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AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam MEMORY Chapter 9 Memory Memory *persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory *a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event *where were you when Kennedy died? *where were you when 9-11 happened? Storage – the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval – process of getting information out of memory Memory TYPES OF MEMORY Sensory Memory – the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Short Term Memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly – look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten Long Term Memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Working Memory *focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information *another term for Short Term Memory Encoding – the processing of information into the memory system Sensory input Attention to important or novel information Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Encoding Long-term memory Retrieving Encoding Automatic Processing – unconscious encoding of incidental information • space • time • frequency – well-learned information • word meanings – we can learn automatic processing • reading backwards Effortful Processing – requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal – conscious repetition of information • to maintain it in consciousness • to encode it for storage Encoding Hermann Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables – TUV ZOF GEK WAV – the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect – distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice Percentage of list retained after relearning 100% 90 80 70 60 50 Retention drops, then levels off 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ Time spent learning list 49½ Encoding Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 Number of repetitions of list on day 1 64 Encoding-Serial Position Effect Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list Percentage of words recalled Immediate recall-last items best 90 80 70 60 50 40 Later recall--only first items recalled well 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Position of word in list 10 11 12 What Do We Encode? Semantic Encoding – encoding of meaning – including meaning of words Acoustic Encoding – encoding of sound – especially sound of words Visual Encoding – encoding of picture images Encoding Encoding Imagery – mental pictures – a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics – memory aids – especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units • like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941 – often occurs automatically – use of acronyms • HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior • ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream Encoding Hierarchies complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic Encoding) Imagery (visual Encoding) Chunks Organization Hierarchies Storage- Retaining Information Sensory Memory – the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic Memory – a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli – a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second – Registration of exact representation of a scene Echoic Memory – momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Storage-Short Term Memory Short Term Memory Percentage who recalled 90 consonants 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 – limited in duration and capacity – “magical” number 7+/-2 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Storage--Long Term Memory How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950) began research on study of intelligence and the role of the frontal lobes. Rats learn maze Remove parts of brain Retest rats to see if they remember the maze. 1890-1958 Storage--Long Term Memory Synaptic changes – Long-term Potentiation • increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Strong emotions make for stronger memories – some stress hormones boost learning and retention Storage- Long Term Memory Amnesia- the loss of memory Explicit Memory – memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare – Also called declarative memory – hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage Implicit Memory – retention without conscious recollection – motor and cognitive skills – dispositions- conditioning Forgetting--Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia *inability to form memories for new information because of brain trauma. *new experiences slip away from a person before they have a chance to store them in long-term memory. (Clive Wearing or H.M.) *H.M. (Initials for man with brain operation where hippocampus and amygdala removed…..crucial to laying down new episodic memories) Retrograde Amnesia *the failure to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma. *causes include: blow to head, electric shock to the brain StorageLong Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus Retrieval Cues Recall *the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test Recognition *the ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test Relearning *amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information Priming *activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Retrieval Cues – Context Effects • memory works better in the context of original learning Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Water/ water Land/ land Same contexts for hearing and recall Retrieval Cues Mood Congruent Memory – tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood – memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory • what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state Deja Vu- (French) already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before" According to Daniel Schacter, most of our memory problems arise from the SEVEN SINS of MEMORY. Three Sins of Forgetting 1) Transcience 2) Absent-mindedness 3) Blocking Three Sins of Distortion 4) Misattribution 5) Suggestibility 6) Bias One Sin of Intrusion 7) Persistence Sin of forgetting 1) TRANSCIENCE *Memories weaken with time *Hermann Ebbinghaus (1908) learned lists of nonsense syllables and tried to recall them over time. Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 12345 10 15 20 25 Time in days since learning list 30 Ebbinghausforgetting curve over 30 days -initially rapid, then levels off with time Sin of forgetting 1) TRANSCIENCE CONCLUSION: For relatively meaningless material, there is a rapid initial loss of memory, followed by a declining rate of loss. HOWEVER, some memories don’t follow the classic forgetting curve. “Just like riding a bicycle”, is a phase which indicates that motor skill memories are often retained for many years. Sin of forgetting 2) ABSENT-MINDEDNESS: Lapses of Attention Forgetting as encoding failure *Information never enters the memory system *Attention is selective – we cannot attend to everything in our environment *William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing Retrieval failure caused by shifting your attention elsewhere. (ie) not paying attention when you laid your keys down Sin of forgetting 3) BLOCKING: Interference Causes Forgetting *Proactive Interference *Retroactive Interference *Serial Position Effect …first and last parts of a poem are easier to remember or you are more likely to remember the names of those people you meet first and last than those in between. Percentage of words recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Position of word in list 9 10 11 12 Sin of forgetting 3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information Sin of forgetting 3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting Retroactive Interference Percentage of syllables recalled 90% Without interfering events, recall is better 80 After sleep 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 After remaining awake 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours elapsed after learning syllables 8 Forgetting--Interference Motivated Forgetting *people unknowingly revise history Repression *defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Positive Transfer *sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information *knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French Sin of Distortion 4) MISATTRIBUTION: Memories in Wrong Context *sometimes memories are retrievable but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person. CASE: Psychologist David Thompson was accused of rape, based on victim’s detailed description of her assailant. Fortunately, Thompson had an indisputable alibi. At the time of the crime, he was being interviewed live on television--about memory distortions. The victim had been watching the interview just before she was raped and had misattributed the assault to Thompson. Sin of Distortion 5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create Witnesses to crimes may be interviewed by police, who might make suggestions about the facts of the case--deliberately or intentionally--which may impact the testimony of the witness. Loftus & Palmer (1974) set out test their hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. So they aimed to show that leading questions could distort accounts of events, therefore making them unreliable. Estimating the speed of a car is generally something that people are poor at doing, suggesting that they may have been MORE OPEN TO SUGGESTION. Participants were shown slides of a car accident involving a number of cars and were then asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses.They were then asked specific questions, including the question "About how fast were the cars going when they (hit/smashed/ collided/bumped/contacted - the five conditions) each other?" This distortion of memory is known as the MISINFORMATION EFFECT. Sin of Distortion 5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create Loftus then did research on FABRICATED MEMORY. She contacted parents of college students and gained TRUE information of childhood events, which the students were asked to recall. Loftus then added FALSE, but plausible, events. After many recall attempts over a series of days, many students claimed to recall the contrived events. This research would lead other researchers to discuss the RECOVERED MEMORY CONTROVERY, wherein some psychologists may use suggestion techniques to create false recovered memories. Sin of Distortion 5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions Imagining events can create false memories Children's eyewitness recall – Child sexual abuse does occur – Some innocent people suffer false accusations – Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony Memories of Abuse – Repressed or Constructed? • Child sexual abuse does occur • Some adults do actually forget such episodes False Memory Syndrome – condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience – sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists Sin of Distortion 6) BIAS: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions Distort Memories Influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory: *Expectancy Bias -unconscious tendency to remember events as being congruent with our expectations. *Self-Consistency Bias -avoid inconsistency. Emotions can distort our memories. Sin of Intrusion 7) PERSISTENCE: When We Can’t Forget Sometimes memory works all too well when *intense negative emotions are involved *intrusive recollections of unpleasant events lie at the heart of several psychological disorders. **interference--when memory blocks access or retrieval. TOT (TIP OF THE TONGUE) occurs during a recall attempt, when there is a poor match between retrieval cues and the encoding of the word in longterm memory. Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia – attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) The technical term for “photographic memory” is EIDETIC IMAGERY. Eidetic Imagery portrays the most interesting and meaningful parts of the scene most accurately, as compared with a photograph which renders everything in complete detail. *possessed by about 5% of children. *very rare past adolescence. To produce an eidetic image, a person must *study a scene for some time *actively concentrate on this scene *images fade quickly when the attention is diverted to something else. Improve Your Memory *Study repeatedly to boost recall *Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material (SQ3R) (study, question, read, recite, review) *Make material personally meaningful *Use mnemonic devices – associate with peg words- something already stored – make up story – chunk-acronyms Improve Your Memory *Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood *Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference *Minimize interference *Test your own knowledge – rehearse – determine what you do not yet know MNEMONICS: *Method of Loci (low-sye): Imagine a familiar sequence of places (bed, desk, chair)……to remember a grocery list, imagine tuna on the bed, shampoo spilled on the desk, and eggs open on the chair. *Natural Language Mediators: make up a story using your list….(i..e.) The cat discovers I’m out of tuna so she interrupts me while I’m using shampoo and meows to egg me on.” OR The teacher who used rhymes to remember (“i before e except after c”) (“thirty days hath September….) *Remembering Names: You might visualize Bob’s face in a big “O” or Ann, you might visualize “Queen Ann sitting on a throne.” *PEG System: Memorize a list of items and each time you have to organize a list, use a picture to illustrate the list in your mind. THINKING and LANGUAGE Chapter 10 Thinking Cognition – mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information Cognitive Psychology – the study of these mental activities • concept formation • problem solving • decision making • judgement formation – study of both logical and illogical thinking Thinking Concept – mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people • address – country, city, street, house – zip codes Prototype – the best example of a category • matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin.) Problem Solving Good problem solvers are skilled at (a) identifying the problem, and (b) selecting a strategy. Algorithm – methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem – contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone use of heuristics Heuristic TWO strategy methods: rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently usually speedier than algorithms more error-prone than algorithms sometimes we’re unaware of using heuristics Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic – rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes – may lead one to ignore other relevant information Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common Example: airplane crash Some Useful Heuristic Strategies: 1) Working backwards (works well with mazes and certain math problems where the initial conditions are vague) 2) Searching for analogies (works well if the problem is similar to one you have faced previously) 3) Breaking problem in to smaller pieces (allows the completion of smaller, manageable units) Thinking Insight – sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem – contrasts with strategy-based solutions Confirmation Bias – tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions Fixation – inability to see a problem from a new perspective – impediment to problem solving Thinking- Insight Wolfgang Kohler’s experiment on insight by a chimpanzee by solving complex problems. Kohler suspended fruit out of reach of the chimp. Sulton, the brightest chimp first attacked the fruit with sticks in trial and error fashion. He then sat down, scratched his head, and begin to pile boxes. He then climbed on top of them with a stick to knock down his prize. Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental Set – tendency to approach a problem in a particular way – especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions impediment to problem solving Self Imposed Limitations Low self-esteem Lack of Knowledge Fatigue Lack of Interest Drugs Thinking Overconfidence – tendency to be more confident than correct – tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgements Framing the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements Example: What is the best way to market ground beef- As 25% fat or 75% lean? Thinking Belief Bias – the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning – sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid Belief Perseverance – clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Artificial Intelligence designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things to simulate human thought processes • intuitive reasoning • learning • understanding language Language Language – our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning