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The Ancient Near East
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Harrison, Rebecca. “Chapter 2 Study Guide.” Rebecca’s Art History Class, 9/16/2009,
accessed on 2/13/13. Web
What name was given to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers?
Mesopotamia was called the “Fertile Crescent”.
Why was it known as the “Fertile Crescent”?
It is called the Fertile Crescent because it was here that humans first learned to
use the plow and how to control floods and construct irrigation canals, which turned the
land into a giant oasis.
SUMERIAN ART
Define or identify the following terms or individuals and make sure you
understand what they mean in discussing Sumerian art:
city-state: The Sumerians were not contained in a unified nation but rather, a dozen or
so independent city-states, each thought to be under the protection on a different deity.
In a city-state, the community, not the family, for the first time, assumed such functions
as defense against enemies and against the caprices of nature. This was a great
Sumerian invention.
cuneiform: By 3000-2900 BCE, the Sumerians simplified pictographic signs by reducing
them to a group of wedge-shaped (cuneiform) signs, which marks the beginning of
writing. So the Sumerians developed the first written language.
cylinder seal: These were cylinders created by Sumerians onto which a picture was
created with relief in such a way that when it was rolled onto a paper, the 2-D picture
would come out. So this was literally like a stamp or seal.
Gilgamesh: The Epic of Gilgamesh is the most famous Sumerian literature and
antedates Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey by some 1500 years. It tells the story of
Gilgamesh, legendary king of Uruk and slayer of the monster Huwawa.
heraldic composition: A heraldic composition is a composition that is symmetrical on
either side of a central figure, which was a characteristic of Sumerian art at the time.
hierarchy of scale: Hierarchy of scale is when figures are proportional to their amount of
power or importance. For example, a figure with more power (the king) would be the
largest figure in the painting while a figure of much lesser value (a slave) may be so
small as to be nearly insignificant to the picture.
In what way did Sumerian city plans reflect their religious beliefs?
The layout of Sumerian cities reflected the central role of the gods in daily life. The main
temple to each state’s chief god formed the city’s monumental nucleus. It was almost a
city within a city, including a staff of its own priests and scribes who carried on official
administrative and commercial business, and oversaw all religious functions.
Sumerian Ziggurat:
What material did they use?
They used sun-baked bricks for the core of the ziggurat while fired bricks made up the
facing out the outside, and were then, in some cases, whitewashed.
How was it oriented?
The ziggurats were built in accordance with the bent-axis plan. The corners of the
Sumerian temples are oriented to the cardinal points of the compass.
Why did they create such structures?
The Sumerian idea that the gods reside above the world of humans is central to the
elevated placement of Mesopotamian temples on giant platforms reaching towards the
sky. The towering height made a profound impression on the people of the ancient Near
East.
How would the female head have looked when it was seen by the Sumerians?
All we currently see of the so-called “Inanna” is a fragmentary, white marble female
head. First off, the marble was an expensive and lustrous hard stone, admired by
Sumerians. The head has a flat back with probably wood making up the body and the
rest of the head. Colored shell or stone would have filled the deep recesses for the
eyebrows and the large eyes. The deep groove at the top of the head anchored a wig,
probably made from golden leaf. These hair strands engraved in the metal fell in waves
over the forehead and sides of the face. The missing body was probably decked out in
expensive fabrics and jewels.
The Warka Vase is the first known example of NARRATIVE relief sculpture. What
does it depict?
It depicts a presentation of offerings to Inanna. In the lowest band is a wavy line
representing water and pictures of crops, which is followed by a register of rams and
ewes, which helped to represent the staple commodities of Sumerian economy as well
as fertility. Then there is a procession of naked men, at the center band, carrying
baskets overflowing with the earth’s abundance, which will be presented to the goddess
as a votive offering. In the uppermost band is Inanna. A nude make figure brings a large
Bessel brimming with offerings to be deposited in the goddess’ shrine.
What underlying forms were used to create the votive statues The Square
Temple, Ehsnunna (c.2900-2600)?
