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Literacy
Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for
describing spelling items
150231
April 2015
© The State of Queensland (Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority) 2015
Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority
PO Box 307 Spring Hill QLD 4004 Australia
Level 7, 154 Melbourne Street, South Brisbane
Phone:
Fax:
Email:
Website:
+61 7 3864 0299
+61 7 3221 2553
[email protected]
www.qcaa.qld.edu.au
Contents
Introduction __________________________________________ 1
Spelling framework ____________________________________ 1
Assessable dimensions of spelling ..................................................................... 1
The spelling system ............................................................................................ 2
The framework descriptions................................................................................ 3
The emergent stage ........................................................................................................... 3
The letter-name stage ........................................................................................................ 4
The within-word stage ........................................................................................................ 5
The syllable and affix stage ................................................................................................ 5
The derivational relations stage ......................................................................................... 5
Spelling strategies .............................................................................................................. 6
Teaching and learning spelling........................................................................................... 6
Spelling framework — stages used for item development .................................. 7
Notes on proofreading ________________________________ 19
References and bibliography ___________________________ 19
Copyright notice _____________________________________ 19
Introduction
This framework is an elaboration of that used to construct spelling items for the 2004–2007 State
literacy tests. Teachers can use it as a guide as they create their own classroom spelling
assessments to provide formative/diagnostic information for future planning and teaching.
This framework outlines the system knowledge that students need in order to develop as effective
and accurate spellers. It does not outline the strategic and metacognitive knowledge that is also
needed.
Spelling framework
Spelling is the knowledge and use of English orthography, which is the system for representing
English language in written form. Spelling is defined here as an aspect of literacy that cannot be
conceived separately from its role in general literacy. It is a functional component of writing.
It is also a component of reading owing to its role in vocabulary acquisition and word-attack
(symbol decoding) skills. Spelling is integral to literacy. It is closely related to vocabulary
development. Automaticity is the basis of fluent writing. This document is an intentional warning
against treating spelling as a marginal or even an optional literacy skill.
Assessable dimensions of spelling
Spelling has two dimensions. (See the diagram on page 2.) The first is the expressive dimension
that students engage in when they write (or type) words. There are two sub-elements to
expression that teachers can tap into when they assess spelling. The first, conscious production,
is what students know and can do when they are able to focus all of their cognitive resources on
their spelling. They do this, for example, when they are asked to write words in a dictation test, in
class discussions or in spelling games. Assessment of the spelling that students do correctly in
expressive tasks and an analysis of their errors gives teachers focused information about which
part of the English orthography a student is currently learning. Identifying the aspects of spelling
that students sometimes get right and sometimes get wrong will help teachers to identify the
‘teachable slot’ for individuals and even for groups of students.
The other element of expressive spelling is automatic generation, what students can do when
they are focused on a writing task so that words are written without close reflection on the
spelling. Analysis of spelling-in-writing will give further insights into the internalised knowledge
students have of the spelling system. Error analysis together with observations and interviews
can give insights into both the spelling and the strategic knowledge students possess.
The second spelling dimension that teachers can assess is that of recognition. This knowledge is
used when students decode and study words during reading and proofreading. Proofreading is a
task with special teaching and assessing opportunities. To proofread, students need to have
organised knowledge of the spelling system that they can raise to a conscious level and combine
with their knowledge of strategies to identify and correct erroneous spelling. Proofreading
requires students to apply their knowledge of the spelling system in ways that differ depending on
whether they monitor and proofread their own spelling or the spelling of others. In proofreading
their own spelling, students need to learn to identify those aspects they are likely to have wrong
and then to be able to select from a restricted set of options to correct it. Proofreading the work of
others requires knowledge of both the spelling system and the errors that are typically made by
the general population. (See Notes on proofreading for further discussion.)
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
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April 2015
Page 1 of 19
The spelling system
In learning to spell, students learn the orthographic system through which we represent language on
a page. English is an alphabetic system that has developed a symbol system that codes the sound
of language. It is a system that uses the letters of the alphabet to provide information about:
• the sound of words — the sound layer
• the morphology or function of words — the word function layer
• the link between spelling and meaning — the meaning layer.
Each of these layers of information has a pattern that readers and writers draw on to organise
and use their knowledge of words. In learning to spell, students need to learn three things about
our spelling system:
• that there are layers of pattern that create our spelling system
• that the way in which these layers work can be learned
• how and when to apply this knowledge.
The learning of spelling requires students to do much more than master individual words. To be
independent spellers, they also need to understand why in our orthographical system words have
the spelling pattern they do and then to use this knowledge to develop strategies for learning,
application and monitoring that will allow them to be independent writers and readers.
For the purposes of developing assessments, including formative as well as standardised test
items, it is necessary to use a framework that describes the stages that students pass through
as they acquire knowledge of successive layers of the orthography. The descriptions that
underpin this framework are those of Templeton and Bear (2010, 2003, 1992). These stages are
described as:
• emergent stage
• letter-name stage
• within-word stage
• syllable and affix stage
• derivational-constancy stage.
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
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April 2015
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In the classroom, all the spelling stages outlined in the spelling framework can be used in
assessment where appropriate, while the full framework is used in marking spelling-in-writing
(generation). However, in the development of production spelling items, such as those for a
dictation passage, only those aspects of spelling that are part of the taught curriculum are used.
The following stages are used:
• letter-name stage
• within-word stage
• syllable and affix stage
• derivational-constancy stage.
In the descriptions of these stages presented in the tables on pages 7–18, the elements are
ordered to reflect the challenge that each element of the spelling system presents to students.
They have been ordered this way on the basis of research and the data from previous tests.
