Download The Internment and Relocation of Japanese

The Internment and Relocation of Japanese-Americans
ARICA MELLER
Communicated By: Dr. Dmity Shlapentokh
Department of History
ABSTRACT
During 1942-1946 people of Japanese descent, known as Japanese-Americans, were denied their freedoms
and rights. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the nation of Japan on December 7, 1941, all individuals
of Japanese ancestry were considered potential enemies of the United States. As result of government Order
9066, over 110,000 persons of Japanese ancestry were forced into relocation camps. This paper discusses the
political actions of the United States of America leading up to the formation of the relocation camps and the
relocation order, known as Executive Order 9066; defines the different classifications of Japanese Americans
and examines the question of their "loyalty" to the United States as well as the quality of life within the
relocation camps.
Since its formation as an independent nation, the
United States of America has prided itself as the embodiment of the ideals of "freedom, liberty, and justice for all." It is known as the "land of the free"
and a virtual melting pot, where different races and
nationalities can live amongst each other peacefully.
America is a nation formed from a vast majority of
immigrants, settled in pursuit of a better life and
greater opportunity. Such beliefs and opportunities
lured hundreds of thousands of persons of Japanese
ancestry to settle within United States territory. During 1942-1946 people of Japanese decent, known as
JapanesecAmericans, were denied their freedoms and
rights. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the
nation of Japan on December 7, 1941, the American government panicked with threatening thoughts
of dangerous enemies existing within the country. All
individuals of Japanese ancestry were considered potential enemies of the United States, as result of government Order 9066, over 110,000 persons of Japanese
ancestry were forced into relocation camps (Harding
& Angle). These camps, known as Japanese internment camps, were established in an effort to remove
those seen as potential enemies from society. Approximately 70 of such camps are acknowledged as having
existed within the United States. This paper will discusses the political actions of the United States of
America leading up to the formation of the relocation camps and the relocation order, known as Executive Order 9066; defines the different classifications
of Japanese Americans and examine the question of
their "loyalty" to the United States; and examines the
quality of life within the relocation camps.
During the period from 1941 to 1946, the United
States government faced a great deal of political pressure to create a sense of security for Americans. The
U.S. was involved in World War II, the Draft was
enacted, and Americans began to see themselves as
vulnerable after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Private citizens in small towns and large cities feared the
horror of the warfront, and the possibility, however
remote, of the United States becoming such a "war
zone." Even greater than the fear of the warfront,
was the threat of an external government using spies
and infiltrating the U.S. government from within the
normal social structure. Suspicions ran high. People questioned the loyalty of immigrants, foreigners
and neighbors alike. Immigrants, especially of German, Italian and most of all, Japanese ancestry, became prime targets. An example of such fear was evident in the following quote from a newspaper article:
"People began asking what 18,000 Japanese aliens in
this State [California] ... might do to sabotage defense
plants or to aid invaders if they were permitted to
live and travel without restriction" (New York Times,
February 14, 1942). It was this fear which served as
the driving force leading to the government's formation of relocation camps. The camps were a way to
monitor the activities of persons of Japanese ancestry.
Their separation from society made contact with the
outside world, and especially the enemy country of
Japan, nearly impossible. The containment of these
people was seen as essential to maintain American
perceptions of safety and superiority.
Discrimination against persons of Japanese descent occurred long before World War IL The impending war in 1941 only aggravated a preexisting
desire of America to take action in maintaining power
over an increasing minority population. America's
lack of knowledge and understanding of the JapaneseAmerican people and their culture lead to unnecessary fear. With the excuse of national security, the
U.S. government quickly enacted National and State
Laws, Acts of Congress, and other acts in attempts to
control persons of Japanese ancestry, deeming them
"dangerous enemies" (Daniels, 1986).