Phoneme – in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morpheme – in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning – may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) Grammar – a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others Language Semantics – the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language – also, the study of meaning Syntax – the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language HOW DO CHILDREN ACQUIRE LANGUAGE? LANGUAGE INNATENESS THEORY OF LANGUAGE *children acquire language not merely by imitating but also by inborn program of steps to acquire vocabulary and grammar in their environment. Noam CHOMSKY, psycholinguist *children born with mental structure, allows vocabulary & grammar of their environment *LAD: Language Acquisition device HUMAN GENOME PROJECT *language is genetic *Broca’s area (ch.2) Professor emeritus, linguistics, MIT Language We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the world’s languages Percentage able to discriminate Hindi t’s 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hindispeaking adults 6-8 months 8-10 months 10-12 months Infants from English-speaking homes Englishspeaking adults Language Babbling Stage *beginning at 3 to 4 months *the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language One-Word Stage (“mama”) also called “naming stage” *from about age 1 to 2 *the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words Two-Word Stage (“mommy milk”) *beginning about age 2 *the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements *start to acquire grammar Telegraphic Speech (“ball hit mary cry”) *early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words *acquire rules of grammar Starting at age 2, children also: *acquire use of MORPHEMES, showing tense (walks, walked, walking) *overgeneralization or overregularization: (ie. hitted, breaked) *use words with abstract meanings (dream, forget, pretend, believe) *use words that refer to emotions (happy, sad, angry) After cognitive advances in later childhood, they understand highly abstract words (truth, justice, idea) • New language learning gets harder with age Language Linguistic Relativity (or Linguistic Determinism) –Whorf”s hypothesis that language determines the way we think INTELLIGENCE and TESTING Chapter 11 What is Intelligence? ……is a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience. • Intelligence – *capacity for goal-directed and adaptive behavior – *involves certain abilities • profit from experience • solve problems • reason effectively *ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations What is Intelligence? • Reification – *viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing. – *reasoning error – To reify is to invent a concept, give it a name, and then convince ourselves that such a thing objectively exists in the world. – One SHOULD say “she has a score on the intelligence test of 120” NOT….”she has an IQ of 120.” INTELLIGENCE THEORIES PEOPLE TO KNOW IN THIS CHAPTER: 1) Binet: IQ test 2) Terman: Stanford-Binet IQ test (adapted) 3) Spearman: “g” and “s” (developed Factor Analysis) 4) Thurston: “Primary Mental Abilities” 5) Guilford: Operations, Contents, Products 6) Gardner: 9 Multiple Intelligences 7) Jansen: social intelligence 8) Cattell: fluid v. crystalized intelligence 9) Goleman: emotional intelligence 10)Wechsler: Adult Intelligence Scale Origins of Intelligence Testing Intelligence Test a method of assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others, using numerical scores ALFRED BINET (1857-1911) French Psychologist ・Received his law degree in 1878 ・Subsequently studied natural sciences at the Sorbonne ・Self-taught in psychology Binet Origins of Intelligence • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale – *the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test • *revised by Terman at Stanford University Lewis Madison Terman (1877-1956) Cognitive Psychologist ・Central Normal College (B.S., B.P., B. A., 1894, 1898) ・Indiana University at Bloomington (B.A., M.A., 1903) ・Clark University (PH.D. in Psychology, 1905) Purpose: to identify students needing special attention in school outside of a regular classroom (developed in France by Binet) Origins of Intelligence Testing Intelligence Quotient (IQ) defined originally the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 IQ = ma/ca x 100 on contemporary tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100 • Mental Age --a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet --chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance --child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8 --used in years and months Are There Multiple Intelligences? • Factor Analysis (FACTOR THEORIES) – statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test – used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score General Intelligence (g) factor that SPEARMAN and others believed underlies specific mental abilities measured by every task on an intelligence test *performance of any intellectual act requires some combination of "g” (general intelligence), which is available to the same individual to the same degree for all intellectual acts, and of "s" (specific factors) which are specific to that act and which varies in strength from one act to another. In 1938, Louis L. Thurstone, an early researcher, rejected the ”g theory". He analyzed the scores of many research participants on 56 separate tests, Thurston identified SEVEN primary mental abilities: • verbal comprehension, • numerical ability, •spatial relations, •perceptual speed, •word