The framework descriptions
The emergent stage
The emergent stage described by Templeton and Bear encompasses two major identifiable sets
of understandings that describe what students do as they begin to focus on the orthographic
system. In the early emergent stage, the children’s writing can be described as pre-phonemic.
At this point in their development, children engage with spelling by producing a set of visual
patterns that they use to represent written language. As they read and write more and begin to
engage with letters as a representation of the sounds in words, children’s spelling can be
described as semi-phonemic.
Understanding the emergent stage helps teachers understand the base level of spelling
knowledge that some students, particularly young students, use in their writing. Understanding
the two major dimensions of this stage is necessary for the evaluation and assessment of early
writing and for future planning.
Pre-phonemic spelling
Pre-phonemic spelling marks the emergence of students’ awareness of the spelling system. In
their writing, students may use a mixture of letters and drawings. They are aware that there is a
set of shapes used to represent language in print. In their writing, students may use a
combination of letters and letter-like drawings to represent words. They may even include
numerals in their ‘writing’.
The child knows that writing exists but not that it can represent chunks of sound (phonemes) and
so the marks on the page may bear very little relationship to the intended word.
In making judgments about the spelling knowledge being demonstrated in writing, teachers might
observe that a child uses letters, letter-like symbols or squiggles showing that they know that
writing is:
• something people do
• made up of patterns/letters.
The boundaries between words may be missing or inconsistently evident.
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Semi-phonemic spelling
As children are encouraged to write and draw their stories, and to engage with the print during
reading, they develop a sense of the sequence of spelling, i.e. that it moves from left to right and
that the letters are related to the sounds of the words they use. As they begin to understand that
letters are used in some sort of systematic way, they use letters that are known to them and
represent some of the dominant sounds in the words.
Children who are beginning to engage with the spelling system know that letters represent
sounds and attempt to write the sounds they hear. Often they have difficulty in hearing soft
consonants and some vowels. Vowel blends that should be spelled with digraphs (pairs of
letters) are likely to be represented by a single letter. The boundaries of words may still be shown
inconsistently, particularly in examples of phrases that are often run together in speech, such as
wonsapona tim or hafta. Some short, high-frequency words can also be seen in the script. These
may include words such as the, in, are, and as well as socially relevant words such as their own
names, the names of family or pets.
We need to clean up or the school will look messy and no one will want to come to our school unless it is
cleaned up.
The following stages are more comprehensively described in the tables which follow.
The letter-name stage
In the letter-name stage, students are beginning their formal study of the spelling system.
The major focus of their learning is on the sound layer. However, they also begin to engage
with the other layers of spelling knowledge.
This stage is the cornerstone of students’ spelling knowledge. They learn the sound–symbol
relationships through study of initial and final consonants and short vowels. Studies may first
begin with those letters where there is a one-to-one relationship between sound and letter, before
moving on to letters that represent a blended sound (x, q) and those that can have more than one
sound (c/s; g/j) or where one sound is represented by two letters (c/k).
At the same time, students will meet and learn to spell words where the pronunciation of words is
being coded. These words would include those such as name, home, tail, rain which have the
common long vowel patterns. These words form the basis for the word study that will occur in the
within-word stage.
Similarly, the students begin to study the word function layer of the spelling system as they
engage with plurals, common multisyllable and compound words. These also form the basis of
focused study later on.
As they learn to write, students will meet words which sound alike but which have quite different
meanings, thus requiring them to associate meaning and spelling. This knowledge will be the
beginning of students developing their understanding of the spelling–meaning connection so
critical in the development of mature spelling. This is the beginning of their knowledge of
the meaning layer.
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The within-word stage
In the within-word stage, students are still refining their knowledge of the letter–sound
relationships. They are still refining their understanding of some of this knowledge, for example of
the spelling of the final k, final blends and silent letters. In this stage, the main focus in teaching
about the sound layer is how letters are used to code aspects of pronunciation, in particular the
vowels. Students study the patterns for long, short and complex vowel patterns. Understandings
of the sequence in which letters that spell a vowel sound are likely to occur, and the position in
which they occur, can be used as the basis of a spelling strategy.
At the same time, focused learning of the morphology of words begins as students engage with
aspects of the syllable or word function layer of the spelling system. In this layer students learn
tense and plural endings and the conventions for adding them. The importance of understanding
these conventions cannot be overestimated, as the deep understanding underpins the learning of
syllable patterns.
In this stage of student development, a systematic rather than incidental focus on the meaning
layer begins. Studies of compound and portmanteau (patch) words show how units of meaning
can be joined to form new words. This adds to the students’ vocabulary knowledge — they learn
that these are two of the ways in which new words are created, and are the basis for teaching
students the strategy of breaking words down into meaning units for easier spelling. Later, this
strategy forms the basis of the deconstruct–reconstruct strategy used in proofreading longer,
more complex, words.
The syllable and affix stage
In the syllable and affix stage, the learning is focused on learning about the structure and
function of longer words. To understand the structure of words, students need to learn about
syllable patterns. That is, open and closed syllable patterns and the letter patterns that signal
them. Understanding of syllables is dependent on knowledge developed about how vowels work
in relation to consonants. The conventions for adding inflected endings, i.e. doubling and e-drop,
forms the basis for showing how syllables work.
Aspects of the sound layer taught in the context of single-syllable words need to be revisited and
retaught in the context of longer words. Students learn about how sounds, particularly vowel
sounds, perform in stressed and unstressed syllables. Further development and refining of the
sound–symbol relationships occurs with a focus on ambiguous sounds such as the spelling of the
k sound in words like antic, antique or the spelling of the soft g or c. Knowledge developed in this
context becomes the foundation on which understanding of the consonant and vowel alternation
patterns are built. Students need to use this knowledge to spell multisyllable words with
unstressed syllables.
