
4 DerhroHves by the Chaln Rule
Zf g(x) = y then solving that equation for x gives x = g - l(y):
if y = 3x - 6 then x = +(y + 6) (this is g-'(y))
ify=x3+1 thenx=13
(thisisg-'(y))
In practice that is how g-' is computed: Solve g(x) = y. This is the reason inverses
are important. Every time we solve an equation we are computing a value of g Not all equations have one solution. Not all functions have inverses. For each y,
the equation g(x) = y is only allowed to produce one x. That solution is x = g- '(y).
If there is a second solution, then g-l will not be a function-because a function
cannot produce two x's from the same y.
'.
EXAMPLE 4 There is more than one solution to sin x = f. Many angles have the
same sine. On the interval 0 < x < n, the inverse of y = sin x is not a function.
Figure 4.5 shows how two x's give the same y.
Prevent x from passing n/2 and the sine has an inverse. Write x = sin- 'y.
The function g has no inverse if two points x1 and x2 give Ax,) = g(x2). Its inverse
would have to bring the same y back to x1 and x2. No function can do that; g-'(y)
cannot equal both xl and x2. There must be only one x for each y.
To be invertible over an interval, g must be steadily increasing or steadily decreasing.
I x = sin -' y
x
nl2
I
y = sin x
XI
n12
x2
n
Fig. 4.5 Inverse exists (one x for each y). No inverse function (two x's for one y).
THE DERWNE OF g-'
It is time for calculus. Forgive me for this very humble example.
EXAMPLE 5 (ordinary multiplication) The inverse of y = g(x) = 3x is x =f(y) = iy.
This shows with special clarity the rule for derivatives: The slopes dyldx = 3 and
dxldy = 5 multiply to give 1. This rule holds for all inverse functions, even if their
slopes are not constant. It is a crucial application of the chain rule to the derivative
of f(g(x)) = x.
This is the chain rule with a special feature. Since f(g(x)) = x, the derivative of both
sides is 1. If we know g' we now know f'. That rule will be tested on a familiar
example. In the next section it leads to totally new derivatives.
4.3 Inverse Functlons and Their Derhrathres
EXAMPLE 6 The inverse of y = x3 is x = y1I3. We can find dxldy two ways:
The equation (dx/dy)(dy/dx)= 1 is not ordinary algebra, but it is true. Those derivatives are limits of fractions. The fractions are (Ax/Ay)(Ay/Ax)= 1 and we let Ax + 0.
Fig. 4.6 Graphs of inverse functions: x = i y is the mirror image of y = 3x.
fi
Before going to new functions, I want to draw graphs. Figure 4.6 shows y =
and y = 3x. What is s ecial is that the same graphs also show the inverse functions.
The inverse of y = $is
x.= y2. The pair x = 4, y = 2 is the same for both. That is
the whole point of inverse functions-if 2 = g(4) then 4 = g - '(2). Notice that the
graphs go steadily up.
The only problem is, the graph of x = g-'(y) is on its side. To change the slope
from 3 to f , you would have to turn the figure. After that turn there is another
problem-the axes don't point to the right and up. You also have to look in a mirror!
(The typesetter refused to print the letters backward. He thinks it's crazy but it's not .)
To keep the book in position, and the typesetter in position, we need a better idea.
The graph of x = i y comes from turning the picture across the 45" line. The y axis
becomes horizontal and x goes upward. The point (2,6) on the line y = 3x goes into
the point (6,2) on the line x = fy. The eyes see a reflection across the 45" line
(Figure 4.6~).The mathematics sees the same pairs x and y. The special properties of
g and g-' allow us to know two functions-and draw two graphs-at the same
time.? The graph of x = g-'(y) is the mirror image of the graph of y = g(x).
EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS
I would like to add two more examples of inverse functions, because they are so
important. Both examples involve the exponential and the logarithm. One is made up
of linear pieces that imitate 2"; it appeared in Chapter 1. The other is the true function
2", which is not yet defined-and it' is not going to be defined here. The functions bx
and logby are so overwhelmingly important that they deserve and will get a whole
chapter of the book (at least). But you have to see the graphs.
The slopes in the linear model are powers of 2. So are the heights y at the start of
each piece. The slopes 1,2,4, ... equal the heights 1, 2,4, ... at those special points.
