Download Unit 1: Introduction

Unit 1: Introduction
Environmental
Problems, Their
Causes, and
Sustainability
•Rachel Carson was a scientist who wrote Silent
Spring in 1962.
•It addressed the growing use of pesticides (DDT)
and their unpredicted effects on song birds.
•Original users of pesticides did not know that the
poisons used to kill insects would accumulate in
other living things and kill them too.
BIOACCUMULATION
Themes
Sustainability: A process can continue indefinitely without
depleting resources used *no sacrifice to future
generations*
Stewardship: Caring for something that does not belong to
you
Science: Use the scientific method and question authority
Ecosystem Capital: Essential goods and services like food,
water, and fuel
Policy and Politics: Human decisions determine what happens
to the natural world
Globalization: The interconnectedness of human activities,
ideas, and cultures
Environmental Science
• Understand how natural world works
• Understand how human systems interact with
natural system
• Accurately determine environmental problems
• Develop and follow a sustainable relationship with
natural world
Lessons from a Small Island
Easter Island
(Rapa Nui)
http://www.netaxs.com/~trance/rapa.ram
Easter Island Home Page and Music
http://www.netaxs.com/~trance/rapanui.html
Map of
Easter Island
Area - 166 km2
In the 4th century
A.D there were
approximately
10,000 people
living here
Use of resources
Natural Resources
• Fresh water
• Trees
• Fish
Brought by settlers
• Chickens
• Sweet potatoes
• Taro
• Yams
Used for:
• Building houses
• Food
• Clothing
• Technology
– Stone statues (moai)
– Needed many trees to
move the statues
Moai
• There are 887 moai on Easter Island
•Average Height:
13.29 feet (4.05 meters) some are more
than 20 feet (6 meters)
•Average weight:
13.78 tons
Dutch explorers arrive in 1772
• 600 people left
• Constant war
• Few of the natural resources left
What happened!
4 Global trends:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Population growth and economic development
Decline of ecosystems
Global atmospheric changes
Loss of biodiversity
A. Human population growth
Note:
•This graph is from 1999.
•These predictions are
based on a faster growth
rate.
•Carrying capacity is
higher in this graph.
• More than 6.6 billion people currently
• We are adding 76 million people per year
• increase pop → increase need for resources
Different lifestyles have different demands
on the environment
Developed (industrialized) countries like America
• hot running water
• more than one car per family
-VSDeveloping countries like Tanzania
• hunting/gathering
• Firewood for heat and cooking
• 1 billion + people live in poverty
B. Soil degradation
Demand for food destroys the soil
– erosion
– minerals in soil are depleted
– salinization
– increased use of pesticides
– overuse of fresh water
B. Soil degradation
Demand for food destroys the soil
– erosion
– minerals in soil are depleted
– salinization
– increased use of pesticides
– overuse of fresh water
D. Loss of Biodiversity
• Habitat destruction leads to a loss of many species starting
with the plants
• exact # of species lost is unknown because not all species are
identified
• strong ecosystems need biodiversity
• 1959-1980 25% of all prescription drugs from natural
resources
• Wild species keep domestic species vigorous
• Aesthetics
A sustainable future is possible
• Nutrition levels and life expectancy are
rising
• Population growth rates are falling
• It is cool to be “green”
• YOU are taking this class
Lessons from a Small Island
Easter Island
(Rapa Nui)
http://www.netaxs.com/~trance/rapa.ram
http://www.netaxs.com/~trance/rapanui.html
Living in the environment
Environmental Science
• Interdisciplinary science –
ecology,geology,chemistry,
• politics,engineering,economics,ethics
• Connections and interactions between
humans and the rest of nature
• Validity of data questioned – many
variables
Environmental Issues
•
•
•
•
•
•
Population growth
Increasing resource use
Destruction and degradation of habitat
Premature extinction
Poverty
Pollution
Sustainability
• Ability of a specified system to
survive and function over a
period of time
Sustainable living
• Meeting present needs without
preventing future generations
from meeting theirs
Carrying capacity
• Maximum number of organisms
an environment can support over
a specified period of time
Growth
• Linear – quantity increases by
constant amount per unit of
time
• Exponential – quantity
increases by a fixed percentage
of the whole in a given time
Doubling time
• 70 / percentage of growth rate
= doubling time in years
• Example – human population
growth
• 1.28% per year
• 216,000 per day
• 9000 per hour
Economic growth – Gross National
Product-GNP