Knowledge of the meaning layer is extended as students learn commonly occurring prefixes
such as re, un, pre and suffixes -ful, -ness, -less which change the meaning and/or the function of
words. Strategies for using this information to learn and to monitor spelling need to be
systematically taught. Homographs such as con’vict /convict’, des’ert/des’ert’ where the stress
patterns determine the word function are explored as a means of understanding stress patterns.
The derivational relations stage
The teaching focus at this stage is on the meaning layer of the spelling system, in particular the
etymology of words. Students learn that Latin and Greek roots, prefixes and suffixes can be used
to reduce the spelling load of longer words. They use these chunks of meaning to increase their
vocabulary and develop an extended repertoire of words that they are able to spell without being
taught.
Other etymological influences such as words that have come to English from languages such as
French, German and Spanish and a range of others are taught. For example, students often find
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it interesting to learn how at different times in our history, the French language has influenced
English. When learning and studying the technical language of science, geography, mathematics
or other subject areas, students will encounter many such words.
Students are still developing their knowledge of the sound layer of English spelling. They are
learning unusual representations which pertain to only a few words such as the sound–letter
match in words like onion, senior, junior, million. Through study of words that have been
introduced from other languages, students learn the sound-to-letter patterns which they need to
master as part of their knowledge of the spelling system.
Students refine and extend their knowledge of how syllables work in the longer words. They
learn the consonant and vowel alternation patterns that are the basis of effective spelling. For
example, they are developing their knowledge of the patterns for adding tion/sion to words or the
ways in which the vowel patterns alternate — long to short (grave to gravity), long to schwa (able
to ability) and short to schwa (excel to excellence). They learn the conventions for adding suffixes
such as able and ible to words.
Spelling strategies
In standardised tests, it is not possible to assess the strategies that students use in their spelling.
However, as spelling is a strategic, cognitive behaviour, it is critically important that students
develop a range of effective strategies. They need strategies for:
• learning spelling
• remembering spelling
• monitoring spelling as they write
• proofreading.
Teachers who use this framework to inform their classroom teaching and assessment of spelling
should include these in their planning, teaching and assessment.
Teaching and learning spelling
The English spelling system is a complex system and students need to learn how that system
works. It is imperative that the students are presented with the opportunities to learn the system
rather than individual words. Learning the system and how it works will allow students to become
independent spellers. Showing the logic and order of the system will appeal to and improve the
performance of all students. It is particularly effective with boys.
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Spelling framework — stages used for item development
Sound/layer
Stage
Letter-name
Sound/symbol
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
cvc pattern words and words with
common rimes.
These words have letter-to-sound
correspondence
• initial and final consonants, e.g. b, d,
f, h, j, etc.
where letters represent
i. one sound
ii. two sounds, e.g. x
iii. more than one sound, e.g. g/j or
c/s, or where one sound is made
by two letters, e.g. c/k.
• initial consonant blends
l-blends: bl, fl, gl, pl, sl
r-blends: br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr
s-blends: sc, sk, sl, sn, sp, st, sw
• initial consonant digraphs
ch, sh, th, wh
• short vowel sounds
i. in single consonant rimes — ab,
an, ag, am, an, ap, at, ed, eg, en,
et, id, ig, im, in, ip, it, ob, og, op,
ot, ub, ug, um, un, ut, up
ii. in two consonant/blend rimes
ack, all, amp,
and, ang, ant, ash, ast
eck, ell, end, est
ink, ick, iff, ill, ing, ish, ist
ock, ond, ong,
uck, uff, ump, unk, ush, ust
• final blends
i. l&f blends, e.g. ft, lf, lk, lp, lt
s blends: sk, st
ii. preconsonantal nasals:
mp, nd, nk, nt
• final digraphs ch, ng, sh, th.
Common long vowel patterns
Students meet these as they begin to
write, e.g.
− name, school, love, five, four, nine,
home, house, eight, mine
− first, third, last, some.
Plural and tense endings are added
with no change to the base word, e.g.
bats, runs, boats, cakes.
Some multi-syllabic words students
meet as they begin to write, e.g. seven,
second.
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
Meaning layer
Common homophones students
encounter in their writing. Through
these words, students begin to
understand the spelling–meaning
relationship.
Words include:
to, two, too; sun, son; for, four; bye,
buy, by; I, eye; there, their; be, bee;
here, hear.
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Sound/layer
Stage
Within-word
Sound/symbol
Patterns for complex consonant
patterns
• sound-alike final consonants —
understanding the sequence and
probability of patterns
• final/k/ — This causes students
difficulties because their introduction
to the sounds with short vowels leads
them to generalise the spelling as
–ck. Their understanding of the
spelling of this sound will need to be
continually refined.
i. short vowels+ck, e.g. back.
snack, lick, stuck, wreck
ii. long vowel+ke, e.g. bake, snake,
woke, hike, duke
iii. long vowel digraph+k, e.g. beak,
steak, croak, book
iv. r-controlled vowels+k, e.g. bark,
pork, fork, shark
v. vc+k, e.g. blink, bank, desk,
drink, sank, junk (contrast with
vcc vowel patterns)
ask, mask
• final blends
i. discriminates the more common
ch, e.g. beach, reach, bunch,
reach, teach from the less
common tch, e.g. patch, catch
ii. discriminates the more common
ge, e.g. age, large, bulge,
sponge¸ urge from the less
common -dge, e.g. badge,
hedge, smudge, ridge, ledge.