Asian immigrants were targeted for discrimination by the United States government as far back as
1913, when the California Alien Land Law prohibited "aliens ineligible to citizenship" (i.e. all Asian
immigrants) from owning land or property, but permitted leases of up to three years (Harding & An-
74
gle). Prior to this law, acres of farmland in California
belonged to Japanese Americans. By 1925, similar
laws were passed in Washington, Arizona, Oregon,
Idaho, Nebraska, Kansas, Louisiana, Montana, New
Mexico, Minnesota, and Missouri. During World War
II, Utah, Wyoming, and Arkansas also enacted similar
laws (Harding & Angle).
In 1922, in Ozawa v. U.S., the Supreme Court
reaffirmed that Asian immigrants were not eligible for
naturalization. In June of 1935, Congress passed an
act making aliens otherwise ineligible for citizenship
eligible only if (a) they had served in the U.S. armed
forces between April 6, 1917 and November 11, 1918,
and been honorably discharged, and (b) they were
permanent residents of the United States. A small
number of Japanese-Americans, referred to as Issei,
obtained citizenship under this act before the deadline on January 1, 1937 (Daniels).
On November 26, 1941 Henry Field was ordered
by Roosevelt to produce a list, in the shortest time
possible, of the full names and addresses of each
American-born and foreign-born Japanese listed by
locality within each state (Daniels).
On December 7, 1941, the nation of Japan bombed
Pearl Harbor. U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle
gave orders to the FBI to arrest a predetermined number of "dangerous enemy aliens" from Field's lists,
including 737 Japanese Americans (Daniels). America officially entered into World War II on December
8, 1941. On December 11, 1941, an additional 1,370
Japanese Americans were arrested by the FBI.
The Agriculture Committee of the Los Angeles
Chamber of Commerce, on December 22, 1941, recommended that all Japanese nationals be put under
"absolute Federal control" (Daniels, 1986). On this
date, many Japanese Americans in the military were
demoted to menial labor or discharged (Daniels).
Shortly after, on December 29, 1941, all "enemy
aliens" in the states of California, Oregon, Washington, Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada were ordered
to surrender contraband. (Daniels, 1986). One day
later, on December 30, 1941, Los Angeles Congressman Leland Ford, sent a telegram in which he stated
"I do not believe that we could be too strict in our
consideration of the Japanese in the face of the treacherous way in which they do things," and went on to
request all Japanese-Americans be removed from the
West Coast (Daniels, 1986).
On January 29, 1942 Attorney General Biddle began the establishment of prohibited zones forbidden to
all enemy aliens, resulting in the orders for JapaneseAmericans to leave the San Francisco waterfront areas (Daniels). On February 4, 1942, Attorney General Biddle established 12 "restricted areas" in which
Japanese Americans were bound by a 9 a.m. to 6
p.m. curfew, allowed only to travel to and from work,
and no more than a distance of five miles from their
home. The restricted zones extended inland from the
Arica Meller
Pacific Coast as much as 150 miles (New York Times,
February 5, 1942).
After many attempts by Congressional delegation
to restrict and/or remove all persons of Japanese
ancestry from what were deemed "strategic areas"
of California, Oregon, and Washington, President
Franklin D. Roosevelt sealed the fate of all persons of
Japanese descent on February 19, 1942, signing Executive Order 9066. Executive Order 9066 authorized
the secretary of war to define military areas "from
which any or all persons may be excluded as deemed
necessary or desirable" (Daniel, 1986). Henry Stimson, Secretary of War, appointed Lieutenant General
John DeWitt to carry out Executive Order 9066.
After Executive order 9066, a poster campaign was
used to inform the Japanese-American public, along
with other communication measures, revealing relocation details. Below is picture of an actual poster:
After Executive Order 9066, posters order all Americans
with Japanese ancestry out of their homes.
Photo by Dorothea Lange
The Library of Congress, Dorothea Lange, @1995.
"Evacuees" were limited to bringing only "that
which can be carried by the individual or family
group." Thus, Japanese-Americans were forced to
leave behind furniture, homes and beloved pets. Although promised storage for items they were not able
to sell for fair prices, very few Japanese-Americans
frusted the U.S. Government's word. Instead many
sold items for next to nothing, and other merchants
often exploited the panicked Japanese-American population. Yet, hoping to avoid harsher infractions or
deportation, Japanese-Americans, and the JapaneseAmerican Citizen's Leagues often published pledges
to aid and cooperate in the evacuation and relocation
proceedings. One such article states, "Be it resolved
the that the Japanese-American Citizens League of
Seattle go on record as endorsing cheerful and willing
cooperation by the community with the government
agencies in carrying out of the evacuation proceedings" (New York Times, Monday April 20, 1942).