The sculptors of the Eshnunna statuettes employed simple forms, primarily cones and
cylinders, for the figures.
What is thought to be the meaning of their hand gesture?
Their hand gesture is thought to mean an act of prayer, where they are usually depicted
holding small beakers the Sumerians used in religious rites.
One of the figures on the Stele of the Vultures is much taller than the others.
What might this indicate?
This figure was Eannatum, who is depicted as the fearless general who paves the way
for his army. He is the largest because of his position as a leader and because he is
one of the major players in the story being portrayed. This indicates his rank and
importance.
Look very carefully at the Standard of Ur and describe the subject: what seems to
be going on. Then describe the style, for example the way the human beings and
animals are represented. Examine the relative sizes of the figures, the way the
bodies are turned, and the way animals are represented that are behind one
another, etc.
Subject: On the “war side” of the Standard of Ur, the subject seems to be about
conquest in the form of both trampling by horses and killing by swords and the bringing
of enemies to be made into slaves to the king. On the opposite side, the “peace side”,
the subject seems to be the harvest of plentiful abundance of the earth and the
enjoyment of this abundance by the king.
Style: On the “war side” the humans and animals are geared up for war and protection.
The animals are pulling chariots and are trampling enemies below their feet. They also
all have weapons and are in nearly exact stances of stiffness and uniformity. Almost all
the bodies are turned toward the right but are in composite view where you see the
body full-on but a profile view of the face. The King is the largest and standing near the
center and is being approached by a chariot on the left side but is facing those bringing
in the enemy slaves. The animals standing right behind each other are barely
recognizable, unless you count the four legs in front as well as back and you can barely
make out the second head behind the first, meaning the animals are side by side,
pulling the chariot for war. On the “peace side” the humans are animals are in daily-life
clothes. They are all in different poses, which are all non-confrontational and seem to be
just doing daily work but nothing unusual. The king is still the largest and is instead to
the left on the top register, sitting down with his peers and he like, whom are enjoying a
nice drink. The animals in this display are not side by side but a little diagonal and each
head can distinctly be made out. There are also ewes and sheep and goats in this
painting, whereas, on the other side there are only horses to pull the chariots. We still
see mostly composite views of the human body, but the positions are much less
structured.
What might have been the meaning of the animals represented on the Bullheaded Lyre from Ur?
The animals may represent many things, but perhaps one stance can be said for the
animalistic nature of man. Maybe each animal, mythical or real, may represent the
typical persona of that particular character.
AKKAD, THE THIRD DYNASTY OR UR, & THE 2nd MILLENIUM B.C.E
Define or identify the following terms or individuals and make sure you
understand their importance to the discussion of Mesopotamian art:
citadel: A citadel is a bastion, or a stronghold into which people could go for shelter
during a battle.
Sargon: Sargon of Akkad ruled over the loosely linked groups of cities known as Sumer.
His name means "true king". He introduced the concept of royal power based on
unswerving loyalty to the king rather than to the city-state.
Gudea of Lagash: Gudea of Lagash was one of the central figures of the Neo-Sumerian
age. He was a great leader very different from Sargon. He was zealous in granting the
gods their due, and the numerous statues he commissioned are an enduring testimony
of hsi piety.
Hammurabi: Hammurabi was the king of Babylon who reestablished a centralized
government in southern Mesopotamia. He is probably most famous for his conquests
and "Hammurabi's Law Code", which prescribed penalties for everything from adultery
and murder to the cutting down of neighbor's trees. This was an innovation of the time
and evidence of foward-thinking.
What new political idea was introduced by the Akkadians and how did they
express it in their art?
The new political idea that was introduced by the Akkadians was the god-like status of
their kings and this was found in their art in Akkadian portraiture.Not only is the head of
the statues impressive due to the artist's skill in conveying the king as majestic, serene,
dignified and possessing authority, but so was the life-size hollow-cast meetal sculpture.
Also, in steles the godlike sovereignty of kings is evident. It just consumed their artwork
basically.
Name an artwork that illustrates it.
Victory stele of Naram-Sin, from Susa, Iran, 2253-2218 BCE, Pink sandstone, 6'7" high.