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
Meaning layer
Long vowels with
• The sounds of the ed inflected
• compound words
• VCE pattern
endings
i. -d, e.g. rained, filled, sailed,
yelled
ii. -ed, e.g. acted, lifted, lasted,
beaded
iii. -t, e.g. asked, bumped, fished,
walked, worked
• The conventions for adding
inflectional endings
i. No change, e.g. cvcc words pull,
pulled, pulling
talk, talked, talking
fill, filled, filling
cvvc words
fail, failed, failing
rain, rained, raining
roar, roared, roaring
ii. e-drop, e.g. cvc+e
bake, baked, baking
race, raced, racing
hope, hoped, hoping
iii. y to i in adding tense endings,
e.g. flies, cries, spies
iv. Doubling, e.g. cvc
bat, batted, batting
step, stepped, stepping
trip, tripped, tripping
Understanding the doubling principle in
this context underpins understanding of
syllables.
− bedroom, bedspread etc.
− bathroom, bathtub etc.
− seafood, seaside, seasick
• portmanteau (patch) words from
pieces of other words
− smog, brunch, motel, blog,
modem, hassle, emoticon
• homophones that feature the studied
patterns, e.g. ate, eight; break, brake;
bear, bare; tail, tale; maid, made;
pale, pail; blew, blue; aren’t, aunt;
saw, sore; piece, peace; whole, hole
• contractions (because this is a
spelling/letter decision rather than a
semantic one, so these decisions
should be taught as part of spelling,
not punctuation.
− am, e.g. I’m
− us, e.g. let’s
− will, e.g. I’ll, it’ll, he’ll, she’ll they’ll,
that’ll, we’ll, you’ll
− have, e.g. I’ve, they’ve, we’ve,
you’ve, could’ve, should’ve,
would’ve
− not, e.g. isn’t, aren’t, don’t, didn’t,
doesn’t, can’t, won’t, wouldn’t,
couldn’t, shouldn’t, hasn’t, hadn’t,
haven’t
− is, has, e.g. she’s, he’s, it’s, here’s,
there’s, where’s, who’s, how’s,
that’s
− are, e.g. we’re, you’re, they’re
− had, would, e.g. I’d, he’d, she’d,
they’d, we’d, you’d, who’d
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
a-c-e, e.g. age, cake, lake
i-c-e, e.g. bike, bite, slice
o-c-e, e.g. bone, broke,
u-c-e, e.g. duke, rule
(yōō) cute, use, cube
v. e-c-e, e.g. these, eve, theme
• doublets: position, sequence and
probability matter
long a
i. ai, e.g. aid, rail, rain, sail
ii. ay, e.g. bay, day
ei (gh), e.g. eight, freight
long e
i. final e, e.g. be, he, she.
ii. ee, e.g. beef, been, sheep
iii. ea, e.g. heap, sea, teach
iv. ie, e.g. brief, field chief
long o
i. oa, e.g. boat, road, toast
ii. final o, e.g. no, go, so
iii. final oe, e.g. doe, toe, hoe
iv. ow, e.g. grow, blow, glow
v. occ, e.g. bold, told, both
long i
i. final y, e.g. by, fly, cry, sly
ii. igh, e.g. bright, night, high
iii. i+cc, e.g. find, child, sign
long u
i. ew e.g. chew, new, flew
ii. final ue, e.g. blue, true, glue
iii. ui, e.g. bruise, suit, fruit
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
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Sound/layer
Stage
Within-word
(cont’d)
Sound/symbol
Patterns for complex consonant
patterns
• silent consonants
i.
kn-, e.g. knee, knit, knob,
knife, knight, knock,
ii. wr-, e.g. wrap, write, wreck
iii. –mb, e.g. climb, bomb, limb,
lamb, thumb, tomb
iv. gn-, e.g. gnome, gnaw
• soft consonants
g=j, e.g. gem, germ, gym
c=s, e.g. bounce, ice, space, mice,
ace, voice, piece, twice
Short vowels with two letters
• short e, e.g. bread, deaf, breath,
death, sweat, wealth.
Pronunciation
• r-controlled vowels
i.
ar, e.g car, far, hard, cart, arch,
barge, march, starve, smart, snarl
ii. or, e.g. for, fork, born, force,
porch, north, sport
ore, e.g. more, sore, shore, fore,
tore, scorch, horse
oar, e.g. board, roar, oar, boar
iii. ur, e.g. burn, burst, nurse, purse,
surf, turn, hurt, lurch, church,
curve
ir, e.g. bird, birth, girl, firm, first,
shirt, squirm
er, e.g. her, herd, germ, jerk, fern,
nerve, verse
ear, e.g. earn, earl, earth, learn,
pearl
iv. ear, e.g. beard, clear, dear, ear,
tear, gear, near
eer, e.g. cheer, deer, queer,
steer, sneer
v. ire, e.g. fire, hire, wire, tire, spire
vi. are, e.g. square, care, fare, glare,
mare, stare
air, e.g. fair, pair, hair, chair, flair
ere, e.g. there
vii. ure, e.g. cure, pure, lure
ure (or) e.g. sure
• w-influenced vowels, e.g. war,
wasp, warm, worm, woman, work
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
Syllable/word function layer
The conventions for adding plural
endings
• adding s without change, e.g. cats,
dogs
• adding es to words ending in
− sh, e.g. bushes, dishes
− ch, e.g. beaches, lunches, riches
− ss, e.g. bosses, classes, kisses,
crosses
− x, e.g. boxes, foxes, sixes
− y to i in spelling plurals, e.g. fairies,
skies, ponies, ladies, cities, armies,
buries.
Meaning layer
• homographs
These are studied as the basis of
understanding stress patterns later
on. By studying words common to
them, students learn how meaning is
related to spelling and how the
pronunciation of words affects the
meaning or function.