Businesses were often affected by evacuations;
U.S. government seized fishing boats and stores. Only
those declared too ill by medical institutions were allowed to remain in treatment facilities outside of the
Internment and Relocation of Japanese-Americans
relocation hospital facilities. In all, over 110,000 persons of Japanese ancestry were affected by Executive
Order 9066, and of those relocated, nearly two thirds
were United States citizens (Harding & Angle, 1988National Museum of American History Archives).
75
the relocation camps, there remain the questions if
Mrs. Roosevelt's remark was ever acted upon.
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Fishing boats left behind by incarcerated
Japanese-Americans were later sold for a fraction of their
value.
Photo by Dorothea Lange from Bernard K. Johnpoll Ed.
by Roger Daniels et al. Japanese-Americans, from
Relocation to Redress; University of Utah Press, Salt
Lake City, Utah, @1986, p. 164
The following excerpt from the San Francisco
News, April 2, 1942 edition, exemplifies the seriousness of the relocation orders: "After more than a
month of offering advice and suggestions to Japanese
in the coastal military area, the Army today was issuing blunt orders to those who failed to leave voluntarily before the deadline last Sunday midnight. Lieut.
Gen. John L. DeWitt designated as the first area to be
evacuated, 'all the portion of the City and County of
San Francisco lying generally west of the north-south
line established by Junipero Serra-av, Worchester-av
and 19th ave and lying generally north of the eastwest line established by California-st to the intersection of Market-st and then on Market-st to the Bay.'
A Civil Control Station was opened at 1701 Van Nessav, and General DeWitt directed that a responsible
member of each family, and each individual living
alone, report there between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. today
or tomorrow." The below map represents the physical
area described above.
These stern orders with military enforcement
made Japanese-Americans, citizens as well as resident
aliens, question their security and well being. In a
letter to Mrs. Roosevelt, they requested the acknowledgement that something would be done (New York
Times, April 7, 1942). Mrs. Roosevelt responded, "I
know the many difficulties confronting the Americanborn Japanese and also the loyal Japanese Nationals.
I am confident that the government will do everything possible to make the evacuation as descent and
as comfortable as possible, and it will provide protection" (New York Times, April 7, 1942). Judging from
the poor condition these individuals endured within
t.t"t
Original caption was: "Here's the San Francisco area
covered by the first evacuation order issued by Lieut.
Gen. John L. Dewitt. All Japanese must be out of the
area beyond the black line by Tuesday."
San Prancisco News Graphic, 1942
Fear of Japanese-Americans was further exemplified in daily societal activities. One such example is the renaming of Japan Street to Collin Kelly
Street in San Francisco. On February 9, 1942, "The
name of Japan Street, in the waterfront district ... was
changed by the Board of Supervisors ... to Collin Kelly
Jr. Street, honoring the Army flier who sank a
Japanese battleship." (New York Times, February 10,
1942). This renaming demonstrates America's need
to exemplify superority over the country of Japan, as
well as Japanese-Americans.
Clearly the United States Government felt a compelling need to enforce Executive Order 9066 and the
subsequent relocation and internment of JapaneseAmericans. However, there is evidence that such actions were unnecessary and the result of public pacification rather than necessary national safety. During
October and November of 1941, Roosevelt appointed
Special Representative of the State Department, Curtis B. Munson, to conduct an intelligence investigation
on the loyalty of Japanese-Americans. According to
his findings, "the Issei, or first generations, is considerably weakened in their loyalty to Japan by the
fact that they have chosen to make this their home
and have brought up their children here. They are
quite fearful of being put in a concentration camp ....
have to break with their religion, their god, ... ancestors and their after-life in order to be loyal to the
United States .... Yet they do break, and send their
boys off to the Army with pride and tears .... They are
good neighbors" (Daniels). Issei were defined as having an entirely Japanese cultural background and still
legally having Japanese citizenship. Most Issei were
within the age range of 55 to 65 and were eager to acquire U.S. citizenship. Children of Issei born within
the U.S., or its territory, became citizens by birth.
