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Date
Event
1506
Philip I of Castile dies, leaving his
Burgundian lands to his son, Charles V1
1516
Charles V inherits Spain2
1516
Martin Luther releases his famous 95
Theses, effectively denouncing the
Catholic Church’s practice of selling
plenary indulgences
1519
Charles V succeeds Maximilian I as Holy
Roman Emperor3
1521
Diet of Worms occurs where Martin
Luther faces charges of heresy by the
papacy.
1536
John Calvin publishes Systematic
Theology: Institutes of the Christian
Religion.
1555
Charles V abdicates his various crowns,
leaving the Netherlands and Spain to his
son Philip II and the Holy Roman Empire
to his brother Ferdinand I
1566
Calvinists storm churches in the
Netherlands and destroy statues and
paintings of catholic saints4
1567
Philip II sends in an army to crush the
revolt5
1568
William of Orange attempts to force out
the highly unpopular Duke of Alba from
Brussels, an act that was seen as
1 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philip-I-king-of-Castile
2 https://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/charles-v%E2%80%99s-spanish-abdication
3 Ibid.
4 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War
5 Ibid.
treasonous against the king. Ultimately,
this initial attempt fails. Marks what many
see as the start of the eighty years war6
1569
By this time the rebellion was thought to
be stamped out completely by the Spanish
1572
William of Orange, with the support of
England and France, invades the
Netherlands and successfully takes
multiple dutch cities, gaining a strong
foothold in the North7
1572
Protestants all over the country,
encouraged by William of Orange,
revolted8
1573
Spanish army succeeded in capturing
rebel cities9
1575
Spain declared bankruptcy and was
unable to pay its troops, who proceeded
to mutiny10
1576
Pacification of Ghent, where catholics
from the south and protestants from the
north united in a common front against
mutinous Spanish forces despite religious
differences. However, this alliance would
not last.11
1578
Philip sent another army to crush the
rebellion under the duke of Parma, who
began a successful campaign12
1579
Northern provinces of the Netherlands
6 Ibid.
7 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004
From World History in Context
8 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War
9 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004
From World History in Context
10 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War
11 https://www.britannica.com/event/Pacification-of-Ghent
12 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004
From World History in Context
create the Union of Utrecht, establishing
the United Provinces13
1579
Southern provinces create the Union of
Arras and aligned themselves with
Spain14
1581
Union of Utrecht deposes Philip II as ruler
of the Netherlands15
1584
William of Orange assassinated by a
royalist16
1585
In the face of a Spanish reconquest, the
United Provinces seek military aid from
England once more, who granted it in
exchange for having the right to appoint
the governor-general of the Netherlands.
This was known as the Treaty of
Nonsuch17
1588
In response to English involvement in the
revolt, Spain sent a huge armada to
invade England, which failed
disastrously18
1609
Philip III, son of Philip II, saw no use in
continuing the costly war with the
Netherlands and initiates a Twelve Year
Truce19
1621
Twelve Year Truce expired, however both
sides were preoccupied in the Thirty
Years’ War and instead opted to negotiate
for peace20
1648
Peace of Westphalia officially ends war
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
between Spain and the United Provinces21
For eighty years the United Provinces of the Netherlands had waged war
against Spain for independence. The revolt, beginning in 1568 and ending after the
Peace of Westphalia,22 overlapped with the Thirty Years War. The rebellion
ultimately resulted in Northern seven provinces had declared their independence to
become the Dutch Republic, which was later recognized in the Peace of
Westphalia.23
The Netherlands had been united in a personal union during the fourteenth
and fifteenth century, ruled by the Duke of Burgundy. This was the case until the
birth of Charles V in the 16th century, whose bloodline gave him claims to the
thrones of Holy Roman Emperor, the Duchy of Burgundy, and the Kingdoms of Spain
along with Spanish holdings in the New World.24 Such a vast Empire proved to be
impossible to govern effectively, and at the end of his reign, an exhausted Charles
gave the throne of King of Spain and the Duke of Burgundy to his son Philip II and
his title of Holy Roman Emperor to his brother Ferdinand I.25 This thus split the
house of Habsburg into an Austrian and a Spanish branch, which was still closely
intertwined.