• Market value in current dollars of all
goods and services produced by a
country
• Per Capita GNP – GNP/Total
population
Economic growth – Gross Domestic
Product-GDP
• Market value in current dollars of all
goods and services produced WITHIN
a country for use during a year
Developed nation
• 1.2 billion (20%) - highly
industrialized, 85% of world wealth
and income, use 88% of world
resources, generate 75% of waste
US,Canada,Japan,Australia,New
Zealand ,most of Europe
Developing
4.9 billion, (80%), low to moderate
industrialized, 15% of world wealth
and income, use 12% of world
resources
Asia, Latin America, Africa
P (population) X A (affluence) X
T (technological impact/unit of use)
= I (Environmental impact)
Ecological footprint or
environmental impact
Amount of land needed to produce the
resources needed by an average person
in a country
Resources
Ecological –
habitat,
food,shelter
EconomicRenewable
Non renewable
Potentially
renewable
Tragedy of the Commons- Garrett
Hardin
• Over use of common property
• Clean air, open ocean and its
fish,wild life species,publicly owned
land, gases of lower atmosphere,
space
Globalization
• Social, economic and environmental
change that leads to an increasingly
integrated world
• economic, information and
communication,environmental
effects
Pollution
Threatens human
health
Natural – volcanoes
Anthropogenic –
human activities
Solutions
Prevention – REFUSE,
REDUCE,REUSE,RECYCLE
Clean up – temporary fix, removes
from one part and adds to
another,expensive to reduce to
acceptable levels
Rapid population growth
Wasteful use of
resources
Poverty
Failure to encourage
earth sustaining
economic development
Failure to include overall
economic cost
Root causes
Environmental Worldview
PLANETARY MANAGEMENT or
ANTHROPOCENTRIC- “we are in charge
of nature, always more to use, all
economic growth is good”
(ANTHROPOCENTRIC)
EARTH WISDOM –”nature for all of
earth’s species, not always more to
use,make a judgment call about
economic growth
International trade ofInformation Revolution and
globalization
goods increased
Transnational
corporations from
7,000 to 53,000
Phones –from 89 to
850 million
Passenger kilometers –
from 28 million to 2.6
trillion
Infectious microbes
transported
Hunter gatherers –
12,000 years ago
Agricultural
revolution –
10,000-12,000Industrial revolution275 years ago
Technological
revolution – 50
years ago
Cultural changes
Hunting and Gathering
Societies
• nomadic, living in small bands,
• population in balance with food supply
– high infant mortality,life expectancy 30-40
yr.
• 3 energy sources - sun, fire, muscle power
Hunting and Gathering
Societies
• nomadic, living in small bands,
• population in balance with food supply
– high infant mortality,life expectancy 30-40
yr.
• 3 energy sources - sun, fire, muscle power
Effects and Environmental
Impact
• Urbanization and agricultural
expansion, cut down forests,
destroyed habitats, soil erosion and
desertification
• birth rate faster than deathpopulation increase
Early Industrial societies(mid
1700’s)
• wood used up - coal usage
• steam generation
• fossil fuel powered farm machineryless farmers needed- moved to
cities
Advanced Industrial societies
(1914 ---)
•
•
•
•
•
increase in agricultural products
lower infant mortality
improved health
increase in longevity
net population increase
Resource Conservation
• 1903-Theodore Roosevelt, Pelican
Island,Florida to save the Brown Pelican
• 1905- Gifford Pinchot - US Forest
Service
• “resources should be saved to be used
for the greatest good, for the greatest
number, for the longest time”
Moral / Aesthetic Nature
Conservation
• John Muir , Sierra Club
• “fundamental right of organisms
to exist for it’s own sake”
US Environmental Movement - 1960’s
• 1962- , Rachel Carson “Silent Spring”, threats
of pollution and toxic chemicals
• David Brower and Barry Commoner,Paul
Ehrlich,Garret Hardin -relationship between
population growth, resource use,pollution
Events - Increased Awareness
•
•
•
•
•
•
1963 - air pollution in New York
Laundry detergent in water
1969- Cuyahoga in Ohio
Love Canal , New York
pollution of Lake Erie
Extinction -grizzly,bald
eagle,whooping crane,falcon
Environmental events- 1970’s
• 1972-UN- Human development
• 1973 - OPEC oil embargo
• Roland and Molina - CFC’s cause ozone
depletion
• Carter creates Superfund to clean
hazardous waste sites(Love Canal)
• Three Mile Island
Environmental events - 1980’s
• 1981 - Ronald Reagan - sagebrush
philosophy
• 1986-Chernobyl disaster
• 1987-Montreal Protocol - fade out
CFC’s
• Exxon Valdez disaster
Environmental Events - 1990
• 1991-Persian Gulf war - protect oil
• 1992 - UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
• 1994 - UN Conference on Population and
Development, Cairo, Egypt.