The inverse is a discrete model for the logarithm (to base 2). The logarithm of 1 is
0,because 2' = 1. The logarithm of 2 is 1, because 2' = 2. The logarithm of 2j is the
exponent j. Thus the model gives the correct x = log2y at the breakpoints y =
1,2,4, 8, .... The slopes are I,:, $, 4, ... because dxldy = l/(dy/dx).
TI have seen graphs with y=g(x) and also y=g-'(x).
x =g-'(y). If y = sin x then x = sin-'y.
For me that is wrong: it has to be
4 Derlwthres by the Chain Rule
The model is good, but the real thing is better. The figure on the right shows the
true exponential y = 2". At x = 0, 1,2, ... the heights y are the same as before. But
The height at x = .10 is the
now the height at x = is the number 2'12, which is
tenth root 2'/1° = 1.07.... The slope at x = 0 is no longer 1-it is closer to Ay/Ax =
.07/. 10. The exact slope is a number c (near .7) that we are not yet prepared to reveal.
The special property of y = 2" is that the slope at all points is cy. The slope is
proportional to the function. The exponential solves dyldx = cy.
Now look at the inverse function-the logarithm. Its graph is the mirror image:
fi.
If y = ZX then x = log,y. If 2'/1°
1.07 then log, 1.O7
1/10.
What the exponential does, the logarithm undoes-and vice versa. The logarithm of
2" is the exponent x. Since the exponential starts with slope c, the logarithm must
start with slope l/c. Check that numerically. The logarithm of 1.07 is near 1/10. The
slope is near .10/.07. The beautiful property is that dxldy = llcy.
1
2
4
1
2
4
Fig. 4.7 Piecewise linear models and smooth curves: y = 2" and x = log, y. Base b = 2.
I have to mention that calculus avoids logarithms to base 2. The reason lies in that
mysterious number c. It is the "natural logarithm" of 2, which is .693147.. .-and
who wants that? Also 11.693147... enters the slope of log, y. Then (dx/dy)(dy/dx)= 1.
The right choice is to use "natural logarithms" throughout. In place of 2, they are
based on the special number e:
y = ex is the inverse of x = In y.
(2)
The derivatives of those functions are sensational-they are saved for Chapter 6 .
Together with xn and sin x and cos x, they are the backbone of calculus.
Note It is almost possible to go directly to Chapter 6 . The inverse functions x =
sin- 'y and x = tan-'y can be done quickly. The reason for including integrals first
(Chapter 5) is that they solve differential equations with no guesswork:
dy-- y
dx
dx 1
or - = - leads to j d x = j $
dy Y
or x = l n y + C.
Integrals have applications of all kinds, spread through the rest of the book. But do
not lose sight of 2" and ex. They solve dyldx = cy-the key to applied calculus.
THE INVERSE OF A CHAIN h(g(x))
The functions g(x) = x - 2 and h(y) = 3y were easy to invert. For g-' we added 2,
and for h-' we divided by 3. Now the question is: If we create the composite function
z = h(g(x)),or z = 3(x - 2), what is its inverse?
4.3 Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives
Virtually all known functions are created in this way, from chains of simpler
functions. The problem is to invert a chain using the inverse of each piece. The answer
is one of the fundamental rules of mathematics:
40 The inverse of z = h(g(x))is a chain of inverses in the opposite order:
(3)
x =g-l(h-f(z)).
'
h- is applied first because h was applied last: g - '(h- (h(g(x))))= x .
That last equation looks like a mess, but it holds the key. In the middle you see
h- ' and h. That part of the chain does nothing! The inverse functions cancel, to leave
g-'(g(x)). But that is x . The whole chain collapses, when g-' and h-' are in the
correct order-which is opposite to the order of h(g(x)).
EXAMPLE 7 z = h(g(x))= 3 ( x - 2) and x = g - ' ( h - ' ( z ) ) = i z + 2.
'
First h- ' divides by 3. Then g - ' adds 2. The inverse of h 0 g is g - o h-'. I t can be
found directly by solving z = 3(x - 2). A chain of inverses is like writing in prose-we
do it without knowing it.
EXAMPLE 8 Invert z
=Jx -2
by writing z2 = x - 2 and then x
= z2
+ 2.
The inverse adds 2 and takes the square-but not in that order. That would give
( z + 2)2, which is wrong. The correct order is z2 + 2.