During the time of Charles V’s reign, many of the problems that would
eventually cause the Dutch Revolt already was being set in motion. For one, the
Netherlands had embraced the Protestant reformation; the Lutherans, the
Sacramentarians, the Anabaptists and the Calvinists all having gained a strong
foothold in the region.26 This went directly against the state doctrine of their
Habsburg rulers, who were hardline Catholics that saw Protestants as heretics who
must be purged.
Prior to the 16th century, the Netherlands were not really a unified country;
and were better described as a collection of independent provinces that were only
loosely brought together by the dukes of Burgundy.27 The Habsburg rulers took
21 Ibid.
22 https://www.britannica.com/event/Eighty-Years-War
23 Ibid.
24 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-V-Holy-Roman-emperor
25 Ibid.
26 https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Low-Countries/The-revolt-and-the-formation-
of-the-Republic-1567-79#ref413992
27 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004
From World History in Context
quick decisive steps to bring about centralized rule in The Netherlands under
Charles V, who united the seventeen provinces into a single entity.28 Charles,
preoccupied with having to deal with the numerous other problems of his vast
Empire, was not able to deal specifically with the needs of the Dutch people, and in
practice gave control of the Netherlands to his relatives in Spain who proceeded to
ignore the traditions of the local nobles.
During the reign of Charles V, the Habsburg Empire had been perpetually at
war. These conflicts came at a great cost on the finances of the Empire. The
Netherlands were a very wealthy region in the Empire, and would have to pay high
taxes in order to pay off wars which were seen largely seen as unnecessary by upper
class dutchmen.29 Though Charles’ faults may have been numerous and painfully
apparent, he still continued to remain a popular figure in the Netherlands. Charles
had been raised in the Netherlands and could speak the same language as the people
there, who saw Charles as one of their own.30 Because of this, Charles was able to
quell rebellion, however his policies would continue to stir up discontent within the
people. His successors did not have the same advantage as he did.
Following Charles’ abdication to the throne, Philip II, the new king of Spain
and prince of the Netherlands, continued many of his father’s policies of increasing
Habsburg influence, suppressing Protestantism and levying high taxes.31 However,
unlike his father Philip had no real ties to the Netherlands. He was not born nor
raised in the Netherlands and could hardly speak their languages. Philip was seen as
a foreigner exerting rule over the lands, making him incredibly unpopular with the
people.32 The Netherlands, by virtue of a papal bull in 1559, became directly
governed by the church under three archbishops and 15 bishops.33 The Netherlands
did not react favorably to these changes. The nobles believed that the high positions
in the church were slipping away from them and were being more firmly placed in
the hands of Spain. While this was going on, the continued repression of
Protestantism caused the Calvinists to revolt against their Habsburg masters in
order to gain religious freedom.34 Philip, fearing that he would lose all control if he
did not take decisive action, sent in Spanish forces to crush the rebellion. Philip went
on to execute 18 000 people in the following years, earning him nicknames such as
“the Iron Duke” as well as being named the antichrist by some Protestants.35
28 Ibid.
29 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War
30 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-revolt-of-the-spanish-netherlands/
31 Dutch Revolt (1568–1648) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, 2004
From World History in Context
32 Ibid.
33 https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Low-Countries/Consolidation-of-territorialstates-1384-1567
34 http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War
35 Ibid.
While the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War is widely considered to be at the
defenestration of Prague where the Bohemian protestant nobles revolted against
their Catholic oppressors, the war wasn’t just a Bohemian rebellion, but rather a
huge European wide conflict that involved nearly every major power in Europe.