Louvre, Paris.
The head of the Akkadian (Ninevah, c.2300-2200 BCE) combines both naturalism and
formal abstract patterning. List three features that you think are examples of each:
Naturalism
a. structure of nose
Abstract patterning
pattern of beard
b. proportion of lips
hair on top of head
c. eye shape
eyebrow shape
List two features of the Stele of Naram-Sin that indicate his superhuman status.
a.The king stands alone, far taller than his men, treading on the bodies of two of the
fallen Lullubi.
b.The king wears the horned helmet signifyign divinity -- the first time a king appears as
a god in Mesopotamian art.
What is the significance of the Stele of Hammurabi?
Politically: This artwork is an account of laws, numbers out straight onto the art piece.
This is significant politically because it is innovative and truly forward-thinking of
Hammurabi to come up with such a code for his people. It was not until 1000 years
later that we will see another set of written laws.
Aesthetically (be sure and note the foreshortening): The sculptor depicted Shamash in
the familiar convention of combined front and side views, but with two important
exceptions. His great headdress with its four pairs of horns is in true profile so that four,
and not all eight, horns are visible. Also, the artist seems to have tentatively explored
the notion of foreshortening (a way to suggest depth by representing a figure o robject
at an angle, instead of frontally of in profile). Shamash's beard is a series of diagonal
rather than horizontal lines, suggesting its recession from the picture plane, and the
sculptor represented the side of his throne at an angle.
Who were the Hittites and what is the significance of the great Lion Gate they
constructed at Boghazkoy?
The Hittites were an Anatolian people who conquered and sacked Babylon around 1595
BCE. THe significance of the great Lion Gate is that is is an early example that was to
be echoed on many Near Eastern gates. It was made of heavy stone, a striking contrast
to the brick architecture of Mesopotamia. The walls and towers were effective in
protecting them from attack. Symbolically guarding the gateway are two huge lions (7
ft).
List three Mesopotamian stylistic conventions found in the Elamite Statue of
Queen Napir-Asu?
a.It was in the same style as the Eshnunna statues, considering that the queen wished
her statue to be a continual votive offering to the gods.
b.The Mesopotamian instinct for cylindrical colume is evident.
c. The tight silhouette, strict formality, and firmly crossed hands held close to the body
are all enduring characteristics common to the Sumerian statuettes.
ASSYRIA
What is a citadel?
A citadel is a bastion, or a stronghold into which people could take shelter during
a battle.
One can derive a great deal from a careful analysis of a work by looking at it, even
without reading about it. Look carefully at the reconstruction of the Citadel of Sargon II.
What does the building tell us about the Assyrians and the land in which it was built?
Consider such features as its walls and fortifications, the symmetrical layout and the
geometric structure.
This tells us that the land on which the Assyrians built their citadel was flat and was
stretched out over a large amount of area.The figure is for the most part symmetrical
and is made of a combination of pockets of squares and rectangles, but no circular or
triangular shapes are employed here. The main part of the citadel is obviously in the
middle through the front entrance and a ziggurat is clearly defined in this elevated area.
Not even half of the figure is on the ground, but is mostly above ground.
Is it likely that this fortification was built in the mountains? Why not?
No it does not seem to have been grown in the mountains because of the shape of the
lines and the flatness of the land on the print of the reconstruction. It is obvious that the
land area is very large and extremely flat.
Does it look like it was built over a long period of time or under the command of a
single person? Why?
It looks like it must have been built over a long period of time considering that much has
ot be built above ground but it also seems to have been built under a single command
because the whole citadel is so uniform and looks like the full thought of one person and
not the collaboration of many thoughts.
What feature would in indicate that it was constructed in Mesopotamia?
The feature that makes it obviuosly constructed in Mesopotamia is the ziggurat located
towards the back left corner.
The doorway of the citadel of Sargon II was guarded by figures known as
lamassu. Describe them.
The lamassu look like a winged, human-headed bull. They combine the front view of the
animal at rest with the side view of it in motion.
Why were they portrayed with five legs?