The domains and ranges are explained by Figure 4.8. We start with x 2 2.
Subtracting 2 gives y 2 0. Taking the square root gives z 3 0. Taking the square
brings back y 3 0. Adding 2 brings back x 3 2-which is in the original domain of g.
Fig. 4.8 The chain g - '(hK1(h(g(x))))
= x is one-to-one at every step.
EXAMPLE 9 Inverse matrices (AB)-'
= B-'A-'
(this linear algebra is optional).
Suppose a vector x is multiplied by a square matrix B: y = g(x) = Bx. The inverse
function multiplies by the inverse matrix: x = g - ' ( y )= B - ' y . It is like multiplication
by B = 3 and B - ' = 113, except that x and y are vectors.
Now suppose a second function multiplies by another matrix A: z = h(g(x))= ABx.
The problem is to recover x from z. The first step is to invert A, because that came
last: Bx = A - ' z . Then the second step multiplies by B-' and brings back x =
B - ' A - ' z . The product B - 'A - ' inverts the product AB. The rule for matrix inverses
is like the rule for function inverses-in fact it is a special case.
I had better not wander too far from calculus. The next section introduces the
inverses of the sine and cosine and tangent, and finds their derivatives. Remember
that the ultimate source is the chain rule.
170
4 Derlwthres by the Chain Rule
4.3
EXERCISES
Read-through questions
The functions g(x) = x - 4 andfly) = y + 4 are a functions, because
= b . Also g(f(y)) = c . The
notation is f = g- and g = d . The composition e is
the identity function. By definition x =g-'(y) if and only if
f
. When y is in the range of g, it is in the g of
Y=g-'. Similarly x is in the h of g when it is in the I
of g-'. If g has an inverse then Ax,) i g(x2) at any two
points. The function g must be steadily k or steadily
'
I
.
The chain rule applied tof(g(x))= x gives (df/dy)( m ) =
n . The slope of g - times the slope of g equals
0
.
More directly dxldy = 11 P . For y = 2x + 1 and x =
%y - I), the slopes are dy/dx = q and dx/dy = r .
For y = x2 and x = s , the slopes are dyldx = t and
dx/dy = u . Substituting x2 for y gives dx/dy = v .
Then (dx/dy)(dy/dx)= w .
'
The graph of y = g(x) is also the graph of x = x , but
with x across and y up. For an ordinary graph of g - ', take
the reflection in the line Y . If (3,8) is on the graph of g,
then its mirror image (
) is on the graph of g-'. Those
particular points satisfy 8 = 23 and 3 = A .
The inverse of the chain n = h(g(x)) is the chain x = B .
If g(x) = 3x and h(y) = y3 then z = c . Its inverse is x =
D , which is the composition of
E
and F .
15 Suppose f(2) = 3 and f(3) = 5 and f(5) = 0. How do you
know that there is no function f - '?
16 Vertical line test: If no vertical line touches its graph twice
then flx) is a function (one y for each x). Horizontal line
test: If no horizontal line touches its graph twice then f(x) is
invertible because
'
17 Ifflx) and g(x) are increasing, which two of these might
not be increasing?
f ( 4 + &x)
fwd4
f (dx))
f - '(4
18 If y = l/x then x = lly. If y = 1 - x then x = 1 - y. The
graphs are their own mirror images in the 45" line. Construct
two more functions with this property f =f - or f(f(x)) = x.
'
19 For which numbers m are these functions invertible?
(b) y = mx + x3
(a) y = mx + b
(c) y = mx
1 y=3x-6
2 y=Ax+B
3 y=x2-1
4 y = x/(x - 1) [solve xy - y = x]
5 y=l+x-'
6 Y = 1x1
7 Y=X~-I
8 y=2x+Ixl
9 y = sin x
+ sin x
+
20 From its graph show that y = 1x1 cx is invertible if c > 1
and also if c < - 1. The inverse of a piecewise linear function
is piecewise
.
In 21-26 find dyldx in terms of x and dxldy in terms of y.
23 y = x3 - 1
25 y=-
X
x-1
27 If dyldx = lly then dxldy =
Solve equations 1-10 for x, to find the inverse function x =
When more than one x gives the same y, write
g"no inverse."
l/f(x)
and x =
.
28 If dxldy = Ily then dyldx = (these functions are
Y = ex and x = In soon to be honored properly).