fluency, •memory, and •Reasoning CONCLUSION: all intellectual activities involve one or more of these primary mental abilities. He and his wife, Thelma G. Thurstone, developed their Primary Mental Abilities Tests to measure these seven abilities. In J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, *intelligence is viewed as comprising operations, contents, and products. ** OPERATIONS (5) (cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation) ** PRODUCTS (6) (units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications ** CONTENTS (5) (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). Since each of these dimensions is independent, there are theoretically 150 different components of intelligence. Howard Earl Gardner (1943- ) MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES His work has been marked by a desire not to just describe the world but to help to create the conditions to change it. He initially formulated a list of seven intelligences and later added two more: Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. . . . Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are seen as having high linguistic intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. . . . . . detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. . . . scientific and mathematical thinking. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. . . . the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. . . Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. . . . the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. . . . allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counselors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. . . . . ability to use such information to regulate our lives. Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It 'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of the role that many cultures value' ***Existential intelligence, a concern with 'ultimate issues', is, thus, the next possibility that Howard Gardner considers - and he argues that it 'scores reasonably well on the criteria. The final, and obvious, candidate for inclusion in Howard Gardner's list is moral intelligence. • COGNITIVE THEORIES – Intelligence depends on situation in which it occurs--how information is processed STERNBERG: “Triarchial Theory” *didn’t think Gardner’s view went far enough 1) Practical (Contextual) -- learning within the environment in which you live (practical intelligence) 2) Analytical (Componential) -- problem solving; thinking abstractly (information processing intelligence) 3) Creative (Experiential) -- the ability to create new ideas (insight intelligence) Arthur JENSEN: Social Class difference *1998, found convincing evidence for potent environmental effects on black IQs in a rural Georgia county where black SES was exceedingly low even relative to other blacks in the US. *Older black siblings systematically scored worse on an IQ test than their younger sibs, indicating some environmental insult that accumulated over time. *juvenile delinquents and adult criminals have lower IQ's, on average, than those of their own full siblings with whom they were reared *correlation between IQ and socially undesirable behavior is not just mediated by differences in social class and cultural background Social Intelligence the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully Social Stratification in U.S. 1% of population Upper-upper (Inherited wealth, Old money, blood relations) Lower-upper (CEOs, investors, entrepreneurs, achievement) Upper-middle (managers, professionals, owners of Some people in the lower-upper class may have more money than the upper-upper class, but they will not be accepted into the exclusive social clubs. medium size businesses) 14% of population Middle-middle (semiprofessionals, craftspeople, foremen, non-retail salespeople, clerical, farms, small-town doctors & lawyers, teachers, police, clergy) 30% of population Lower-middle or Working-class (low-skill manual, clerical, retail sales, roofers, truck drivers, unstable employment, below average income) 30% of population Upper-lower or Working-poor (lowest-paid manual, retail, service workers, below poverty line) 13% of population Lower-lower or Underclass (unemployed, parttime menial jobs, public assistance, single mothers, generational welfare) 12% of population Raymond CATTELL (1905-1998) *general intelligence ..conglomeration of +/- 100 abilities working together in various ways in different people to bring out different intelligences. *fluid intelligence (information that fades with age) ability to think and act quickly, solve novel problems, and encode shortterm memories *crystalized intelligence (procedural information that never goes away) stems from learning and acculturation, reflected in tests of knowledge, general information, use of language (vocabulary) and a wide variety of acquired skills *student of Spearman *University College, London, B.S, chemistry (1921-1924) *Kingユs College, Ph.D., psychology (19241929) *University College, London, MA,education (1932); honorary doctor of science (1939) What about Emotional Intelligence? EI is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to: *monitor one's own and others' emotions, *discriminate among them, and to *use the information to guide one's thinking and actions. (Mayer & Salovey, 1993: 433) Dr. Goleman’s 1995 book, Emotional Intelligence, argues that human competencies like self-awareness, self-discipline, persistence and empathy are of greater consequence than IQ in much of life, that we ignore the decline in these competencies at our peril, and that children can and should be taught these abilities. Need both EQ and IQ to be successful. GOLEMAN: Emotional Intelligence has 5 domains: Self-awareness:Observing yourself and recognizing a feeling as it happens. Managing emotions:Handling feelings so that they are appropriate; realizing what is behind a feeling; finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger, and sadness. Motivating oneself:Channeling emotions in the service of a goal; emotional self control; delaying gratification and stifling impulses. Empathy:Sensitivity to others' feelings and concerns and taking their perspective; appreciating the differences in how people feel about things. Handling relationships:Managing emotions in others; social competence and social skills. Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobsen (1968) asked psychology students to run rats through a maze. Some of the students were told their rats were “bright”; others were told their rats were “dull.” Incredibly, the rats that were believed to be “bright” performed better than the “dull” rats. Expectations influenced performance. Rosenthal and Jacobsen wondered if teachers’ expectations could influence student performance. They designed an experiment where they told grade school teachers that 20% of their students had been given a special test. Some of the students were identified as “spurters,” who would blossom academically during the coming year. Actually, the test revealed nothing and the students had been randomly assigned by the design team. Results: Those children whom the teachers expected to do well, did so. The teachers saw the spurters as more curious and having more potential. They saw the children as happier, more interesting, better adjusted. When the spurters were given an IQ test a year later, the experimental group made substantial gains in IQ points. The idea that students perform better when they are expected to is called the Pygmaleon Effect, the Rosenthal Effect, or the Teacher-Expectancy Effect. It is a type of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, as students with negative expectations internalize the label and those with positive labels succeed. ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE Brain Function and Intelligence Is intelligence neurologically measureable? 1) Processing speed: Earl Hunt (1983) found that verbal intelligence scores are predictable from the speed with which people retrieve information from memory. 2) Perceptual speed: Those who perceive quickly tend to score somewhat higher on intelligence tests, particularly test based on perceptual rather than verbal problem solving. 3) Neurological speed: Evoked brain responses tend to be slightly faster when people with high rather than low intelligence scores perform a simple task. The Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) developed by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000), assess the test-takers ability to: 1) Perceive emotions by recognizing emotions conveyed by various faces, musical excerpts, graphic designs, and stories. 2) Understand emotions by recognizing how emotions change over time and apprehending how emotions blend. 3) Regulate emotions by rating alternative strategies that one could use when facing various real-life dilemmas. Page 427 Assessing Intelligence • Aptitude Test – a test designed to predict a person’s future performance – aptitude is the capacity to learn • Achievement Test – a test designed to assess what a person has learned • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – most widely used intelligence test – subtests • verbal • performance (nonverbal) WISC--Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children WPPEI--Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence Assessing Intelligence- Sample Items from the WAIS VERBAL PERFORMANCE General Information Similarities Arithmetic Reasoning Vocabulary Comprehension Digit Span Picture Completion Picture Arrangement Block Design Object Assembly Digit-Symbol Substitution From Thorndike and Hagen, 1977 Assessing Intelligence Standardization – defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group” Normal Curve – the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes – most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes Flynn Effect American philosophy professor James Flynn discovered a remarkable trend: Average IQ scores in every industrialized country on the planet had been increasing steadily for decades. Despite concerns about the dumbing-down of society - the failing schools, the garbage on TV, the decline of reading - the overall population was getting smarter. Our brains are getting better at problem-solving. The Normal Curve Number of scores Sixty-eight percent of people score within 15 points above or below 100 Ninety-five percent of all people fall within 30 points of 100 55 70 85 100 115 130 Wechsler intelligence score 145 • Reliability – the extent to which a test yields consistent results – assessed by consistency of scores on: • two halves of the test • alternate forms of the test • retesting the same individual • Validity – the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is suppose to Content Validity – the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest or knowledge about subject Face Validity or Predictive Validity or Criterion-Related Validity – A test measures what it is supposed to measure. – assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior • driving test that samples driving tasks or a unit exam in biology Criterion Validity – behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict. – measures against a specific learning goal. – the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity Assessing Intelligence Split-Half Reliabilty – exam split into 2 halves and scores compared. • if your teacher checks to see if students are odd and even numbered correct Test-Retest Reliability – individuals taking a test more than once tend to get similar scores. • Taking ACT or SAT more than once and getting similar scores The Dynamics of Intelligence Degrees of Mental Retardation Level Typical Intelligence Scores Mild 50-70 85% May learn academic skills up to sixth-grade level. Adults may, with assistance, achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills. Moderate 35-49 10 May progress to second-grade level. academically. Adults may contribute to their own support by labor in sheltered workshops. Severe 20-34 3-4 May learn to talk and perform simple work tasks under close supervision but are generally unable to profit from vocational training. Profound Below 20 Percentage of the Retarded 1-2 Adaptation to Demands of Life Require constant aid and supervision. Genetic Influences Similarity of intelligence scores (correlation) • The most genetically similar people have the most similar scores Identical Identical twins twins reared reared together apart Fraternal Siblings Unrelated reared individuals twins reared togetherreared together together Genetic Influences Heritability the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes variability depends on range of populations and environments studied Genetic Influences 0.35 Child-parent correlation in verbal ability scores 0.30 0.25 Children and their birth parents 0.20 0.15 Adopted children and their birth parents 0.10 Adopted children and their adoptive parents 0.05 0.00 3 years 16 years Autism *moderately rare condition *typically appears during the first three years of life *neurological disorder (CNS injuries) *affects the functioning of the developing brain, resulting in sometimes profound communicative, social interaction and cognitive deficits. *hard to relate to outside world *four times more prevalent in boys than girls *estimated to occur in as many as 1 in 150 individuals and is on the rise • Savant Syndrome – condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill • computation • drawing autistic savant *Although there is a strong association with autism, it is certainly not the case that all savants are autistic. *estimated that about 50% of the cases of savant syndrome are autistic *other 50% have developmental disabilities and CNS injuries. Studies of intelligence and creativity suggest that a certain level of aptitude is necessary but not sufficient for creativity. Studies of creative people suggest 5 other components of creativity: 1) Expertise is a well-developed base of knowledge. 2) Imaginative thinking skills provide the ability to see things in new ways, to recognize patterns, to make connections. 3) A venturesome personality tolerates ambiguity and risk, perseveres in overcoming obstacles and seeks new experiences. 4) Intrinsic motivation--people are most creative when they feel motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself. 5) A creative environment sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas. Group Differences Stereotype Threat A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype Why do intelligent people fail? 1) Lack of motivation 2) Lack of impulse control 3) Lack of perseverance and preservation. 4) Using the wrong abilities. 5) Inability to translate thought into action 6) Lack of product orientation 7) Inability to complete tasks 8) Failure to initiate 9) Fear of failure 10) Procrastination Why do intelligent people fail? 11) Misattribution of blame 12) Excessive self-pity 13) Excessive dependency 14) Wallowing in personal difficulties 15) Distractability 16) Spreading oneself too thin 17) Inability to delay gratification 18) Inability to see the forest for the trees 19) Lack of balance between critical thinking and creative thinking 20) Too little or too much self-confidence Questions still needing to be answered: 1) Genetic factors contribute substantially to individual differences but the pathway by which genes produce their effects is still unknown. Moreover, the impact of genetic differences increases with age, but we don’t know why. 2) Environmental factors also make a significant contribution to the development of intelligence. Schooling is important but we don’t know what aspects of schooling are critical 3) The effect of nutrition is unclear. Obviously, severe nutrition has negative effects but the notion that particular “micronutrients” may increase intelligence has not been convincingly demonstrated. Questions still needing to be answered: 4) Measures of information-processing speed correlate with intelligence scores but there is no easy theoretical interpretation of these findings. 5) Mean scores on intelligence tests are rising steadily, going up a full standard deviation in the last half century. No one is certain why this is happening or what it means. 6) The difference between intelligence scores of blacks and whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction. Nor does it reflect differences in socioeconomic status. There is no support for genetic interpretation. 7) Standardized tests do not sample all forms of intelligence. (creativity, wisdom, practical sense, social sensibility) What is Intelligence? • Reification – *viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing. – *reasoning error – To reify is to invent a concept, give it a name, and then convince ourselves that such a thing objectively exists in the world. – One SHOULD say “she has a score on the intelligence test of 120” NOT….”she has an IQ of 120.”