• 1995- US Congress,reduce environmental
spending - vetoed by Clinton
• 1997 - Kyoto- global warming
Environmental Events - 1990
• 1991-Persian Gulf war - protect oil
• 1992 - UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
• 1994 - UN Conference on Population and
Development, Cairo, Egypt.
• 1995- US Congress,reduce environmental
spending - vetoed by Clinton
• 1997 - Kyoto- global warming
Environmental events - 2000
• Clinton protects large areas in
national forests from roads and
logging - designated as national
monuments
Sagebrush Revolution
• remove most lands from federal
ownership and turn over to States
• great supporter - Ronald Reagan
Environmental Revolution ….shift
from
•
• pollution cleanup to prevention
• waste disposal to waste reduction
• species protection to habitat
protection
• increased resource use to
conservation
Economic System
• social institution through which goods are
produced, distributed and consumed to satisfy
people’s needs and wants, EFFICIENTLY
Types of capital
• natural : earth’s natural processes
• human : people’s physical and mental talents
• manufacture : machinery, equipment,
factories
Market based economy
• interaction of DEMAND and SUPPLY and PRICE
• economists believe that an economic system
based on private ownership without
government interference is the best way to
solve problems
• Supply and demand
curves intersect at
market price
equilibrium point
Governments intervene to correct
market failures…………
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
national security
education
economic safety net
civil and property rights
worker health
protect natural capital
manage public land resources
High throughput economics
• increase flow of
materials and resources
• end up in planetary
sinks
• air,soil,water,organisms
Ecological economists
(Herman Daly)
• resources limited, no waste
• encourage environmentally beneficial and
sustainable forms of economic development
• harmful environmental and health effects of
production of goods should be included in
price (full cost pricing
Non – use value of natural resources/
ecological services
• existence value
• aesthetic value
• bequest or opinion value
Strategies to fulfill goals……….
• monitor economic and environmental health
/enforce laws
• eco-labeling and certification
• phase in subsidies/tax breaks for
environmentally beneficial goals
• tax shifting
• reduce poverty
Cost Benefit analysis
•
•
•
•
•
use uniform standards
clearly state all assumptions used
include estimates of ecological services
estimate long-term/short benefits and costs
summarize range of estimated costs and
benefits
Most things cost more than you
think…………….
• Market Price/ Direct Price does not include
the Indirect or External costs of harm to
environment or human health (hidden cost)
• Ex. failure to include climate change in the
prices of fossil fuels
Reduction of poverty
• GRAMEEN banks in Bangla Desh
Sustainable Environmental Principles
to make Policy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
humility
reversibility
precautionary
net energy
prevention
polluter pays
public access and participation
human rights
environmental justice
Global efforts to solve environmental
problems…………..
Major Worldviews………………
• Anthropocentric : human centered
• Bio centric : life centered
Planetary Management World
View
• human’s are the most important species, all
others have instrumental value
• 3 variations – no problem school, free market
school , spaceship earth school
Stewardship World View
• ethical responsibility to be caring and
responsible stewards
Role of education in living more
sustainably………..
• Natural capital matters
• our threats to natural capital are immense
and growing
• ecological an climate change tipping points
are irreversible and should never be crossed
Live more simply and lightly on the
earth
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
learn and mimic how nature sustains itself
do not degrade earth’s natural capital
do not waste matter and energy resources
protect biodiversity
avoid climate changing activities
maintain earth’s capacity for self repair
repair ecological damage that we have caused
leave the world in as good a condition as we
found or better
• passion for sustaining all life-lead toactions
Sustainability Revolution during your
lifetime……………….