Seeking to present a completel picture of the lamassu from both the front and the side,
the sculptor gave the monster five legs-- two seen from the front.
What subjects were most commonly portrayed in Assyrian reliefs?
For palace walls, Assyrian kings commissioned extensive series of painted
reliefs exalting royal power. The degree of documentary detail in Assyrian reliefs is
without parallel in the ancient world.
NEO-BABYLONIA AND PERSIA
Define of identify the following terms and make sure you understand their
meaning and their importance to the discussion of Persian art:
Achaemenids: Dynasty founded by Cyrus of Persia. Babylon was but one of the
Achaemenids' conquests. Their line ended with the death of Darius III in 330 BCE, after
his defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great.
Sasanians: They rose up in Persia that challenged the Romans and sought to force
them out of Asia. They traced their lineage to Sasan, said to be a direct descendant of
the Achaemenid kings. Their New Persian Empire was founded in 224 CE, when the
first Sasanian king, Artaxerxes I, defeated the Parthians.
iwan: The main feature of Shapur's palace was the monumental iwan, or brick audience
hall.
barrel vault: The iwan is covered by a vault (a deep arch over an oblong space) that
came almost to a point more than 100 ft above the ground.
One of the seven wonders of the ancient world was created by Nebuchadnezzar.
What was it and where was it located?
The city's famous hanging gardens in Babylon.
The Ishtar Gate built in Babylon was created of bricks and covered with blue
glaze What motifs were used to decorate it?
The motifs were of real and imaginary animals. For example, there are profile figures of
Marduk and Nabu's dragon and Adad's bull alternate, as well as Ishtar's sacred lion.
The great palace at Persepolis was erected to symbolize Persian imperial power.
The architects created a powerful synthesis of architectural and sculptural
elements using workers drawn from the cultures of:
Assyria, Archaic Greek, and Achaemenid.
List four architectural features of the palace:
a. Assyrian-inspired colossal man-headed winged bulls flanked the grand
entrance
b.The approach to the citadel led through a monumental gateway called the
Gate of All Lands
c.The reliefs decorating the walls of the terrace and staircases leading to the
apadana were painted and are characterized by subtly modeled surfaces and crisply
chiseled details.
d.It is a fortified complex of royal buildings on a wide platform overlooking the
plain
What subjects were depicted on the walls of the terrace and staircase?
The subjects were of processions of royal guards, Persian nobles and
dignitaries, and representatives from 23 subject nations bringing the king tribute
How was the defeat of the Roman Emperor Valerian by the Sasanian ruler Shapur
represented in art?
It was commemorated in a series of rock-cut reliefs in the cliffs of Bishapur in
Iran, far from the site of his triumph.
DISCUSSION QUESTION
How does the Warka Vase, the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, the Stele of
Hammurabi, the Assyrian Archers Pursuing their Enemies, and the Ambassadors
Bringing Gifts to the Persian King reflect the changing religious political ideas of
the Ancient Near East? What stylistic features do the reliefs share and how to
they differ?
The Warka Vase sets the stage by depicting a religious festival to the goddess Innana.
The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin is the first depiction of a king as superhuman, showing
the changin ideas of worshipping a deity to worshipping the king, who is equal to a
deity. Then comes the Stele of Hammurabi which is a written code of laws and
punishments all under the image of the ruler, which is promoting a set government and
code of rules in politics. Then is the Assyrian Archers Pursuing their Enemies, which
glorifies the Assyrian king, depictin ghim drivin gthe enemy into the Euphrates River,
which shows the idea of the king at the upmost in respect of society, not necessarily
because he is a deity, but because of his power and might. Lastly is the Ambassadors
Bringing Gifts to the Persian King, which shows how the king is getting gifts from the
countries which he has conquested, which shows the ideology of the Ancient Near East
is now glorifying conquest and power of the king. The reliefs all include images of their
king/ruler of the time and are always glorifying him. Not all contain registers and two of
them are steles. They each glorify the leader and use stone to account of these details
although the most recent one has the greatest surviving detail because it was more
deeply sculpted.