− read/read, live/live, lead/lead.
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Within-word
(cont’d)
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
Meaning layer
• abstract vowels that are neither long
nor short / diphthongs
i. -oo = oo, e.g. book, brook, cook,
stood, good, brook
-oo = ou, e.g. could, should
ii. ōō = oo, e.g. moon, spoon, noon,
smooth, choose, loose, goose
iii. oy, e.g. boy, toy, joy, soy
oi, e.g. boil, coil, spoil, oil, coin,
joint, hoist
iv. ou, e.g. found, bound, south,
mouth, shout
ou = ow, e.g. brown, clown, cow,
town, owl, prowl
v. au, e.g. caught, cause, fault,
sauce, launch, haul
aw, e.g. claw, draw, jaw, law,
lawn, straw, thaw
• l-influenced, e.g. ball, small, talk,
chalk, salt.
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Sound/layer
Stage
Syllable and
affix
Sound/symbol
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
Meaning layer
The spelling of final /k/ is revisited in
words ending in
i. c, e.g. antic, atomic, civic,
gigantic, cubic, exotic
ii. ck, e.g. attack, bullock, gimmick,
paddock
iii. que, e.g. antique, unique,
oblique,
iv. ke, e.g. earthquake, forsake,
mistake, pancake
v. k, e.g. embark, berserk, landmark
This knowledge underpins the
development of consonant alternation
patterns knowledge.
Ambiguous consonants are revisited in
two-syllable words.
• x = ks, e.g. exit, excuse, explain,
exclaim, exam
• soft c = s, e.g. city, cease, accident,
excise, notice
• soft g = j, e.g. giant, judge, change,
gymnastics
• t+i; c+i = sh, e.g. station, patient,
ancient, sufficient.
This knowledge underpins the
knowledge of consonant alternation
patterns and the adding of some
syllables.
Vowel patterns are revisited in twosyllable words. Patterns are examined
for letter sequence, position and
probability. For example: short vowel a
in words with:
− both syllables stressed, e.g. a/las,
a/dapt, at/tach, ex/act, ex/pand,
en/chant, per/haps
− first syllable stressed, e.g. at/tic,
ban/dage, can/vas, cat/tle
− second syllable stressed, e.g.
unpack
Long vowel a in words with:
− both syllables stressed, e.g.
a/maze, a/wake, be/have, cre/ate,
cas/cade, de/bate, dis/grace,
em/brace, mis/take, pa/rade,
per/suade, es/cape, com/plain,
a/fraid, a/wait, a/stray
− long a in first syllable, e.g. dain/ty,
fai/lure, pain/ter, rai/sin, trai/tor,
wait/er, sai/lor, drain/age, cray/on,
lay/er, say/ing, day/dream,
day/light, play/mate, cray/fish,
pay/ment
− long a in last syllable, e.g. to/day,
de/cay, dis/may
− open a, e.g. a/gent, A/pril.
The conventions for adding plurals and
tense endings are studied in
multisyllable words. These principles
are extended to the adding of other
affixes.
Conventions for adding inflected
endings is revisited and extended.
Two-syllable homographs are explored
to develop understanding of the
pronunciation that matches the
function.
− con’vict (n) / con vict’ (v)
− re’cord (n) / re cord’ (v)
− pro’test (n) / pro test’ (v)
− des’ert (n) / de sert’(v)
− con’duct (n) / con duct’ (v)
− sub’ject (n) / sub ject’ (v)
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
Syllable structures
• Closed syllables
− vc/cv patterns where the syllables
are marked by doublets, e.g.
rab/bit, lit/tle, man/ner, sum/mer
two consonants, e.g. win/ter,
bum/per, sig/nal, she/lter, num/ber,
vic/tim
− v/cv pattern — short vowel,
consonant is pronounced but not
recorded in the spelling, e.g.
ri(v)/ver, wa(g)/gon, gi/raffe, ex/act
• Open syllables
− v/ce patterns, e.g. o/pen, la/zy,
lo/cal, fe/male, i/tem, hu/mid
− v/v pattern, po/em, du/et, cru/el,
li/on, tri/al, gi/ant, qui/et, di/al, tri/o,
cre/ate
Stress patterns in two-syllable words.
(This forms the basis of word study of
more complex syllable patterns in
multisyllable words.) The vowel
patterns are studied in relation to how
and where they perform in relation to
the stressed syllables.
The patterns and conventions for
adding common affixes that change
meaning:
Prefixes
− re = back or again, e.g. return,
retry, refit, rerelease, relearn,
recycle, recount, recall, reclaim
− un = not or the opposite of, e.g.
unfit, unable, unbar, unfold, unlike,
unlock, unfreeze, unleash,
uncover, unnoticed (This also is
represented as absorbed prefix in,
im, il, ir.)
− dis = opposite of, e.g. dislike,
distrust, disobey, disagree, disarm,
disable, disfavour
− pre = before, e.g. preface, prepay,
preheat, preview, preschool, prefix,
predate
− mis = wrong, e.g. mistake,
misbehave, mistrust, misrule,
mismatch, misfit, misfire
− fore = before, e.g. forearm,
forecast, foretold, foresight,
forehand, forehead, foreground
− en = to make (to put into), e.g.