Munson's findings also declared them to be of little
threat to the U.S., and he reported of their know!-
76
edge of America's possible plans to remove them from
society and their fear of being sent to concentration
camps.
Munson's report was important in defining who
were considered "enemy aliens" by the U.S. Government, as Munson names four additional classes of
Japanese-Americans. The Nisei were "second generation Japanese who have received their whole education in the United States, in spite of discrimination
against them ... (they were) estimated from 90-98 percent loyal to the United States ... The Nisei are pathetically eager to show this loyalty .. . Though American
citizens they are not accepted by Americans, largely
because they look differently" (Daniels). An important division of the Nisei is the Kibei, or those Americans of Japanese decent that were educated in Japan.
The Kibei were again divided into those that were
educated in Japan as children and those that receive
education in Japan later in life (age 17 and older).
Treated as foreigners in Japan, the Kibei were said to
"come back with added loyalty to the United States"
(Daniels).
The Sensei was considered those in the third generation of Japanese descent. During the period of
encampment, these were the very young children and
babies. Munson asked the government to "disregard
[them] for the purpose of our survey" (Daniels).
The final classification of Japanese was the Hawaiian Japanese. Munson described these individuals
"[they] do not suffer from the same inferiority complex or feel of mistrust of the whites ... on the mainland.... Hawaii is more of a melting pot ... absolutely
no bad feelings between the Japanese and the Chinese ... why should they be any worse towards us?"
(Daniels) In all, he declared all of the above listed
classifications of Japanese-Americans to be highly
loyal, hard working, and able to get along with others. Munson goes on in his report to claim, "The
story was all the same. There is no Japanese 'problem' ... there will be no armed uprising of Japanese"
(Daniels). Munson's report was very important, as
Munson was commissioned by the government in anticipation to discover disloyalty within the people of
Japanese descent. Yet, his report concedes findings
quite the opposite. In fact, Munson reported loyalty to America ran very deep within the population of those persons of Japanese ancestry throughout the United States. Demonstrative of such loyalty,
the organization known as Democratic Treatment for
Japanese Residents in the Eastern States, "issued a
statement ... pledging its membership to support the
government of the United States and disavowing concern with Japanese policy... copies of which were sent
to President Roosevelt and to Congress" (New York
Times, August 14, 1941). Japanese-Americans were
trying very hard to declare themselves as loyal citizens
and aliens, yet, their pledges of loyalty stood ignored
by the U.S. government.
Arica Meller
Declarations of loyalty to the United States, as
well as the findings of Curtis Munson disproved persons of Japanese ancestry to be in any way a threat
to the security of the United States. Yet, because of
their shared ancestry with the nation of Japan, U.S.
officials ignored Munson's report and all supporting
evidence proving the contrary. U.S. Government officials pacified national hysteria by enacting Executive
Order 9066.
The persecution of people of Japanese ancestry
transpired slowly, with the final blow being their
forced movement to the relocation camps. Many similarities exist between the U.S. government and its
treatment of the Japanese-Americans, and the Nazi
regime and its treatment of persons of Jewish descent. Both were persecuted on a basis of ancestry and
forced to involuntarily relocate to guarded concentration camps. Those required to relocate to the camps
were only allowed to take what they could physically
carry. Common practice in both Nazi death camps,
and America's Japanese Internment Camps was constant military guard, with orders to kill anyone who
tried to escape. Although, the U.S. Government did
not murder hundreds of thousands of Japanese, starvation, improper shelter and clothing, and illness were
rampant in the poorly constructed camps (Kashima).
Milton Eisenhower, before the Senate Appropriation
Committee, stated in regards to the camps: "[The
Construction] is so very cheap that, frankly, if it
stands up for the duration we are going to be lucky"
(Weglyn, 1976).