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
biodiversity protection
energy transformation
commitment to eco-efficiency
pollution prevention
emphasis on sufficiency
demographic equilibrium
economic and political transformations
Politics and Environmental Policy
• Social Change in Democratic
governments
– Constitutional democracies
designed to allow change in
order to ensure stability
www.shambala.org/images/ capitol.gif
– Special interest groups
compete to put pressure on • Environmental Policy in the U.S.
– Lawmakers must first feel
government officials to
that the environmental issue
advocate laws that favor
should be addressed
their cause or vice versa
– Bills reviewed by several
– Bargaining in government to
committees in House and
maintain status quo
Senate
– Government reacts to issues,
– After law is passed, Congress
not prevent them
must appropriate funds
Courts & Environmental Regulation
•
•
Almost every environmental
regulation is challenged in court by
industry and/or environmental
organization.
Terms
– Plaintiff
– Defendant
– Civil suit
• Plaintiff seeks to collect
damages for injuries to
health or for economic
losses
– Class action suit
• Filed by group on behalf of a
larger number of citizens
• Limitations in Lawsuits
– Expense
– Time
– Permission
– Abuse of system
www.adelantesi.com/Archi
ve/ gifs/law.gif
– Environmental law is the
fastest growing sector in
American legal profession
Influencing Environmental Policy
• Solutions: (individuals affecting
environmental policy)
– Change comes form
grassroots political
movements
– Ways to influence policies
• Vote
• Contribute money to
candidates
• Lobby, write, e-mail
elected officials
• Educate and persuade
• Expose fraud, waste, and
illegal activities
• 3 Types of Leadership
– Leading by example
– Working within existing
economic and political
systems to bring about
improvement
– Challenging system as well as
proposing and working for
better solutions
volusia.org/elections
www.universitystar.com/ 00/10/19/voting.gif
Environmental Groups
www.camgreen.org.uk/
www.camgreen.org.uk/
www.purplepatch.
com.au/
www.sierraclub.ca/ bc/education
1.
Green Peace
2.
Sierra Club
3.
Environmental Defense Fund
4.
National Audubon Society
5.
World watch Institute
6.
Wilderness Society
• Mainstream Environmental
Groups
– Multi-million dollar
organizations led by chief
executive officers and a staff
of experts
– Active primarily on the
national level
– Work within political system
(major forces in persuading
Congress)
– “Group of 10” – largest US
agencies rely on corporate
donations
Grassroots Environmental Group
• At 6000 grassroots citizen groups
exist in the US
• Grassroots movement for
environmental justice – growing
coalition to protect human and
environmental rights
• Very active on college campuses
and public schools
www.sa.rochester.edu/ grassroots/
• Basic Rules for Effective Political
Action by Grassroots
Organizations:
– Have a full-time continuing
organization
– Limit # of targets and hit
them hard
– Organize for action
– From alliances
– Communicate your positions
– Persuade and use positive
reinforcement
– Concentrate at state and
local levels
Anti- Environmental Movement
• Goals
– Since 1980, there is a
massive campaign to weaken
and repeal existing
legislation
• Lobbying in Washington,
D.C. and state capitals
• mayors and government
officials unable to
implement without
government funding
• Coalitions
• Global trade agreement
(GATT)
• Tactics
– Establish an enemy
– Weaken and intimidate
– Threaten or use violence
– Influence public opinion
– Falsify data
– Divide and conquer
– Exploit ignorance of public
www.seattleglobaljustice.org/
Evaluating Claims
• Are environmental threats
exaggerated?
– Some cases of regulatory
overkill
• Asbestos
• Acid rain
– Must evaluate laws and
regulations
– Passing laws in regards to
certain chemical or species
doesn’t improve the
environment
– Need an integrated and
holistic approach
– No confrontations
• Whom should we believe?
– Tough questions need to be
posed on both sides
– Citizens encouraged to
identify with majority
– Many complex issues require
understanding of
environmental issues
www.nmsu.edu/~safety/images/
signs/sign_cautio...
nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/isopleths/
maps1999/phfield.gif
Improving US Political System
• Government is
unresponsive to citizens
because…
– Government officials get money
from wealthy individuals and
companies
– Costs the average senator $3.9
million to get elected
www.opc-marketing.com/ ind-fundraising.htm
• Bureaucracies:
– Most agencies become
stagnant and are influenced
by businesses
– Federal and state agencies
overlap their policies
– A sunset law – terminates
agency until reviewed
www.ci.burien.wa.us/
Improving the Political System
• Level the playing field for
ordinary citizens
– Allow them to sue violators
– Award attorney fees
– Allow them to sue govt
officials
– Raise fines for violators and
punish more
– Call for courts to regulate
frivolous suits
• Reducing the Crime
– Robbery, assault, and
shootings push people out of
cities and into suburbs,
clearing more land and
wasting energy
– Less willing to ride bikes,
walk or use public transit
– Use of lights, TVs, alarms to
deter burglars
www.aperfectworld.org/.../ government/police.gif
Global Environmental Policy
• Progress in international
cooperation and policy
• 1972 UN Conference in
Human Environment in
Stockholm, Sweden
• 115 nations have agencies
and over 215 international
treaties have been signed
• 1992 Rio Earth Summit
• Met again in 1995 and found
little improvement because 1992
agreements not binding
• Global Forum – brought together
18, 000 people from 1400 NGOs
from 178 countries
www.philexport.ph/.../jun20/ newsfeatures.html
Environmental Worldviews in
Industrial Societies
• Environmental
Worldviews
– Ways people think the
world works, what they
think their role in the
world should be
• Environmental Ethics
– What people believe is
right and wrong
environmental behavior
• Individual centered
– atomistic
• Earth centered
– holistic
• Human centered
– anthropocentric
• Life centered
– Biocentric
• Ecosystem centered
– ecocentric
General Types of Environmental
Worldview
www.cms.k12.nc.us/allschools/providence…
Major Human- Centered Worldviews
• Planetary Management
Worldview
– Humans are the most
important and dominant
species
– Should manage the
planet for own benefit
– Others species have
instrumental value
•
Basic beliefs
– We are the most important and
in charge of nature
– There is always more
– All economic growth is good
– Success depends on how well we
understand, control, and manage
earth’s life-support systems for
our benefit
www.flagline.com/images/ novelty-earth.gif
Human Centered Worldview
• Schools of Thought
– No problem school
• Technology will solve all
problems
– Free-market school
• Minimal government
interference and regulation
– Space-ship-earth view
• Earth is a spaceship, a
machine that we can
understand and manage
– Stewardship
• Humans have responsibility
and must treat earth as our
guardian
– Responsible Planetary
Management
• Want to mix economy,
technology, and government
intervention for self-interest
www.campfireusaia.com/ qool.html
Life/Environmental – Centered
Worldviews
• Managing the planet
– Some feel that we may not be
able to learn technology fast
enough to save the earth
– A free market would rely too
much on resources
– We don’t understand the
earth
mofep.conservation.state.mo.us/ overview/mofep4.gi
•
Biocentric &Ecocentric Worldviews
– Inherent value of nature
– Everything has a right to exist
– Animal rights movement
(species-centered worldview)
– Earth-wisdom worldview
• Nature exists for all
species
• There is not always more
• Not all economic growth is
beneficial
• Success depends on
willingness to cooperate
with earth.
More Worldviews
• Are biocentrists
antihuman/antireligious?
– They feel that they are prohuman
– They feel that they are helping
the earth, which indirectly
helps humans
• Social Ecology Worldview
– As long as we have an
industrial society, we will be
damaging the environment
– This will cause decentralization
for political and economic
systems
• Ecofeminist Worldview
– Idea that being humancentered and androcentric
(male-centered) is the
problem with the
environment)
– By being male-dominant, we
are destroying nature
– Emphasize gentleness, caring,
compassion, non-violence,
cooperation, and love
www.sopers.co.nz/ signs/signs.htm
Ethical Guidelines for Earth
• Ecosphere and Ecosystems
– We should try to understand
nature
– When we must alter nature,
we must avoid environmental
harm
• Species and Cultures
– We should preserve genetic
diversity
– Avoid premature extinction of
other species
– Protect ecosystems
• Individual Responsibility
– Should not cause any
suffering to our food sources
– Leave the earth better than
we found it
– Use only what we have
– Heals the wounds we have
already caused
newfarm.osu.edu/images/ crops.gif
Earth Education
• We should teach our
children about our earth
–
–
–
–
Respect life
Understand earth
Seek wisdom
Evaluate consequences of
lifestyles
• Learning to Live Simple
– Gandhi’s Philosophies
• Voluntary simplicity
• Earth provides enough, use
minimal amounts
• Transfer energy from
material to non-material
• We should learn to work
with the earth
– Learn to make our own area
sustainable
www.crawfordinternational.com/ cai_values_ethi..