enable, enjoy, enrol, enlist,
enforce, enrich, entomb
− in = in or into, e.g. input, insert,
intake, insight, infield
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Syllable and
affix
(cont’d)
1
Pronunciation
Other vowel patterns are explored for
how they work in syllables
• short e
− e, e.g. beg/ger
− ea, e.g. a/head, break/fast
• long e
− ee, e.g. a/gree, es/teem
− ea, e.g. ap/peal, con/ceal
− ie, e.g. be/lieve, re/lief
− open e, e.g. e/vil, fe/male
− ece, e.g. com/pete, de/lete
− ei, e.g. seizure, ceiling
• short i
− i, e.g. pil/low, sil/ver, in/sect
− y, e.g. sym/bol, sys/tem
• long i vowels
− ice, e.g. a/live, re/vise, di/vide
− y, e.g. cycle, Ju/ly, re/ply
− open i, e.g. i/cy, ri/fle, vi/rus
• short o
− o, e.g. bo/dy, hob/by, doc/tor
− oce, e.g. lone/ly, pro/mote
• long o patterns
− open o, e.g. lo/cal, pro/noun
− occ, e.g. pos/ter, re/volt
− ow, e.g. own/er, be/low, lower
− oa, e.g. ap/proach, toast/er
• short u patterns
− u, e.g. bub/ble, ug/ly, jun/gle
• long u patterns
− uce, e.g. com/pute, a/cute
− open u, e.g. hu/man, fu/ture
Syllable/word function layer
Vowels in unstressed syllables
• syllables ending in l
− le, e.g. able, little, cattle, sample,
angle, apple, circle, bundle,
double, paddle, people, cycle,
fable, title
− el, e.g. angel, travel, jewel, label,
novel, camel, level
− il/ile, e.g. April, civil, evil, council,
pencil, peril, pupil, fertile, mobile,
hostile
− al (adjective forming), e.g. natural,
factual, equal, final, royal, rural,
oval, total, metal
(noun forming), e.g. mammal,
petal, metal, signal, pedal
• syllables ending in n
− ain, an, e.g. certain, mountain,
villain, captain, curtain
an (noun-forming), e.g. airman,
human, organ, orphan
− en (noun-forming), e.g. chicken,
children, kitten, women, vixen
(verb forming) broken, chosen,
given, deafen, darken, deafen,
listen, spoken, open
(adjective forming), barren, golden,
open, rotten, woollen
− in (noun-forming), basin, cabin,
cousin, dolphin, margin, toxin,
raisin
− on (noun-forming), bacon, apron,
iron, wagon, reason, dragon,
ribbon, button, baron
Meaning layer
1
Suffixes
− y = having
without a change, e.g. dirty,
creepy, crispy, sandy, bumpy,
cloudy, chilly
with e-drop, e.g. easy, noisy, injury
with doubling, e.g. starry, floppy,
skinny, runny
− ly = like (in a manner)
without a change, e.g. badly,
deadly, shyly, cruelly, finally, likely,
sadly, lately, legally
with y to i change, e.g. angrily,
heavily, happily, easily,
− ful = full
without a change, e.g. playful,
wonderful, powerful, peaceful,
cheerful, careful, useful, restful
with y to i e.g. beautiful, plentiful
− ness = state of being (noun
forming) without a change, e.g.
darkness, stillness, sickness,
vastness
− ment = noun forming suffix, state
resulting e.g. excitement,
refreshment, product fragment or
means ornament
with y to i change, e.g. business,
laziness, happiness, loneliness,
− less = without, e.g. wordless,
timeless, painless, endless,
priceless
with y to i change, e.g. penniless,
merciless
The list is only indicative. Different elements may be effectively taught as vocabulary in different subject areas
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Syllable and
affix
(cont’d)
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
• r-controlled vowels
• syllables ending in t
− ar, e.g. car/go, har/bour, gar/lic,
mar/ble, par/tial
− air, ere, e.g. dair/y, re/pair.
des/pair, aware, bare/ly
− ar, er, e.g. car/rot, nar/row, var/y,
ber/ry, per/il, mer/ry
− er, ear, e.g. per/fect, per/son,
− ser/vice, ear/ly, earth/quake
− ear, eer, ere, e.g. appear, drea/ry,
near/ly, car/eer, cheer/ful, ad/here,
mere/ly
− ir, e.g. circle, irksome,
− ire, e.g. acquire, inspire, tiresome,
perspire, desire
− or, ore, oar, our, e.g normal,
tortoise, choral, coral, ashore,
ignore, hoarding, sources
− ur, ure, e.g. surgery, burglar,
cursor, murder, murmur, purchase,
assure, manure
• abstract vowels/diphthongs
− oo, ew, e.g. balloon, bassoon,
monsoon, rooster, askew, jewel
− oo, e.g. mistook, footage
− oy, oi, e.g. annoy, destroy, voyage,
appoint, exploit
− ow, ou, e.g. allow, coward, powder
− et, e.g. basket, carpet, secret,
tablet, poet, comet, helmet,
puppet, trumpet, jacket, toilet
− it, e.g. rabbit, exit, edit, digit, profit,
audit, summit
• syllables ending in r
− ar, (noun-forming) e.g. burglar,
collar, dollar, sugar, grammar,
pillar, calendar
(adjective forming), e.g. solar,
lunar, circular, muscular
− er (noun forming), e.g. reader,
soldier, shopper, seller, voter,
speaker, officer, beginner,
employer, manage, cylinder
(adjective forming, comparative
adjectives), e.g. quicker, fiercer,
lighter
− re, e.g. fibre
− or (Noun forming), e.g. actor,
author, visitor, tailor, error, editor,
equator, meteor
− our, e.g. flavour, colour, humour
− ture (cher), e.g. nature, pasture,
creature, feature, treasure,
capture, fixture, moisture
− sure, e.g. pressure, censure,
closure, measure, pleasure,
treasure
− ure, e.g. failure, figure
− jure, e.g. injure, conjure
− zure, e.g. seizure.