Y9
29 The slopes of&) = 3x3 and g(x) = - l/x are x2 and l/x2.
Why isn't f = g- '? What is g- '? Show that gl(g- ')'= 1.
30 At the points x,, x2, x3 a piecewise constant function
jumps to yl, y2, y3. Draw its graph starting from y(0) = 0.
The mirror image is piecewise constant with jumps at the
points
to the heights
. Why isn't this the
inverse function?
10 y = x1IS[draw graph]
1
x-a
solve that equation for y.
11 Solving y = -gives x y - a y = 1
or x=-
1 +ay
. Now
Y
In 31-38 draw the graph of y = g(x). Separately draw its mirror
image x = g- '(y).
31 y = 5 x - 1 0
32 y=cos x, O S x G n
x+l
raw
x-1
Y-1
the graph to see why f and f - are the same. Compute.dy/dx
and dxldy.
33 y = l/(x+ 1)
34 y=Ixl-2x
35 y = 10"
36 y = J ~ , ~ G x < l
37 y = 2 -
38 y = I/,/-,
13 Supposef is increasing and f(2) = 3 and f(3) = 5. What can
you say about f - '(4)?
In 39-42 find dxldy at the given point.
12 Solving y = -givesxy- y = x + 1 orx=*.
14 Supposef(2) = 3 and f(3) = 5 and fl5) = 5. What can you
say about f - '?
x OSx<l
39 y = sin x at x = n/6
40 y = tan x at x = n/4
41 y = sin x2 at x = 3
42 y = x - s i n x at x = O
4.4 Inverses of Trigonometric Functlons
43 If y is a decreasing function of x, then x is a
function of y. Prove by graphs and by the chain rule.
171
54 Newton's method solves Ax*) = 0 by applying a linear
approximation to f - ':
44 If f(x) > x for all x, show that f -'(y) c y.
For y =Ax) this is Newton's equation x* x x +
45 True or false, with example:
55 If the demand is l/(p +
when the price is p, then the
demand is y when the price is
. If the range of prices
is p 2 0, what is the range of demands?
(a) If flx) is invertible so is h(x) =
(b)If f(x) is invertible so is h(x) =f(flx)).
(c)f - '(y) has a derivative at every y.
In the ehains 46-51 write down g(x) andfly) and their inverses.
Then find x = g- '( f - '(2)).
46 z=5(x-4)
47 z = (xm)"
48 Z = ( ~ + X ) ~
49 z = 6 + x 3
50 z = # x + 4 ) + 4
51 z = log(l0")
56 If dF/dx =f(x) show that the derivative of G(y) =
yf -YY)- F(f - '(~1)isf - YY).
57 For each number y find the maximum value of yx - 2x4.
This maximum is a function G(y). Verify that the derivatives
of G(y) and 2x4 are inverse functions.
52 Solvingflx) = 0 is a large part of applied mathematics.
Express the solution x* in terms off - ': x* =
.
58 (for professors only) If G(y) is the maximum value of
yx - F(x), prove that F(x) is the maximum value of xy - G(y).
Assume that f(x)=dF/dx is increasing, like 8x3 in
Problem 57.
53 (a) Show by example that d 2 ~ / d yis2 not l/(d 2y/d~2).
59 Suppose the richest x percent of people in the world have
(b)If y is in meters and x is in seconds, then d2y/dx2is in
and d2x/dy2is in
.
10& percent of the wealth. Then y percent of the wealth is
held by
percent of the people.
4.4 Inverses of Trigonometric Functions
Mathematics is built on basic functions like the sine, and on basic ideas like the
inverse. Therefore it is totally natural to invert the sine function. The graph of x =
sin-'y is a mirror image of y = sin x. This is a case where we pay close attention to
the domains, since the sine goes up and down infinitely often. We only want one piece
of that curve, in Figure 4.9.
For the bold line the domain is restricted. The angle x lies between - 7r/2and + n/2.
On that interval the sine is increasing, so each y comesfvom exactly one angle x. If
the whole sine curve is allowed, infinitely many angles would have sin x = 0. The sine
Fig. 4.9 Graphs of sin x and sin- ly. Their slopes are cos x and I/,/-.
'
4 Derivatives by the Chain Rule
function could not have an inverse. By restricting to an interval where sin x is increasing, we make the function invertible.