Catholic and Protestant powers elsewhere involved themselves in the Thirty Years
War as it progressed. Most historians view the war as to have progressed in distinct
phases, each phase beginning with every major entry into the war.36 The first phase
that began with the Bohemian revolt was contained completely within the Holy
Roman Empire, being a conflict that merely involved the emperor and the various
rebelling groups.37 A second phase can be seen to have developed after Bohemia’s
defeat, spreading to the rest of Germany. The rest of the war is then divided into
three phases: A Danish phase (1625-1629), a Swedish phase (1630-1634) and a
French phase (1635-1648).38 As the war developed, the Holy Roman Empire became
less an active aggressor and more like a helpless victim as more countries became
involved.
The start of the war is widely seen to be in 1618 when Ferdinand II as both
the future Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia attempted to impose Catholic
absolutism on his subjects that caused a revolt in Bohemia and Austria by the
Protestant nobles.39 Fueled by Dutch money, the rebellious princes fought the
Empire for several years. However, they were defeated by the Habsburgs on all
fronts. By 1622, the Palatinate became occupied by Spanish and Bavarian troops
who supported the emperor.
King Christian IV of Denmark, reeling from a military loss against Sweden,
saw opportunity in the conflict for his own expansion. Christian himself had lands in
The Empire as the duke of Holstein.40 He entered the war with the hopes of
receiving military aid from England and the Netherlands, who both had interests in
the outcome of the war.41 He mobilized his forces and attacked, however what he
had not foreseen was Ferdinand mobilizing his own massive army of 30 000.
Christian’s decisive defeat at the hands of the Empire in 1629 marked the end of
Denmark as a European power.42
36 The Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618-48, Peter H. Wilson The English Historical Review
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War
40 http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/wars-and-battles/thirty-years-war
41 Ibid.
42 https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War
While Sweden was preoccupied with a four-year war with Poland, they were
now free to invade the Holy Roman Empire on the side of the Protestants. In doing
so, the King of Sweden Gustav II Adolf garnered strong support from many German
princes.43 Brandenburg and Saxony now joined the fight against the Catholic bloc on
the side of Sweden, who decisively defeated Ferdinand’s armies wherever they
met.44 Swedish success and dominance would continue until 1634 when Spain sent
a fresh army to aid The Holy Roman Empire and crushed the Swedish forces at
Nördlingen in southern Germany.45 Ferdinand did not want to repeat his past
mistakes of enforcing Catholic absolutism, and now sought to reach a compromise
with the protestants. He proceeded to sign the Peace of Prague, where religious
freedom was given to Lutherans. However, the Peace of Prague was not popular
with the German princes, who resented the strengthened authority of the
emperor.46
In response to a Spanish attack on Trier, an ally of France, Louis XIII declared
war on Spain in 1935.47 This was then met with a declaration of war on France from
Ferdinand the following year. However, by this time Spain had grown too weak from
the financial burden of fighting past wars to contribute against France, leaving the
Holy Roman Empire virtually on its own against the combined forces of France and
Sweden.48 Despite this, the war continued for eight years, until finally Ferdinand had
little option but to seek peace. Against his wishes, the various german princes were
invited to the negotiations. One thing to note is that a Franco-Spanish peace proved
to be too difficult, and so they were excluded from the treaties and continued to
fight afterward.49
The true causes of the Thirty Years war is an issue that is hotly debated even
today, nearly 400 years after the fact. There are a wide range of different opinions as
to the main causes of war. Some historians view the war as a general revolt against
Habsburg domination,50 while others view it as an inevitable conflict whose main
purpose was to repair the social, political and economic problems of Europe.51 In
43 Ibid.
44 http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/wars-and-battles/thirty-years-war
45 Ibid.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid.
50 http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/CXXIII/502/554.abstract
51 Ibid.
recent times, the view that the war was one of religion has regained popularity.52
Others view the war as a conflict that started in the Holy Roman Empire that
gradually involved more and more European powers.53 In any case, this committee
will be looking at all of these issues, and will hope to address the key causes of the
war in order to ensure a lasting peace after the treaties.