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Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
Meaning layer
− er, est = comparative & superlative
(adjective forming suffixes) without
a change, e.g. cold, colder,
coldest; high, higher, highest
with y to i change, e.g.
lucky, luckier, luckiest, silly, sillier,
silliest
Multisyllabic homophones studied
according to meaning and stress
patterns, e.g.
− assent, ascent
− colonel, kernel
− mourning, morning
− incite, insight
− council/ counsel
− desert, dessert
− hanger, hangar
− baron, barren
− carrot, caret, carat, karat
− medal, mettle, (metal)
− pedal, peddle, (petal)
− bury, berry
− profit, prophet
− cereal, serial
− addition, edition,
− stationery, stationary
− principal, principle
− complement, compliment
− practice, practise.
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Syllable and
affix
(cont’d)
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
Meaning layer
• with neutral vowel or schwa:
− a, e.g. above, alarm, career
− e, e.g. believe, behind, severe,
seven
− i, e.g. gossip, divide, demand
− o, e.g. polite, police, pollute
− u, e.g. upon, focus, platypus
− syllable patterns with vowel and
consonant change
− age, e.g. bandage, damage,
− cottage, cabbage, image, village
− idge, e.g. cartridge, porridge
− edge, e.g. knowledge
− /is/-ice,-ace, -is,-ise, uce, e.g.
office, service, justice, place
surface, preface basis, axis, crisis,
tennis, promise, tortoise, porpoise,
lettuce
− y, e.g. very, angry, early, bury,
empty, forty, hungry, guilty
− ey, e.g. donkey, monkey, chimney,
pulley, valley, honey
− ie, e.g. genie, eerie, movie, prairie,
zombie.
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Sound/layer
Stage
Derivational
relations
2
Sound/symbol
Pronunciation
Consonants that are represented by
vowel letters, e.g. i to y — onion,
senior, junior, million
Syllable/word function layer
Study of syllable patterns in
multisyllable words, e.g. composition,
competition
Consonant alternation patterns and
vowel alternation patterns show the
pronunciation and yet preserve the
spelling of the base meaning unit.
• Consonant alternation patterns
where silent letters become
sounded, e.g.
sign, signal, signature
muscle, muscular
column, columnist
bomb, bombard
autumn, autumnal
moisten, moist
soften, soft
• Consonant alternation patterns for
adding: /shun/
− words ending
in-t+ion
ct, e.g. inspect/inspection,
subtract/subtraction,
pt, e.g. adopt/ adoption,
corrupt/corruption,
except/exception,
concept/conception
st, e.g. suggest/suggestion,
digest/digestion
rt, e.g. insert/insertion,
assert/assertion, exert/exertion
nt, e.g. invent/invention,
prevent/prevention
− words that add
-ation, e.g. import/importation,
plant/ plantation,
present/presentation,
inform/information
Meaning layer
2
Prefixes such as
− pro = before; forward, e.g.
proceed, progress, proclaim,
profile
− post = after, e.g. postpone,
postscript
− anti = against, e.g. antidote,
antiseptic
− inter = between, among, e.g.
interstate, international
− intra = within, e.g. intrastate
− super (L) = above; beyond, e.g.
supervision, superficial,
− hyper (G) = above, e.g.
hyperactive
− trans = over; across, e.g. transmit,
transport
− mal = bad or evil, e.g. malware,
malevolent, maladministration
− auto = self, e.g. autobiography,
autoimmune, automobile,
− circum = around, e.g.
circumference, circumspect,
circumnavigate
− bi = two, e.g. bicycle, bisect,
bivalve
− cent = hundred, e.g. century
− milli = a thousand, e.g. millipede
− deci = ten, e.g. decade
− uni = one, e.g. universal, uniform
− mono = one, alone, e.g.
monologue
− tri = three, e.g. tripod, trinomial
− quad = four, e.g. quadrilateral
− octo = eight, e.g. octagon, octave
− poly = many, e.g. polygon
The list is only indicative. Different elements may be effectively taught as vocabulary in different subject areas.
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
− words ending in
-te, i.e. with e-drop, e.g.
educate/education,
dictate/dictation, locate/location,
operate/operation,
celebrate/celebration
− words that end in ss+ion, e.g.
possess/possession,
confess/confession, express,
expression, discuss/ discussion
− words ending with –se, i.e. e-drop
+ion, e.g. televise/television,
revise/revision, confuse/confusion
− words ending in –de, i.e. e-drop
+sion, e.g. explode/explosion,
divide/division
− words ending in /k/ e.g.
magic/magician,
electric/electrician, politic/politician,
provide/provision, decide/decision
− words ending in soft c, ic+e, e.g.
vice/vicious
− word families with identifiable
roots, e.g. words ending in
Derivational
relations
(cont’d)
▪ scribe, e.g. describe/description,
prescribe/prescription
▪ sume, e.g.
consume/consumption
▪ mit, e.g. admit/admission,
permit/permission,
transmit/transmission
▪
▪
▪
▪
3
cede, e.g. concede/concession
ceive, e.g. receive/reception
vert, e.g. invert/inversion,
duce, e.g. produce/production
Meaning layer
− multi = many, e.g. multiple
− peri = around, e.g. perimeter
− semi = half; partly, e.g. semicolon,
semiquaver
Absorbed prefixes are those that have
been assimilated into the spelling of the
word. For example, in = not becomes il
(illegal), im (immoral), ir (irregular); ad =
motion to (adhere) becomes at (attract),
ac (accept); com = with becomes col
(colleague), cor (correspond) or con
consider); syn = alike or together
becomes sym (sympathy), syl
(syllable), sys (system)
Greek roots 3 – because their spelling
stays fairly stable and therefore
recognisable, it is easiest to teach
them first.