The inverse function brings y back to x. It is x = sin-'y (the inverse sine):
x = sin- 'y when y = sin x and 1x1 < 7112.
(1)
The inverse starts with a number y between - 1 and 1. It produces an angle x =
sin - ly--the angle whose sine is y. The angle x is between - s/2 and 7112, with the
required sine. Historically x was called the "arc sine" of y, and arcsin is used in
computing. The mathematical notation is sin-'. This has nothing to do with l/sin x.
The figure shows the 30" angle x = 7116. Its sine is y = 4.The inverse sine of is 7116.
Again: The symbol sin-'(1) stands for the angle whose sine is 1 (this angle is x =
n/2). We are seeing g- '(g(x)) = x:
n
71
sin-'(sin x)= x for - - d x < sin(sin-'y) = for - 1 < y < 1.
2
2
4
EXAMPLE 1 (important) If sin x = y find a formula for cos x.
Solution We are given the sine, we want the cosine. The key to this problem must
be cos2x = 1 - sin2x. When the sine is y, the cosine is the square root of 1 - y2:
'
y -- y)l = J
cos x. = "cos(sin
(2)
This formula is crucial for computing derivatives. We use it immediately.
THE DERIVATIVE OF THE INVERSE SINE
The calculus problem is to find the slope of the inverse function f(y) = sin-'y.
The chain rule gives (slope of inverse function) = l/(slope of original function).
Certainly the slope of sin x is cos x. To switch from x to y, use equation (2):
dy = cos x so that dx = -1 - --1-y = sin x gives dx
dy cos x
Jmgives a new v-f
This derivative 11
velocity v(t) = 1/,/1 - t2
pair that is extremely valuable in calculus:
'
'distance f(t) = sin - t.
Inverse functions will soon produce two more pairs, from the derivatives of tan-'y
and sec- 'y. The table at the end lists all the essential facts.
EXAMPLE 2
The slope of sin - 'y at y = 1 is infinite: l / J W
=
110. Explain.
At y = 1 the graph of y = sin x is horizontal. The slope is zero. So its mirror image
is vertical. The slope 110 is an extreme case of the chain rule.
Question What is dldx (sin-'x)?
Answer 1/,/1 - x2. I just changed letters.
THE INVERSE COSINE AND ITS DERIVATIVE
Whatever is done for the sine can be done for the cosine. But the domain and range
have to be watched. The graph cannot be allowed to go up and down. Each y from
- 1 to 1 should be the cosine of only one angle x. That puts x between 0 and n. Then
the cosine is steadily decreasing and y = cos x has an inverse:
cos - '(cos x) = x and cos(cos- 'y) = y.
(4)
4.4 Inverses of Trigonometric Functions
The cosine of the angle x = 0 is the number y = 1. The inverse cosine of y = 1 is the
angle x = 0.Those both express the same fact, that cos 0 = 1.
For the slope of cos- 'y, we could copy the calculation that succeeded for sin- 'y.
The chain rule could be applied as in (3). But there is a faster way, because of a
special relation between cos - 'y and sin- y. Those angles always add to a right angle:
'
cos-'y
+ sin-'y
=42.
(5)
Figure 4 . 9 ~shows the angles and Figure 4.10~shows the graphs. The sum is n/2 (the
dotted line), and its derivative is zero. So the derivatives of cos-'y and sin-'y must
add to zero. Thqse derivatives have opposite sign. There is a minus for the inverse
cosine, and its graph goes downward:
'
The derivative of x = cos - y is dx/dy = - l/Jm.
-1
(6)
1
(- 1,
Fig. 4.10
The graphs
= cos x
'
and x = cos - y. Notice the domain 0 < x < R.
Question How can two functions x = sin- 'y and x = - cos- 'y have the same
derivative?
Answer sin-'y must be the same as -cos-'y + C. Equation (5) gives C = n/2.
THE INVERSE W G E N T AND ITS DERIVATIVE
The tangent is sin x/cos x. The inverse tangent is not sin-'ylcos-'y. The inverse
function produces the angle whose tangent is y. Figure 4.1 1 shows that angle, which
is between -7112 and 4 2 . The tangent can be any number, but the inverse tangent
is in the open interval - 7112 < x < 1112. (The interval is "open" because its endpoints
are not included.) The tangents of n/2 and - n/2 are not defined.