After Executive Order 9066 was signed, "Assembly Centers,'' or temporary camps used from late
March 1942 until mid-October, 1942, served to house
the 110,000 plus Japanese-American prisoners before
they were moved to the permanent detention camps.
Most of these "assembly centers" were either large
fairgrounds or racetracks (Thomas, 1952).
The 70 Relocation Camps, often old deserted military instillations, provided shelter in the form of
small, poorly constructed tar and board shacks.
Sitting on homemade furniture in a 20' x 24' room in
Tule Lake, Sept. 1942. A room of this size was often
home to three couples.
Edward Spencer et. al., Impounded People:
Japanese-Americans in the Relocation Centers,
University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, Arizona. (c) 1969.
Internment and Relocation of Japanese-Americans
77
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The exact number of Relocation Camps was not known,
as the government claimed a complete listing was never
compiled or released (Fallon/Jacobs, 1991). Most
relocation camps were located in the western part of the
United States.
Most camps were approximately one square mile,
surrounded by barded wire, and guarded by military
police in eight guard towers and the entrance station
(World Book Online, "Manzanar National Historic
Site").
According to the memories of Japanese-Americans
imprisoned within the internment camps, the following remarks regarding these facilities were made and
recorded:
After six months in a barracks at the
Santa Anita Racetrack, we were sent to
Heart Mountain, Wyoming. We arrived in
the middle of a blinding snowstorm, five us
children in our California clothes. When
we got to our tar-paper barracks, we found
sand coming in through the walls, around
the windows, up through the floor.
The camp was surrounded by barbed
wire.
Guards with machine guns were posted
at watchtowers, with orders to shoot anyone who tried to escape.
(Th·istlewaite, Manzanar National Historic Site- Web)
Within the camps, several families lived together
in this one room dwelling, usually 16x20x24 feet.
(Daniels, 1986). Camps contained barracks, one mess
hall, and one recreation hall, ironing, laundry, and
men's and women's lavatories. Households were assigned space according to the number of people in
their household. Camps also contained schools, hospitals. Some facilities offered a library as well as places
for religious services (Walz, 1997). While in these
camps, children spent their days in camp schools. Often, young men either volunteered or were drafted for
military service (Harding & Angle, 1988).
The military draft was in effect, and often, young men of
Asia,n descent were called upon to serve in the military.
Posters encouraging those of Japanese ancestry to serve,
used the slogan "Fighting Americans Too!" (National
Museum of American History Archives).
Many imprisoned within the camps felt it an outrage that they be forced to serve in the U.S. military.
They felt the government had treated them poorly,
denying them rights established by the Constitution
and Bill of Rights. When one young man refused to
register and conform to draft board orders, he was
arrested and placed on trial. When questioned by
authorities to reconsider, he replied, " Why should
I [serve in the military], when the government has
taken away our rights and locked us up like a bunch
of criminals anyway? ... The government took my father away, and interned him someplace. My mother
is alone at the Granada camp with my younger sister. . .if the government would take care of them here in
America, I'd feel like going out to fight for my country, but this country is treating us worse than shit!"
(Tateishi, 1984).
Draft problems were not the only causes of unrest within the camps; there were several shootings of
Japanese by military guards. In one shooting, the
victims were two elderly men, Hirota Isomura and
Toshio Kobata, both critically ill and too ill to walk
with a group to a bus for a relocation center. While
awaiting transportation, they were shot. The military
claimed the men tried to run away. Other shootings
all resolved similarly, as the U.S. government always
seemed to claim the victims were trying to escape
(Kashima, 1986).
U.S. involvement in World War II ended on August 14, 1945 with the surrender of Japan. Within
a year, the last of the relocation camps was closed.
The government enacted The Evacuation Claims Act
of 1948, authorizing payment to Japanese-Americans
who suffered economic loss during the imprisonment:
With necessary proof, 10 cents was returned for every
$1.00 lost (Iritani, 1995). Yet, this futile attempt to
compensate the Japanese-American people seemed to
serve more as an insult than an apology. In the end,
the number of Japanese-American persons convicted
of war crimes against the United States was less than
10. Yet, over 110,000 were forced to suffer as result of
Arica Meller
78
mass hysteria and unfounded fears of national safety.