Since the marriages arranged by Maximilian I made the House of Habsburg
acquire Bohemia, Hungary, the Netherlands and Spain, Habsburg power in Europe
was unprecedented. Several historians believe that the wars in Europe after the
reign of Maximilian I were all part of a larger struggle against Habsburg
hegemony.54 France, threatened by an encirclement of Spain in the west and the
Holy Roman Empire in the East, sought to reduce Habsburg influence through a
series of local wars.55 France’s involvement in the Thirty Years War can be
interpreted as the result of their insecurity due to being surrounded on all sides by
Habsburg territory. France consistently faced the possible threat of invasion from
the West, the East and the North by Habsburg Spain, Habsburg Netherlands and the
Holy Roman Empire that was ruled by the Habsburgs.
This Franco-Habsburg rivalry would be the bane of international peace in
Europe, as their conflicting ambitions would bring the other to war. However, it is
also an especially difficult topic to handle, as the two sides had directly conflicting
positions and a compromise would be nearly impossible.
Since Martin Luther, wars between forces of Catholicism and the various
Protestant denominations became commonplace in Europe. Both Catholics and
Protestants saw the other as heretics, and international politics in Europe were
dominated by conflicts that were motivated by religion. To make matters more
complicated, the Catholics were united under the church, while Protestants were
hugely divided into countless different denominations, who often saw each other as
heretics. While Lutherans (Sweden, among others) and Calvinists (the Netherlands,
among others) were the two largest protestant denominations, the two groups
didn’t consider the other to be “true” Christians. The Peace of Augsburg, while giving
religious freedom to Catholics and Lutherans, ignored all of the other denominations
of Protestantism including Calvinism.
With Europe divided into religious blocs, any lasting peace was impossible
and wars were inevitable. Religious conflicts were not confined to the Holy Roman
Empire, but were seen causing internal political turmoil in France as well,
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 The
Causes of the Thirty Years War 1618-48
Peter H. Wilson
55 Ibid.
culminating in the French wars of religion.56 In the Holy Roman Empire and in other
nations, Catholic leaders oppressed their Protestant subjects, who in turn would
often rise up in rebellion. The basis of this oppression was the lack of basic rights
such as freedom of worship. However, simple treaties would oftentimes not be
enough to settle religious differences for very long, as religious differences would
soon cause the two sides to violate the treaties. The Peace of Augsburg, while
initially successful, did nothing to stop Ferdinand’s oppression of Lutherans.57 In
places where religious tolerance was granted, an angry and violent reaction would
occur as a result.58
France and Sweden, after expending considerable resources on waging war
against the Holy Roman Empire, would assuredly demand concessions if they were
to agree to any peace treaty. Sweden, having become the dominant power in the
Baltics, would seek territory in the North of the Holy Roman Empire. France, vying
to expand her own borders, would want to obtain territory to the West of the
Empire. However, these demands were against the interests of the Habsburgs and
certain German princes, as it weakened their own influence and lessened their
territory. The ambitions of the German princes could be observed as they tried to
leverage for territorial gain.
Drawing the new map of Europe would be an incredibly important and
difficult task. Here, expansionist ambitions would directly oppose one another. A
balance must be struck that can satisfy all nations, without causing bitter
resentment that would soon lead to future wars. Delegates must weigh their own
agendas with the continuation of peace if they would like the peace settlements to
be successful. Terms which are too harsh on a single country would only cause more
future conflict.
Freedom of religion, while today is seen as a universal right, was a concept
that was nearly unheard of in the 17th century. Allowing the freedom to choose
whatever religion you would wish, or at least accepting all of the different
denominations of Christianity, would be a step forward in preventing future conflict.
While this solution would surely benefit minorities as they would be allowed to
continue to practice their faith wherever they want without fear of persecution, it
would undeniably make many hard-line religious leaders upset due to them seeing
the other denominations as heretics.