The slope of y = tan x is dy/dx = sec2x. What is the slope of x = tan-'y?
1
1
1
dx
-By the chain rule - = -dy sec2x 1 tan2x 1 Y2'
+
+
(7)
4 Derivatives by the Chain Rule
slope = slope = 1
Y
slope =
Fig. 4.11 x = tan-ly has slope 1/(1
I Y I Jy2-I
+ y2). x = sec-'y has slope l / l y l , / m .
EXAMPLE 3 The tangent of x = z/4 is y = 1. We check slopes. On the inverse tangent
curve, dx/dy = 1/(1+ y2)= 1. On the tangent curve, dy/dx = sec2x. At z/4 the secant
squared equals 2. The slopes dx/dy = f and dy/dx = 2 multiply to give 1.
Zmportant Soon will come the following question. What function has the derivative
1/(1+ x2)? One reason for reading this section is to learn the answer. The function
is in equation (8)-if we change letters. It is f(x) = tan- 'x that has sfope 1/(1+ x2).
cot x
1
COS X
+
Fig. 4.12 cos2x sin2x = 1 and 1+ tan2x = sec2x and 1+ cot2x = csc2x.
INVERSE COTANGENT, INVERSE SECANT, INVERSE COSECANT
There is no way we can avoid completing this miserable list! But it can be painless.
The idea is to use l/(dy/dx) for y = cot x and y = sec x and y = csc x:
dx
1
dx
-1
dx - -1
--and - =
and - =
dy csc2x
dy sec x tan x
dy csc x cot x '
(9)
In the middle equation, replace sec x by y and tan x by Jy2 - 1. Choose the sign
for positive slope (compare Figure 4.11). That gives the middle equation in (10):
'
'
The derivatives of cot - 'y and sec- y and CSC- y IVC
d
-(cot-ly)=dy
-1
1 + y2
d
dy
-(set-ly)=
1
d
-1
-(csc - y) =
I Y I J ~ d~
IYIJ-
'
.
(10)
Note about the inverse secant When y is negative there is a choice for x = sec-ly.
We selected the angle in the second quadrant (between 4 2 and z). Its cosine is
negative, so its secant is negative. This choice makes sec-'y = cos-'(lly), which
matches sec x = l/cos x. It also makes sec- 'y an increasing function, where cos- 'y
is a decreasing function. So we needed the absolute value lyl in the derivative.
4.4 Inverses of Trigonometric Functions
Some mathematical tables make a different choice. The angle x could be in the
third quadrant (between - n and - n/2). Then the slope omits the absolute value.
Summary For the six inverse functions it is only necessary to learn three derivatives.
The other three just have minus signs, as we saw for sin-'y and cos-'y. Each inverse
function and its "cofunction" add to n/2, so their derivatives add to zero. Here are
the six functions for quick reference, with the three new derivatives.
function f(y)
inputs y
outputs x
slope dxldy
If y = cos x or y = sin x then lyJ< 1. For y = sec x and y = csc x the opposite is true;
we must have lyl> 1. The graph of sec-ly misses all the points - 1 < y < 1.
Also, that graph misses x = n/2-where the cosine is zero. The secant of n/2 would
be 110 (impossible). Similarly csc- ly misses x = 0, because y = csc 0 cannot be l/sin 0.
The asterisks in the table are to remove those points x = n/2 and x = 0.
The column of derivatives is what we need and use in calculus.
Read-through questions
The relation x = sin-'y means that
a
is the sine of
b . Thus x is the angle whose sine is
c . The number
y lies between d and e . The angle x lies between
f
and g . (If we want the inverse to exist, there
cannot be two angles with the same sine.) The cosine of the
angle sin- 'y is ,/?.
The derivative of x = sin - 'y is
The relation x = cos- 'y means that y equals i . Again
the number y lies between k and . I . This time the
angle x lies between m and n (so that each y comes
from only one angle x). The sum sin- y + cos - 'y = 0 .
(The angles are called P , and they add to a q angle.)
Therefore the derivative of x = cos- 'y is dxldy = r , the
same as for sin-'y except for a s sign.
'
The relation x = tan-'y means that y = t . The
number y lies between u and v . The angle x lies
between w and x . The derivative is dxldy = Y .