− graph = to write, e.g. autograph,
bibliography, cryptographer
− gram = to write, e.g. program,
diagram, grammar, monogram
− aster = star, e.g. asterisk, asteroid
− bi, bio = life, e.g. biology, antibiotic,
biosphere, biography
− dem = people, e.g. democracy,
epidemic, endemic, demographic
− logo = word or reason, e.g. logic,
catalogue, dialogue, prologue
− logy = study, e.g. geology,
sociology, pathology, ecology
− micro = small, e.g. microscope,
microwave, microbiology
− meter = measure, e.g. perimeter,
centimetre, thermometer
− ortho = straight; correct, e.g.
orthodox, orthodontist
The list is only indicative. Different elements may be effectively taught as vocabulary in different subject areas.
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April 2015
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
• vowel alternation patterns
Derivational
relations
(cont’d)
− long to short, e.g. cave/cavity,
grave/gravity, please/pleasant,
crime/criminal, nature/natural,
cone/conic, introduce/ introduction
− long to schwa, e.g. able/ ability,
compete/competition,
compose/composition
− short to schwa, e.g.
excel/excellent, ecology/ecological
The doubling conventions for adding to
multisyllabic words are refined and
extended. e.g.
• Latin derived suffixes
− able added to words, e.g.
remarkable, added to words
ending in soft c/g, changeable,
noticeable
− ible added to roots, e.g. audible,
edible
− ant/ance/ancy/
− ent/ence/ency
− ary/ery/ory
Literacy
Queensland’s Literacy test: A framework for describing spelling items
Meaning layer
− pan = all, e.g. pandemic,
panorama
− path = suffer, e.g. sympathy,
empathy, pathetic, pathologist
− hydra = water, e.g. hydrant,
hydrate, hydrogen
− homo = the same, e.g.
homophone, homograph,
homogeneous
− chron = time, e.g. chronology,
chronic, chronicle, anachronism
− aer = air, e.g. aeroplane, aerial
− arch = chief, e.g. monarchy
− geo = earth, e.g. geology,
geometry
− cosm = the world, e.g. cosmic,
microcosm, cosmopolitan
− crat = rule, e.g. autocrat, plurocrat
− phil = loving, e.g. philanthropist
− phobia = fear, e.g. acrophobia,
zoophobia
− spec = to look, e.g. spectator,
spectacle, inspect
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Sound/layer
Stage
Sound/symbol
Pronunciation
Syllable/word function layer
Latin roots 4 — the variation in the
spelling of Latin roots means that
students often have difficulty
recognising them.
One teaching strategy is to associate
them with the more easily recognisable
Greek roots which have the same
meaning. Examples of Latin roots are:
− aud = to hear, e.g. audible,
audience
− bene = well, good, e.g. beneficial
− dict = to say, e.g. dictation,
dictionary
− fac = to make, e.g. factory, artefact
− fract = to break, e.g. fracture,
fraction
− rupt = to break, e.g. disrupt, erupt
− flex = to bend, e.g. flexible, reflex
− form = shape, e.g. formation,
− ject = throw, e.g. project,
conjecture
− port = to carry, e.g. transport,
export
− scribe = to write, e.g. scribe,
describe
− spect = to look or see, e.g. inspect,
respect, spectacle
− spir = to breathe, e.g. respiration
− tract = pull, e.g. abstract, contract
− vert = turn, e.g. invert, anniversary
− voc = voice, e.g. vocal, advocate.
Derivational
relations
(cont’d)
4
Meaning layer
The list is only indicative. Different elements may be effectively taught as vocabulary in different subject areas.
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Page 18 of 19
Notes on proofreading
Since 2008, Queensland students sitting the NAPLAN Language conventions test have been
tested by questions that present spelling as a proofreading task.
Proofreading requires students to have organised knowledge of the spelling system and the
relevant strategies to be able to use that knowledge — metacognitive knowledge of both the
system and their own spelling abilities. It is therefore a very sophisticated skill requiring quite
different teaching strategies and assessment than those used in the expressive domain of
spelling.
Students need to be able to identify which of the word elements go together and which are likely
to cause a spelling problem. They need to know which errors they usually make when spelling a
word. Finally, they need to have developed spelling strategies for both monitoring and correcting
their errors. Students might for example use a breakdown-and-rebuild strategy for checking
words. In proofreading a word like unaceptible (unacceptable), students need to be able to think
as follows:
• identify the base word accept then recognise the closed syllable pattern, correct the spelling of
the doublet
• identify the prefix (un), then check the spelling, know that no doubling is required
• identify the suffix, then recognise that able is usually added to a base word, correct the
suffix spelling.
In other contexts, students need to be taught how to apply different understandings of the spelling
system such as letter sequences, frequency of letter patterns, which letter patterns are used in
particular positions, syllable patterns, and etymological patterns.
These are cognitive skills dependent on a comprehensive and organised understanding of the
spelling system.
References and bibliography
Bear, DR, Invernizzi M, Templeton, S & Johnston F 2003, Words Their Way: Word study for
vocabulary and spelling instruction, 3rd edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, USA.
Ganske, K 2014, Word Journeys: Assessment-guided phonics, spelling and vocabulary
instruction, The Guilford Press, New York.
Ganske, K 2000, Mindful of Words: Spelling explorations 4–8, The Guilford Press, New York.
Templeton, S and Bear, DR 1992, Development of Orthographic Knowledge and the Foundations
of Literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund Henderson, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
Templeton, S, Johnston F, Bear, DR and Johnston F 2010 Vocabulary Their Way: Word study
with middle and secondary students, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, USA.
Copyright notice
© The State of Queensland (Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority) 2015
Enquiries relating to reproduction of this material should be addressed to:
Manager, Publishing Unit, Email: [email protected].
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