56 https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-Religion
57 https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Augsburg
58 https://www.britannica.com/event/Wars-of-Religion
This option was a lot more familiar to the people of the 17th century. The
Holy Roman Empire was divided up into the jurisdiction of numerous German
princes, each of which had their own government, laws and norms. Allowing each of
these princes to choose which religion would be the official one in their lands would
allow for a more flexible solution where there isn’t sharp contrast between differing
beliefs. However, persecution would still continue against minorities, who would
either be forced to move or would likely be punished or even killed for practicing a
faith that was not the official one in their lands.
The most simple solution to solve the conflicts between France and Spain
was to merely establish areas where each would have a “sphere of influence,” where
the other would not be allowed to interfere. In many instances, war between Spain
and France occurred after one of them involved themselves in the affairs of the
other, and establishing distinct spheres of influence for each country would help
solve this problem as there would no longer be conflicting interests in the same
areas competing for dominance.
While the leaders of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were hardline
Catholics, at this point they were not willing to go to war to retain their religious
dominance. While they may have preferred to have continued the status quo where
Catholicism remained the only official religion in their lands, years of conflict and
their declining power meant that even they understood they would have to make
concessions if they wanted to have any chance for peace. The Habsburgs would like
to continue their policy of religious oppression if they can, however external factors
may make this impossible.
The Habsburgs would also like to keep the status quo in territory as they
have an advantageous position but were in danger of losing lands. The Habsburgs
surrounded France on all sides, but were declining and would likely be forced to
make territorial concessions.
France and Sweden, emerging as the victors in the Thirty Years War, would
want to reap the benefits of their success and annex as much territory as they can.
While it is not their highest priority to ensure religious freedom for Protestants,
Sweden was a protestant country and France allowed religious freedom for
Protestants. These two major powers would want there to be more rights for
Protestants in other countries, as well as ensuring the safety of their own Protestant
governments.
German princes valued strongly in their own autonomy away from the
influence of the Holy Roman Empire. They would look favorably upon a resolution
that gave them more control and power, such as being given the right to choose
their own official religion within their own borders.
Many of these princes are allied with different major powers of Sweden,
France or the Habsburgs. However, they would prefer if those countries did not
meddle in their affairs.
These states would want the recognition of their borders and to be seen as
completely independent from the Habsburgs, instead of being within the borders of
Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. They value freedom away from foreign influence
the most out of anything. Given that they are Protestant countries, these states
would also like religious freedom for Protestants elsewhere as well. However, they
can also be hostile to Catholicism.
1. What was the main cause of the Thirty Years’ War?
2. Was the Thirty Years’ War a German or a European war?
3. How can we ensure that Protestants and Catholics coexist?
4. Which denominations of protestants are acceptable? Which are not?
5. How much should the Holy Roman Empire have to concede?
6. How big of a role should the peace treaties play in the policies of individual
countries? Should it make sweeping changes or continue with the status quo?
Motley, John Lothrop, Life and death of John of Barneveld, advocate of Holland: with
a view of the primary causes and movements of the Thirty Years' War
Mryon P. Gutmann, The Origins of the Thirty Years' War
Source: The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4, The Origin and
Prevention of Major Wars (Spring, 1988), pp. 749-770
http://www.historytoday.com/graham-darby/causes-thirty-years-war
The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Pacification of Ghent." Encyclopædia
Britannica. February 23, 2007. Accessed November 28, 2017.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Pacification-of-Ghent.
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Accessed November 28, 2017. https://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/charlesv%E2%80%99s-spanish-abdication.
Dewald, Jonathan. Europe 1450 to 1789 encyclopedia of the early modern world. New
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Accessed November 28, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-V-HolyRoman-emperor.
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http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eighty_Years'_War.
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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Innocent-X.
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https://www.britannica.com/event/Eighty-Years-War.
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https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Augsburg.
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https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War.
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