One prisoner stated, "Our own government put a yoke
of disloyalty around our shoulders. But, throughout
our ordeal we cooperated with the government because we felt that in the long run, we could prove our
citizenship" (Thistlewaite). In trying to prove this
citizenship, many lost all their material possessions
and financial assets. Executive Order 9066 came at
a low cost to the U.S. government, but the cost to
the Japanese-American people was high. The losses
of the Japanese American people during their internment in the relocation camps from 1942- 1946, cannot
be totaled in dollar amounts, and the insult to their
dignity cannot be forgotten.
REFERENCES
- Daniels, Taylor & Kitano. (1986) JapaneseAmericans, from Relocation to Redress. Salt
Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press.
- Fallon / Jacobs (Addendum to map of internment.) http://www.oz.net/cyu/internment/main.htm.
Gallery, Camps, Etc., 1991. Accessed 10-23-01.
- Harding, Robert and Angle, Grace. JapaneseAmerican Documentary Collection (1905, 1921,
1919, 1942-1945) #305. Washington, D.C.: National Museum of American History, Archives
Center, 11-27-01.
- Iritani, Frank and Joanne. (1995) Ten VisitsAsian American Curriculum Project, Inc. San
Mateo, CA;.
- Kashima, Tetsuden. (1986) American mistreatment of Internees During World War II: Enemy Alien Japanese From Relocation to Redress. (pp 52-56.) , Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press
- New York Times, Syndicated Articles by Date
and Page: August 14, 1941 p. 10; December 9,
1941, p. 39; January 1, 1942, p. 7; February 21,
1942, p. 6; February 15, Sect. IV, p. 5; March.
1, 1942, p. 20; March 4, 1942, p. 10; March 10,
1942, p. 11; April 7, 1942, p. 8; April 9, 1942,
p. 7; April 20, 1942, p.8; February 5, 1942, p.7;
February 10, 1942, p. 4.
- Tateeishi, John. (1984) And Justice For All.
New York, New York: Random House.
- Thiatlewaite, Chuck. Manzanar National Historic Site: America's Concentration Camp. lndepedence, CA. Japanese-American National
Museum, Manzanar National Historic Site.
- Thomas, Dorothy S. (1952) The Salvage. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp 84-88.
- Walz, Eric. (Spring 1997) "The Issei Community in Maricopa County: The Development and
Persistence in the Valley of the Sun, 1900-1949."
(Vol.38, Number l,; Pp 1-22.) The Journal of
Arizona History
- Weglyn, Michi.(1976) Years of Infamy. (P. 84)
New York, New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks.
For further information on this topic:
http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cig-bin/atdl.dll/fm/319.40/chl.htm.
Fundamentals of Internment/Resettlement Operations. Accessed 1127-01.
- http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/
images/d9305-2.jpg.
Enlistment Poster
Japanese-American. Accessed 9-23-01.
- http://thesierraweb.com/lonepine/manzanar.html
National Historical Site. Accessed 11-27-01.
- http:///www.aol.svc.worldbook.aol.com.
"Manzanar National historic Site,"; "Concentration Camp,'' San Francisco News Hundreds
of Japs Get Ouster Orders Must Quit Banned
S.F. Areas And Go to Manzanar New Roundup
by FBI Follows S.F. Ouster Order April 2, 1942.
Accessed 10-23-01.
- http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist8/sfevac.html.
10-23-01.
Arica Meller graduated Cum Laude from Lawrence Academy in Groton, Massachusetts. Currently,
she is a senior at Indiana University South Bend. She plans to graduate in May 2003 with a
Bachelors Degree in English. This paper was a final research project for History 101, The World
in the Twentieth Century. In addition to working part-time for a local newspaper, Arica enjoys
spending time with her son, Chance, and her Chihuahua dogs.