Since tan- 'y + cot- 'y = z , the derivative of cot - 'y is
the same except for a A sign.
The relation x = sec- l y means that B . The number y
never lies between C and D . The angle x lies between
E and F , but never at x = G . The derivative of
x = sec- 'y is dxldy = H .
In 1-4, find the angles sin- 'y and cos- 'y and tan- 'y in
radians.
1y=o
2y=-1
3y=l
4y=J3
5 We know that sin .n = 0. Why isn't .n = sin- 'O?
6 Suppose sin x = y. Under what restriction is x = sin- ly?
'
7 Sketch the graph of x = sin- y and locate the points with
slope dxldy = 2.
8 Find dxldy if x = sin-' iy. Draw the graph.
9 If y = cos x find a formula for sin x. First draw a right
triangle with angle x and near side y-what are the other
two sides?
10 If y = sin x find a formula for tan x. First draw a right
triangle with angle x and far side y-what are the other sides?
11 Take the x derivative of sin- ' sin x) = x by the chain rule.
Check that d(sin-'y)/dy = 11+
V 1 - y2 gives a correct result.
?
12 Take the y derivative of cos(cos-' = y by the chain rule.
Check that d(cos- 'y)/dy = -11 1 - y2 gives a correct result.
13 At y = 0 and y = 1, find the slope dx/dy of x = sin- 'y and
x = cos-'y and x = tan-'y.
14 At x = 0 and x = 1, find the slope dxldy of x = sin-'y and
x = COS-'y and x = tan-'y.
176
4 Derhratiies by the Chain Rule
15 True or false, with reason:
~1
(a) (sin - 'y)2 + (cos - ' Y )=
(b) sin- y = cos- y has no solution
(c) sin- l y is an increasing function
(d)sin- is an odd function
(e) sin - y and -cos- y have the same slope-so
the same.
(f) sin(cos x) = cos(sin x)
'
34 Find a function u(t) whose slope satisfies u' + t2u' = 1.
35 What is the second derivative d2x/dy2of x = sin-ly?
'
'
'
'
'
36 What is d'u/dy2 for u = tan- y?
they are
16 Find tan(cos-'(sin x)) by drawing a triangle with sides
sin x, cos x, 1.
Find the derivatives in 37-44.
37 y = sec 3x
38 x=sec-'2y
39 u = sec - '(xn)
40 u=sec-'(tan x)
41 tan y = (x - l)/(x + 1)
42 z = (sin $(sin-'x)
43 y = sec -
Compute the derivatives in 17-28 (using the letters as given).
',/=
'
'
44 z = sin(cos- x) - cos(sin- x)
'
45 Differentiate cos- '(lly) to find the slope of sec- y in a
new way.
u = sin- 'x
18 u = tan-'2x
z = sin - '(sin 3x)
20 z = sin- '(cos x)
The domain and range of x = csc-ly are
z = (sin- ' x ) ~
22 z=(sin-'x)-'
Find a function u(y) such that du/dy = 4/ ,/1 - y2.
24 z = ( 1 +x2)tan-'x
Solve the differential equation du/dx = 1/(1+ 4x2).
26 u = sec-'(sec x2)
If dujdx = 21J1_X2 find u(1) - u(O).
z=
d m sin-'y
x = ~ e c - ' ( ~1)
+
u = sin-
ly/cos-
Jm
u = ~ i n - ' ~ + c o s - ' y +tanply
Draw a right triangle to show why tan- 'y + cot- l y = 4 2 .
Draw a right triangle to show why tan-'y
= cot-'(lly).
If y = tan x find sec x in terms of y.
'
Draw the graphs of y = cot x and x = cot - y.
Find the slope dx/dy of x = tan-'y at
(c) x = - 4 4
(b) x = 0
(a) y = - 3
.
50 (recommended)With u(x) = (x - l)/(x + I), find the deriv. So
ative of tan-'u(x). This is also the derivative of
the difference between the two functions is a
.
51 Find u(x) and tan-'u(x) and tan-'x at x = O and x = m.
Conclusion based on Problem 50: tan- u(x) - tan- x equals
.
the number
'
'
52 Find u(x) and tan- 'u(x) and tan- 'x as x + - co. Now
tan- 'u(x) - tan- 'x equals
, Something has happened to tan-'u(x). At what x do u(x) and tan-'u(x) change
instantly?