Earth-Wisdom Revolution
• Efficiency revolution to make the
most of the earth
• Pollution prevention
• Sufficiency revolution – being
sure that everyone has his or her
basic needs
• Demographic revolution –
balance population growth
• Seeing the world as a flow of
matter and energy
www.tij.co.jp/jcorp/ docs/program/
Economic Goods, Resources and Systems
• Economy: a system of production,
distribution, and consumption of
economic goods (material items/
services that satisfy people’s
wants)
• Economic Resources: The kinds of
capital that produce economic
goods and services
1. Earth Capital/ Natural
Resources
2. Manufactured Resources: items
made from earth capital with help
of human capital
3. Human Capital: people’s
physical and mental talents
Economic Systems
Pure Command Economic System/ Pure Capitalism:
• All economic decisions made by markets, in which buyers and sellers of
economic goods freely interact without government or other interference
• Depicted as a circular flow of economic goods and money between
households and businesses operating essentially independently of the
ecosphere.
• Market equilibrium occurs when the quantity supplied equals the quantity
demanded, and the price is no higher than the buyers are willing to pay and
no lower than the sellers are willing accept.
Centrally Planned Economy:
• All economic systems made by the government
• Government control and ownership of the means of production are most
efficient and equitable way to produce, use, and distribute goods.
All countries have mixed economic systems that fall somewhere in between
pure market and pure command systems.
Circular Flow of Money in Pure Market System
Economic Growth and External Costs
• Economic growth: an increase in
the capacity of the economy to
provides goods and services to
people for final use
• Gross Domestic Product (GDP):
the market value of all goods and
services produced by the economy
within its borders for final use
• Gross National Product: GDP plus
net income from abroad
• Real Per Capita GDP: the real GDP
divided by the population
• Ecologically Sustainable
Development: occurs when the total
human population size and resource
use in the world are limited to a
level that does not exceed the
carrying capacity of the existing
natural capital
• GDP and GNP hide the negative
effects on the ecosphere of
producing many goods and services.
They don’t include the depletion and
degridation of natural resources or
earth capital on which all economies
depend.
• Solution: Environmental and social
indicators should be subtracted from
the GDP/GNP to give a more realistic
picture.
Environmental Solutions Using Economics
Pricing products using full cost:
• Would close the gap between real and
false prices by having prices tell the
environmental truth
• Cause business to pay the full cost of
the environmental harm created
Cost-Benefit Analyses:
• Comparing estimated short term and
long term costs with estimated
benefits for a course of action.
Government Regulations:
• Phase in government subsides that
that encourage earth-sustaining
behavior and phase out current
perverse subsides that encourage
earth-degrading behavior
Poverty
• Poverty: the inability to meet
one’s basic economic needs
• Trickle-down hypothesis: a
growing economy is the best
way to help the poor. It enables
more wealth to reach workers
and provides greater tax
revenues that can be used to
help the poor.
• Most of the time, however, this
wealth does not trickle down,
instead it flows up.
Solutions to Reducing Poverty
• Forgive the money that developing
countries owe to developed nations
• Increase nonmilitary aid to
developing countries from
developed countries
• Shifted most international aid from
large-scale to small-scale projects
intended to benefit local
communities of the poor
• Encourage banks to make small
loans to poor people wanting to
increase their income
• International lending agencies
should be required to use a
standard environmental and social
impact analyses to evaluate any
proposed development project
Converting to Earth Sustaining Economies
• Reward earth-sustaining o earthdegrading behavior
• Use full-cost accounting to include
the ecological value of natural
resources in the market place
• Use environmental and social
indicators to measure progress
toward sustainability
• Use full-cost pricing to include
external costs of goods and services
• Replace taxes on income and profits
with taxes on throughput of matter
and energy
• Use low discount rates for
evaluating future worth of
irreplaceable or vulnerable
resources
• Establish public utilities to manage
and protect public lands and
fisheries
• Revoke the government-granted
charters of the environmentally and
socially irresponsible businesses
• Make environmental concerns a key
part of all trade agreements and of
loans made by international lending
agencies
• Reduce waste of energy, water, and
mineral resources
• Preserve biodiversity
• Reduce future ecological damage
and repair past ecological damage
• Reduce poverty
• Slow population growth